THE ROLE OF ATP AND THE

IMPORTANCE OF PLANT PIGMENTS

For General Biology 1/ Grade 11
Quarter 2/ Week 1
 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit (SLK) is an instructional material

created to serve as guide for learners in understanding
the concepts of ATP and coupled reaction processes
and the importance of chlorophyll and other pigments in
the process of food production.

The activities and illustrations contained in this

learning material are carefully planned and designed to
provide thorough understanding of the lesson and to
stimulate cognitive skills among learners.

2
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
K: explain coupled reaction processes and the role of ATP
S: create a diagram of an ATP-ADP cycle
A: demonstrate understanding on the important role of
chlorophyll and other pigments in initiating photosynthesis in
plants

LEARNING COMPETENCIES:

Explain coupled reaction processes and describe the

role of ATP in energy coupling and transfer
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-1)

Explain the importance of chlorophyll and other

pigments (STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-3)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

Ana: Hi, fellow STEM-mates! We are

back again. Roy: How are you all doing
today?
It’s a brand new day. We are here to
guide and help you understand Are you excited?
another lesson. That’s great! Have fun and
enjoy the lesson and activities!

3
PRE-ACTIVITY:

Situation: Suppose you have two rechargeable batteries.

One is fully charged and the other one is almost empty. You
inserted each battery in each of the two flashlights. Predict
what will happen to the light emitted in the two flashlights.
Draw your predictions for A and B and write your answers in
your notebook.

A B

1. Compare the light emitted in image A and image B.

Image A:
_________________________________________
Image B:
_________________________________________
2. What could be the reason why the two flashlights differ
in light emission?
3. What is stored in the battery which enables the
flashlight to emit light?
4. How can the light emitted in the two flashlights be the
same?

4
 II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

The pre-activity given to you is an Why is energy essential to life?

analogy of the lesson that we are about Carefully read the next pages
to tackle today. and recall your prior
Can you still recall what ATP is? knowledge about ATP and
plant pigments to answer the
What are plant pigments? questions and to better
understand the lesson.

DISCUSSION:

Energy is essential to life. All living things must be able to

produce energy, store energy for future use, and use energy
to carry out life processes. In everyday life, energy is
important because it can be used to do work such as
eating, walking, running, talking, and thinking or simply
turning the pages of this learning material. Some cellular
activities that require energy are active transport, protein
synthesis, and cell division. Energy can exist or be stored in
many forms such as light, heat, electricity, and chemical
bonds in chemical compounds.

5
ATP Structure and Hydrolysis

How do organisms carry out essential life processes?

Cells in organisms obtain energy from the chemical bonds
that hold together certain organic compounds, such as
carbohydrates from the food that we eat. This energy in turn
is used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is an
organic molecule used for short-term energy storage and
transport in the cell. It is composed of three parts: (1) a
nitrogenous base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three
phosphate groups (triphosphate) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Structure of an ATP molecule.

Source: ©2014 Nature Education. All rights reserved.

The three phosphate groups in an ATP molecule are

negatively charged. Recall that molecules having the same
charge will tend to repel from each other. Thus, this means
that the three phosphate groups are in an unstable
arrangement. The third phosphate group is so eager to get
further away from the two phosphate groups. A bond
between them is broken through hydrolysis (water-mediated
breakdown) reaction releasing energy (Figure 2). The
remaining free phosphate group and low-energy molecule is
called adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

6
Pi stands for an inorganic phosphate group . ATP
is hydrolyzed in the following reaction:

Figure 2. Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP.

Source: ©2013 Nature Education. All rights reserved.

ATP-ADP Cycle

The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is reversible (Figure 3). ATP

and ADP are like charged and uncharged forms of a
rechargeable battery. ATP (charged battery) has energy
that can be used to power cellular processes or reactions.
Once the energy is used up, ADP (uncharged battery/dead
battery) needs to be recharged in order to be used as a
power source.
ATP regeneration reaction is the reverse of hydrolysis
reaction:

7
 Figure 3. ATP-ADP cycle. Source: [Link]

Remember
 When ATP is broken down, energy is released
and ADP is formed.
 When ADP binds with another phosphate
group, energy is stored and ATP is formed.

