The cotunnite-type phase was claimed to be the hardest known oxide with the Vickers hardness of 38 GPa and

the bulk modulus of 431 GPa (i.e. close

to diamond's value of 446 GPa) at atmospheric pressure.[22] However, later studies came to different conclusions with much lower values for both the
hardness (7–20 GPa, which makes it softer than common oxides like corundum Al2O3 and rutile TiO2)[23] and bulk modulus (~300 GPa).[24][25]

Titanium dioxide (B) is found as a mineral in magmatic rocks and hydrothermal veins, as well as weathering rims on perovskite. TiO2 also
forms lamellae in other minerals.[26]

Production[edit]

Industrial key players in the production of titanium dioxide - 2022

The largest TiO
2 pigment processors are Chemours, Venator, Kronos [de], and Tronox. Major paint and coating company end users for pigment grade titanium
[27][28]

dioxide include Akzo Nobel, PPG Industries, Sherwin Williams, BASF, Kansai Paints and Valspar.[29] Global TiO
2 pigment demand for 2010 was 5.3 Mt with annual growth expected to be about 3–4%.
[30]

Evolution of the global production of titanium dioxide according to

process
The production method depends on the feedstock. In addition to ores, other feedstocks include upgraded slag. Both the chloride process and the
sulfate process (both described below) produce titanium dioxide pigment in the rutile crystal form, but the sulfate process can be adjusted to produce
the anatase form. Anatase, being softer, is used in fiber and paper applications. The sulfate process is run as a batch process; the chloride process is
run as a continuous process.[31]

Chloride process[edit]
Main article: Chloride process

In chloride process, the ore is treated with chlorine and carbon to give titanium tetrachloride, a volatile liquid that is further purified by distillation. The
TiCl4 is treated with oxygen to regenerate chlorine and produce the titanium dioxide.

Sulfate process[edit]
In the sulfate process, ilmenite is treated with sulfuric acid to extract iron(II) sulfate pentahydrate. This process requires concentrated ilmenite (45–60%
TiO2) or pretreated feedstocks as a suitable source of titanium.[32] The resulting synthetic rutile is further processed according to the specifications of the
end user, i.e. pigment grade or otherwise.[33]
Examples of plants using the sulfate process are the Sorel-Tracy plant of QIT-Fer et Titane and the Eramet Titanium & Iron smelter
in Tyssedal Norway.[34]

Becher process[edit]
Main article: Becher process

The Becher process is another method for the production of synthetic rutile from ilmenite. It first oxidizes the ilmenite as a means to separate the iron
component.

Specialized methods[edit]
For specialty applications, TiO2 films are prepared by various specialized chemistries.[35] Sol-gel routes involve the hydrolysis of titanium alkoxides such
as titanium ethoxide:
Ti(OEt)4 + 2 H2O → TiO2 + 4 EtOH

A related approach that also relies on molecular precursors involves chemical vapor deposition. In this method, the alkoxide is volatilized and
then decomposed on contact with a hot surface:
Ti(OEt)4 → TiO2 + 2 Et2O

Applications[edit]
Pigment[edit]
Main article: Titanium white

First mass-produced in 1916,[36] titanium dioxide is the most widely used white pigment because of its brightness and very high refractive
index, in which it is surpassed only by a few other materials (see list of indice