nitial studies indicated that nano-TiO2 particles could penetrate the skin causing concern over the use

of nano-TiO2. These stud-

ies were later refuted, when it was discovered that the testing methodology couldn't differentiate between penetrated particles
and particles simply trapped in hair follicles and that having a diseased or physically damaged dermis could be the true cause of
insufficient barrier protection.[50]
SCCS research found that when nanoparticles had certain photostable coatings (eg. alumina, silica, cetyl phosphate, triethoxy-
caprylylsilane, manganese dioxide) the photocatalytic activity was attenuated and no notable skin penetration was observed; the
sunscreen in this research was applied at amounts of 10 mg/cm2 for exposure periods of 24 hours.[54] Coating TiO2 with alumina,
silica, zircon or various polymers can minimize avobenzone degradation[55] and enhance UV absorption by adding an additional
light diffraction mechanism.[52]
TiO
2 is used extensively in plastics and other applications as a white pigment or an opacifier and for its UV resistant properties

where the powder disperses light – unlike organic UV absorbers – and reduces UV damage, due mostly to the particle's high re-
fractive index.[56]

Other uses of titanium dioxide[edit]

In ceramic glazes, titanium dioxide acts as an opacifier and seeds crystal formation.
It is used as a tattoo pigment and in styptic pencils. Titanium dioxide is produced in varying particle sizes which are both oil and
water dispersible, and in certain grades for the cosmetic industry. It is also a common ingredient in toothpaste.
The exterior of the Saturn V rocket was painted with titanium dioxide; this later allowed astronomers to determine
that J002E3 was likely the S-IVB stage from Apollo 12 and not an asteroid.[57]

Research[edit]
Patenting activities[edit]
Relevant patent families describing titanium dioxide production from ilmenite, 2002–2021.

Academic and public institutions having significant patent

activity in titanium dioxide production. 2022
Between 2002 and 2022, there were 459 patent families that describe the production of titanium dioxide from ilmenite. The ma-
jority of these patents describe pre-treatment processes, such as using smelting and magnetic separation to increase titanium
concentration in low-grade ores, leading to titanium concentrates or slags. Other patents describe processes to obtain titanium
dioxide, either by a direct hydrometallurgical process or through the main industrial production processes, the sulfate
process and the chloride process.[58] The sulfate process represents 40% of the world’s titanium dioxide production and is pro-
tected in 23% of patent families. The chloride process is only mentioned in 8% of patent families, although it provides 60% of the
worldwide industrial production of titanium dioxide.[58]
Key contributors to patents on the production of titanium dioxide are companies from China, Australia and the United States, re-
flecting the major contribution of these countries to industrial production. Chinese companies Pangang and Lomon Bil-
lions Groups hold major patent portfolios.[58]

Photocatalyst[edit]
Nanosized titanium dioxide, particularly in the anatase form, exhibits photocatalytic activity under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. This
photoactivity is reportedly most pronounced at the {001} planes of anatase,[59][60] although the {101} planes are thermodynamically
more stable and thus more prominent in most synthesised and natural anatase,[61] as evident by the often observed tetragonal
dipyramidal growth habit. Interfaces between rutile and anatase are further considered to improve photocatalytic activity by facil-
itating charge carrier separation and as a result, biphasic titanium dioxide is often considered to possess enhanced functionality
as a photocatalyst.[62] It has been reported that titanium dioxide, when doped with nitrogen ions or doped with metal oxide like
tungsten trioxide, exhibits excitation also under visible light.[63] The strong oxidative potential of the positive holes oxidizes wa-
ter to create hydroxyl radicals. It can also oxidize oxygen or organic materials directly. Hence, in addition to its use as a pigment,
titanium dioxide can be added to paints, cements, windows, tiles, or other products for its sterilizing, deodorizing, and anti-foul-
ing properties, and is used as a hydrolysis catalyst. It is also used in dye-sensitized solar cells, which are a type of chemical so-
lar cell (also known as a Graetzel cell).
The photocatalytic properties of nanosized titanium dioxide were discovered by Akira Fujishima in 1967[64] and published in 1972.
[65]
The process on the surface of the titanium dioxide was called the Honda-Fujishima effect [ja].[64] Titanium dioxide, in thin
film and nanoparticle form has potential for use in energy production: as a photocatalyst, it can break water into hydrogen and
oxygen. With the hydrogen collected, it could be used as a fuel. The efficiency of this process can be greatly improved by dop-
ing the oxide with carbon.[66] Further efficiency and durability has been obtained by introducing disorder to the lattice structure of
the surface layer of titanium dioxide nanocrystals, permitting infrared absorption.[67] Visible-light-active nanosized anatase and ru-
tile has been developed for photocatalytic applications.[68][69]
In 1995 Fujishima and his group discovered the superhydrophilicity phenomenon for titanium dioxide coated glass exposed to
sun light.[64] This resulted in the development of self-cleaning glass and anti-fogging coatings.
Nanosized TiO2 incorporated into outdoor building materials, such as paving stones in noxer blocks[70] or paints, could reduce
concentrations of airborne pollutants such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides.[71] A TiO2-containing cement has
been produced.[72]
Using TiO2 as a photocatalyst, attempts have been made to mineralize pollutants (to convert into CO2 and H2O) in waste water.[73]
[74][75]
The photocatalytic destruction of organic matter could also be exploited in coatings with antimicrobial applications.[76]
Hydroxyl radical formation[edit]
Although nanosized anatase TiO2 does not absorb visible light, it does strongly absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation (hv), leading to
the formation of hydroxyl radicals.[77] This occurs when photo-induced valence bond holes (h+vb) are trapped at the surface of
TiO2 leading to the formation of trapped holes (h+tr) that cannot oxidize water.[78]
TiO2 + hv → e− + h+vb
h+vb → h+tr
O2 + e− → O2•−
O2•− + O2•−+ 2 H+ → H2O2 + O2
O2•− + h+vb → O2
O2•− + h+tr → O2
OH− + h+vb → HO•
e− + h+tr → recombination
Note: Wavelength (λ)= 387 nm[78] This reaction has been found to mineralize and decompose undesirable compounds

in the environment, specifically the air and in wastewater.[78] Synthetic single

crystals of TiO2, ca. 2–3 mm in size, cut from a larger plate

Nanotubes[edit]

Titanium oxide
nanotubes, SEM image Nanot
ubes of titanium dioxide (TiO -Nt) obtained by electrochemical
2

synthesis. The SEM image shows an array of vertical self-

ordered TiO -Nt with closed bottom ends of tubes.
2

Anatase can be converted into non-carbon nanotubes and na