ATP in Energy Coupling

How is the energy released by ATP hydrolysis used to

power cells to carry out useful functions? The hydrolysis of
ATP not only results to a release of energy but also would
simply result in organisms’ overheating because the
dissipation of energy would excite nearby molecules,
resulting in heat or thermal energy. Energy in a cell needs to
be linked to other processes in order to be useful. Energy
coupling is the transfer of energy from one chemical
reaction to another. An energetically favorable reaction
(exergonic, e.g., ATP hydrolysis) is directly linked with an
energetically unfavorable reaction (endergonic, e.g., ATP
regeneration). Through energy coupling, the cell can
perform nearly all of the tasks it needs to function.

8
 Chemical reactions can be classified as either
exergonic (energy outward) or endergonic (energy inward)
(Figure 4):
 Exergonic reaction - proceeds with a net release
of free energy
 Endergonic reaction - one that absorbs free
energy from its
surroundings

Figure 4. Exergonic and endergonic reactions.

Source: [Link]

One example of energy coupling involving ATP is the

formation of sucrose (table sugar) from glucose and fructose
(Figure 5). In the uncoupled reaction, glucose and fructose
combine to form sucrose. In the coupled reaction, there are
two reactions that take place:

1. A phosphate group is transferred from ATP to

glucose, forming a phosphorylated glucose
intermediate (glucose-P). This is an energetically
favorable reaction or exergonic reaction.
2. The glucose-P intermediate reacts with fructose to
form sucrose. Because glucose-P is relatively
unstable, this reaction also releases energy and is
spontaneous.
9
 Figure 5. Formation of sucrose (table sugar) from
glucose and fructose (uncoupled and coupled
reactions). Source: [Link]

The strategy in the example above is used in many

metabolic pathways in the cell, providing a way for the
energy released through ATP to ADP conversion to drive
other reactions forward.

The Importance of Chlorophyll and Other Pigments

Light from the sun is absorbed by colorful compounds

called pigments. The structure and amount of pigments
determine the variations in color. The chlorophyll pigment in
leaves helps make photosynthesis happen by absorbing light
energy from the sun to put together carbon dioxide and
water to form glucose or food. All colors of visible light
except green are absorbed by chlorophyll, which it reflects
to be detected by our eyes. Chlorophyll gives plants their
green color and may hide the other pigments found in
leaves. If all colors or wavelengths of visible light are
absorbed and none are reflected, the pigment appears
black to our eyes. On the contrary, if all colors or
wavelengths of light are reflected, the pigment appears
white to our eyes.

10
Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

Green plants have green leaves, and the leaves are green
because of the green pigment called chlorophyll, which are found
in the chloroplasts. The visible light spectrum ranges from red (the
longest wavelength) to orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
3
violet (the shortest wavelength). Plants possess pigments that can
absorb light in specific regions of the spectrum (Figure 6).

Figure 6. The visible light spectrum. Source: [Link]

Chlorophylls appear green

because the pigments absorb
light on all of the color ranges,
and only green is transmitted to
our eyes. Chlorophyll a is the
core pigment that absorbs
sunlight for light-dependent
photosynthesis. It readily absorbs
violet/blue and red light but not
much of the lighter blue, and
green and yellow light. It looks
bluish green. Figure 7. Absorbance spectrum of plant
pigments. Source: [Link]

11
 Leaves have evolved to produce several other pigments
called accessory pigments. Accessory pigments absorb
wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot absorb effectively,
enabling the plant to use more of the sun’s energy (Figures 7 and
8).

The following are the types of accessory pigments:

1. Chlorophyll b – It is structurally only slightly different from

chlorophyll a but its absorption spectrum is somewhat
different. It absorbs more in the blue and orange-red
ranges. It looks yellowish green. Captured energy is
handed over to chlorophyll a, which is a smaller but
more plentiful molecule in the chloroplast.

2. Carotenoids – They absorb light from violet to the

greenish-blue range. They appear in various shades of
yellow or yellow orange to our eyes. They cluster next to
chlorophyll a molecules to efficiently hand off
absorbed photons. They are usually found attached to
proteins or membranes in the chloroplasts.

3. Anthocyanins – They do not participate in

photosynthesis and may appear red, purple, or blue.
They occur widely among higher plants. They are
pigments that generally give color to flowers but also
occur in leaves and fruits. In leaves, these pigments
often help to protect against excessive sunlight that
can damage some leaf tissues. This is one reason why a
young, newly developing leaf is often redder than
when it reaches its mature size.

4. Xanthophylls – They pass along light energy to

chlorophyll a and act as antioxidants. The molecular
structure gives xanthophylls the ability to accept or
donate electrons. Xanthophyll pigments produce the
yellow color in fall leaves.
12
 Figure 8. Representation of energy transfer by antenna pigments.
Source: [Link]

The leaves of plants have mesophyll cells, the

photosynthetic cells. These cells possess specialized
structures called chloroplasts where photosynthetic pigments
are located (Figure 9). Other pigments that are not involved
in photosynthesis are stored in the vacuole, a large cellular
structure that also serves as storage place of water and
nutrients.

The presence of accessory pigments explains why not

all leaves are green (Figure 10). Accessory pigments are
important since they help absorb light and then pass the
energy to chlorophyll a, a primary pigment.

Figure 9. Location of pigments in plants. Figure 10. Varying pigments in leaves.

Source: [Link] Source: [Link]

13
Performance Task

A. Create Me. Make a creative diagram of an ATP-ADP

cycle on a short bond paper and answer the guide
questions.

Guide questions:

1. What are coupled reactions?

_____________________________________________________
2. Why is ATP important in energy coupling and transfer?
_____________________________________________________

Rubric:

Content 10
Creativity 5
Visual appearance 5
TOTAL 20 points

14
 Written Task

B. Expand and Explain. Answer the following questions briefly.

Write your answers in your notebook.

1. Why are chlorophyll and other pigments important in

plants?
___________________________________________________________
2. How are pigments related to photosynthesis in plants?
___________________________________________________________

Rubric:

Content 5
Organization 5
TOTAL 10 points

III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Good job! You have learned already on how organisms carry out
essential life processes in the presence of ATP and the roles and
functions of different types of pigments in photosynthesis. This time,
you will apply the things that you have learned in the previous
discussions and activities by answering the following tasks below.

15
ATP and reaction coupling.
[Link]
nergy-and-enzymes/atp-reaction-coupling/a/atp-
and-reaction-coupling

ATP notes and putting it all together.

[Link]

Campbell, Neil A., Reece, Jane B., Lisa A., Urry,

Cain, Michael L., Wasserman, Steven A., Minorsky,
Peter V., and Jackson, Robert B. Biology, 8th Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc.: San Francisco, 2008

Chapter 8.1: energy and life. www. [Link]

Coupled reactions
[Link]
versity/Chem_1202/Unit_7%3A_Principles_of_Thermod
ynamics/7.7%3A_Coupled_Reactions

Worksheet: chemical energy and ATP, Biology.

[Link]

Energy transformation and photosynthesis. Biology,

chapter 8. [Link]

Leaf structure and pigments. [Link]

Morales-Ramos AC, Ramos JD. Exploring life through

science series. Senior High School, General Biology I.
Phoenix Publishing House: Quezon City, Metro
Manila, 2017

Pigments.
[Link]
em_sets/intro_photosynthesis/[Link]

17
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL

SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent

FAY C. LUAREZ, TM, Ed.D., Ph.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Acting CID Chief

NILITA L. RAGAY, Ed.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMS)

ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
PSDS-Division Science Coordinator

MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)

ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)

LIEZEL A. AGOR
Writer

MARY JEAN M. ARBOLADO

Illustrator

KOREN O. BALBUENA
Lay-out Artist
______________________________________________

ALPHA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
LIELIN A. DE LA ZERNA
MA. OFELIA I. BUSCATO
EUFRATES G. ANSOK JR.

BETA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE TOLEDO
JUSTIN PAUL ARSENION C. KINAMOT
PETER PAUL A. PATRON
MARY JOYCEN A. ALAM-ALAM

DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible learning
modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module are carefully
researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were
clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is
subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.

18
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
LIGHT REACTION EVENTS
For General Biology 1/ Grade 11
Quarter 2/ Week 2

1
 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit (SLK) is designed to serve as an

instructional material for learners in understanding light-
dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Learners will be able to enrich their prior knowledge in

photosynthesis and realize its role in sustaining life processes.

The activities and illustrations included in this SLK will help

learners understand further the topic in an engaging manner.

This SLK is humbly dedicated to our learners who are at

the center of the learning process. We wish that this SLK will
be of great help in addressing their educational needs given
the circumstances we are facing today. Furthermore, we
hope that the content of this SLK will be fully understood and
be applied by learners in their day to day living.

2
 OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
K: describe the patterns of electron flow through light reaction events
S: complete the electron transport chain diagram for light-dependent
reactions
A: recognize the importance of light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis in living things

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Describe the patterns of electron flow through light reaction events

(STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-4)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

Hi! How are you today?

It’s another day of learning, and I’m

so excited to discuss to you this
familiar yet interesting topic.

Join me to another meaningful

journey of learning.
So, let’s get started!

3
PRE-ACTIVITY:
ACTIVITY 1

Complete Me. Identify the parts of the image to complete the

description. Write your answers in your notebook.

Photosynthesis is a process of making food in plants. Plants use

(1)________from the sun, along with (2)_____ in the soil and a gas called
(3)________ to make (4)___________. During this process, (5)_______ is
released into the air.

4
II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

The pre-activity gives us an idea on

the concept of photosynthesis.

Can you define what photosynthesis

is? What are the stages involved in
photosynthesis?

What do you think will happen if

leaves receive no sunlight?

The first stage of photosynthesis will be

discussed today. Check whether your
answers to the questions are correct
by carefully reading and
understanding the next pages.

DISCUSSION:

Life on Earth is powered by solar energy. The process through

which light energy is converted into chemical energy stored in
sugar and other molecules is called photosynthesis. Organisms
acquire organic compounds for energy by one of the two major
modes: heterotrophic nutrition or autotrophic nutrition.
Heterotrophs are unable to make their own food, and they live on
compounds produced by other organisms (hetero means "other").
They are the biosphere's consumers. Most fungi and many types of
prokaryotes and humans are heterotrophs. On the other hand,
autotrophs are "self-feeders (auto means "self" and trophos means
"feed"). They are organisms that can produce their own food and
feed themselves without the help of any other organisms. Almost
all plants are autotrophs (producers of the biosphere). Plants are
specifically photoautotrophs, organisms that use light as a source
of energy to synthesize organic substances.

5
Plant Cell Chloroplasts

Plant cells have different types of plastids that can harvest

solar energy, store nutrients, and manufacture nutrient molecules.
The most common type of plastid is the chloroplast. Chloroplasts
are responsible for the trapping of light energy in a chemical form
and contain the green pigment called chlorophyll (Figure 1). All
green parts of a plant have chloroplasts. In most plants, the leaves
are the major sites of photosynthesis. It is the light energy
absorbed by chlorophyll that drives the synthesis of organic
molecules in the chloroplast. Chloroplasts are found mainly in the
cells of the mesophyll, the tissue in the interior of the leaf. This layer
contains tiny openings called stomata where gases, carbon
dioxide and oxygen, enter and exit the leaves. Chloroplasts have
a double membrane: inner membrane and outer membrane. The
inner membrane holds a thick fluid called the stroma, where tiny
disc-shaped interconnected membranous sacs called thylakoids
are suspended. Thylakoids enclose another internal compartment
called thylakoid space. In some places, thylakoid sacs are
stacked in columns called grana (singular: granum). The green
pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs light, resides in the thylakoid
membranes. Light-absorbing molecules called photosystems are
also embedded in the thylakoid membrane.

Figure 1. Structure of a plant cell chloroplast.

Source: [Link]

6
Light-Dependent Reactions

The sun emits energy through electromagnetic radiation. This

electromagnetic radiation exists in various wavelengths. One type
emitted by the sun is visible light, while another type includes X-
rays and ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful. Some
organisms like green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria contain
chlorophyll a pigment which is responsible for photosynthesis.
Photosynthetic plants have a mixture of different pigments in their
leaves giving plant flexibility in absorbing energy from a wide
range of visible light wavelengths.

Photosynthesis involves two stages. The first stage is light-

dependent reaction, and the second stage is Calvin cycle (note
that only the first stage will be discussed in this learning material).

The light reactions are the steps of photosynthesis that

convert solar energy to chemical energy. The following are the
processes that occur in light-dependent reactions (Figures 2 and
3):

1. The reaction begins in a group of pigments and proteins called

photosystem. Photosystems exist in the membranes of thylakoids,
i.e., photosystem II and photosystem I in eukaryotes and some
prokaryotes. A pigment molecule in the photosystem absorbs
individual light packet called photon. As the photon of light
travels and reaches a molecule of chlorophyll in photosystem II,
the electrons become excited (Figure 2). Photosystem II transfers
the free electrons along a series of proteins called electron
transport chain.

7
 Figure 2. Absorption of energy by a
chlorophyll molecule.
Source: [Link]

2. Energy from the electrons fuel membrane pumps that move

hydrogen ions against the concentration gradient from the
stroma to the thylakoid space. As the energy is used, electrons will
be accepted by another pigment molecule in photosystem I,
causing them to break away from the atom of the chlorophyll
molecule. Water is split, providing a source of electrons and
protons (hydrogen ions, H+, continues to be used in the process)
and giving off O2 as a by-product.

3. Two carrier molecules absorb more energy: adenosine

triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADPH). Hydrogen ion build up in the concentration
gradient allows potential energy to be harvested and stored as
chemical energy in ATP through the transmembrane ATP
synthase. The process wherein hydrogen ions move through ATP
synthase is called chemiosmosis, i.e., ions move from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration across a
semipermeable membrane. Another function of the light-
dependent stage is the generation of another energy carrier
which is NADPH. As the electrons from the electron transport
chain reach photosystem I, these are re-excited by another
photon captured by chlorophyll. NADPH is formed from NADP+
and hydrogen ions fuelled by the energy carried by the
electrons. Now that the solar energy is stored in energy carriers, it
can be used to make a sugar molecule.

8
Figure 3. Light-dependent reactions. Source: [Link]

9
 ACTIVITY 2

A. Label and Connect Me. Choose from the words

inside the box to label the diagram below and draw
a line to indicate the path of electrons in the electron
transport chain. Write your answers in your notebook.

Photosystem I Cytochrome
ATP Synthase
Photosystem II

Modified from Photosynthesis Student Worksheet

[Link]

B. Answer Me. Answer the following questions briefly. Write

your answers in your notebook.

1. Describe the patterns of electron flow through light

reaction events.

2. Discuss the importance of light-dependent reactions of

photosynthesis in living things.

10
REFERENCES

Campbell, Neil A., Reece, Jane B. , Lisa A., Urry,

Cain, Michael L., Wasserman, Steven A., Minorsky,
Peter V., and Jackson, Robert B. Biology, 8th Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc.: San Francisco, 2008

Morales-Ramos AC, Ramos JD. Exploring life through

science series. Senior High School, General Biology I.
Phoenix Publishing House: Quezon City, Metro
Manila, 2017

Photosynthesis student worksheet.

[Link]

The process of photosynthesis. Workbook A.

Copyright by Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates.
[Link]

The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

[Link]

13
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL

SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent

FAY C. LUAREZ, TM, Ed.D., Ph.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Acting CID Chief

NILITA L. RAGAY, Ed.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMS)

ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
PSDS-Division Science Coordinator

MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)

ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)

LIEZEL A. AGOR
Writer

MARY JEAN M. ARBOLADO

Illustrator

KOREN O. BALBUENA
Lay-out Artist
______________________________________________

ALPHA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
LIELIN A. DE LA ZERNA
MA. OFELIA I. BUSCATO
EUFRATES G. ANSOK JR.

BETA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE TOLEDO
JUSTIN PAUL ARSENION C. KINAMOT
PETER PAUL A. PATRON
MARY JOYCEN A. ALAM-ALAM

DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible learning
modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module are carefully
researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were
clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is
subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.

14
THE IMPORTANT EVENTS OF
THE CALVIN CYCLE
For General Biology 1/ Grade 11
Quarter 2/ Week 3

1
 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit (SLK) is designed to

serve as an instructional material for learners
in understanding the important events of
the Calvin cycle.

Learners will be able to enrich their prior

knowledge in photosynthesis, specifically on
the Calvin cycle, and realize its role in
sustaining life processes.

The activities and illustrations included in

this SLK will help learners understand further
the topic in an engaging manner.

2
OBJECTIVE:
At the end of the lesson, the students shall be able to:
K: describe the important events of the Calvin cycle
S: draw and label the parts of the Calvin cycle
A: recognize the importance of the Calvin cycle in living things

LEARNING COMPTENCY:
Describe the important events of the Calvin cycle
(STEM_BIO11/12- IIa-j-5)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-TEST: Challenge Yourself

Directions: True or False: Write T if the statement is correct

and F if the statement is incorrect. Write your answers in your
notebook.

__________1. RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and

RuBP.
__________ 2. The Calvin cycle refers to the light-independent
reactions in photosynthesis that take place in
three key steps.
__________ 3. Light-independent reaction is an organic
substance that is involved in photosynthesis,
reacts with carbon dioxide to form 3-PGA.
___________4. ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to
convert the three-carbon compound, 3-PGA,
into another three-carbon compound called
G3P.
___________5. The remaining G3P molecules regenerate RuBP,
which enables the system to prepare for the
carbon-fixation step.

3
II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION:

Key Points

 The Calvin cycle refers to the light-independent reactions in

photosynthesis that take place in three key steps.
 Although the Calvin Cycle is not directly dependent on light,
it is indirectly dependent on light since the necessary energy
carriers (ATP and NADPH) are products of light-dependent
reactions.
 In fixation, the first stage of the Calvin cycle, light-
independent reactions are initiated; CO2 is fixed from an
inorganic to an organic molecule.
 In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to reduce 3-
PGA into G3P; then ATP and NADPH are converted to ADP
and NADP+, respectively.
 In the last stage of the Calvin Cycle, RuBP is regenerated,
which enables the system to prepare for more CO2 to be
fixed.

Key Terms

 light-independent reaction: chemical reactions during

photosynthesis that convert carbon dioxide and other
compounds into glucose, taking place in the stroma
 RuBisCo (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase): a plant
enzyme which catalyzes the fixing of atmospheric carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis by catalyzing the reaction
between carbon dioxide and RuBP
 ribulose bisphosphate: an organic substance that is involved
in photosynthesis, reacts with carbon dioxide to form 3-PGA

After the energy from the sun is converted and packaged

into ATP and NADPH, the cell has the fuel needed to build
food in the form of carbohydrate molecules. The
carbohydrate molecules made will have a backbone of

4
carbon atoms. Where does the carbon come from? The
carbon atoms used to build carbohydrate molecules comes
from carbon dioxide, the gas that animals exhale with each
breath. The Calvin cycle is the term used for the reactions of
photosynthesis that use the energy stored by the light-
dependent reactions to form glucose and other
carbohydrate molecules.

The Interworking of the Calvin Cycle

In plants, carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the chloroplast

through the stomata and diffuses into the stroma of the
chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions where
sugar is synthesized. The reactions are named after the
scientist who discovered them, and reference the fact that
the reactions function as a cycle. Others call it the Calvin-
Benson cycle to include the name of another scientist
involved in its discovery (Figure 1).

Source: [Link]
calvin-cycle/

5
 The Calvin cycle reactions (Figure 2) can be organized
into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration.
In the stroma, in addition to CO2, two other chemicals are
present to initiate the Calvin cycle: an enzyme abbreviated
RuBisCO, and the molecule ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).
RuBP has five atoms of carbon and a phosphate group on
each end.

RuBisCO catalyzes a reaction between CO2 and RuBP,

which forms a six-carbon compound that is immediately
converted into two three-carbon compounds. This process is
called carbon fixation, because CO2 is ―fixed‖ from its
inorganic form into organic molecules.

ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to convert the

three-carbon compound, 3-PGA, into another three-carbon
compound called G3P. This type of reaction is called a
reduction reaction, because it involves the gain of electrons.
A reduction is the gain of an electron by an atom or
molecule. The molecules of ADP and NAD+, resulting from the
reduction reaction, return to the light-dependent reactions
to be re-energized.

One of the G3P molecules leaves the Calvin cycle to

contribute to the formation of the carbohydrate molecule,
which is commonly glucose (C6H12O6). Because the
carbohydrate molecule has six carbon atoms, it takes six
turns of the Calvin cycle to make one carbohydrate
molecule (one for each carbon dioxide molecule fixed). The
remaining G3P molecules regenerate RuBP, which enables
the system to prepare for the carbon-fixation step. ATP is also
used in the regeneration of RuBP.

6
Figure 2. Calvin cycle. Source: [Link]
biology1/chapter/the-calvin-cycle/

III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Brain Challenge!

I. Directions: Draw and label the parts of the Calvin cycle

on a short bond paper.

Rubric:
All parts are properly labeled 10
Completion 5
Creativity 5
Total 20

7
II. Essay

Directions: Describe the Calvin cycle and its

importance. Write your answers in your notebook.

Rubric:
Application of the topic 10
Clarity of answer 5
Total 15

8
REFERENCES

Webpages:

ER Services Biology 1 The Calvin Cycle:

[Link]
biology1/chapter/the-calvin-cycle/ (Accessed November 4,
2020)

The Calvin Cycle:

[Link]
_Microbiology_(Boundless)/5%3A_Microbial_Metabolism/5.12
%3A_Biosynthesis/5.12C%3A_The_Calvin_Cycle (Accessed
November 11, 2020)

9
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL

SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent

FAY C. LUAREZ, TM, Ed.D., Ph.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Acting CID Chief

NILITA L. RAGAY, Ed.D.

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMS)

ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
PSDS-Division Science Coordinator

MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)

ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)

DEXTER JUNE G. TAGACTAC

Writer

KOREN O. BALBUENA
Lay-out Artist
______________________________________________

ALPHA QA TEAM

LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
LIELIN A. DE LA ZERNA
MA. OFELIA I. BUSCATO
EUFRATES G. ANSOK JR.

BETA QA TEAM

LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
JUSTIN PAUL ARSENION C. KINAMOT
PETER PAUL A. PATRON
MARY JOYCEN A. ALAM-ALAM

DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible learning
modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module are carefully
researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were
clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is
subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.

10
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION
For General Biology 1 / Grade 11
Quarter 2 / Week 4
 FOREWORD

This learning kit will serve as a guide for students in

understanding cellular respiration which is considered as one of
the metabolic processes occurring among living organisms. All
organisms require energy in order to perform various life processes.
This energy used by the cells is in the form of ATP. Through
respiration energy is harnessed from the food taken in.

This kit will enable students to familiarize the various

significant events and stages involved in the production of energy
as well as the essential elements needed for the process to occur.

Moreover, students shall be able to distinguish the

difference between aerobic and anaerobic type of respiration
and relate it to actual commonly observed phenomenon.

2
OBJECTIVE:
K: Define aerobic and anaerobic respiration
S: Differentiate aerobic and anaerobic respiration
A: Recognize the importance of aerobic and anaerobic
respiration in our daily life.

LEARNING COMPETENCY

➢ Differentiate aerobic from anaerobic respiration

(STEM_BIO11/12- IIa-j-6)

I. WHAT HAPPENED
Challenge Yourself

Activity 1:
Direction: True or False: Write T if the statement if correct and
F if the statement is wrong. Write your answer in your
notebook.
__________1. Anaerobic respiration occurs only in the
cytoplasm of a cell.
__________ 2. Only 2 ATPs are formed during anaerobic
respiration
___________3. Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence
of oxygen.
___________4. The end products of aerobic respiration are
carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
___________5. Aerobic respiration is comparatively longer
than anaerobic respiration.

3
 II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION

What is Aerobic Respiration?

Aerobic respiration is a set of metabolic reactions that
take place in the presence of oxygen, occurring in a
cell to convert chemical energy into ATPs.

• Aerobic respiration takes place in all plants, animals, birds, and humans,
except for some primitive prokaryotes.
• In aerobic respiration, oxygen acts as an electron acceptor which helps
produce ATPs more effectively and more quickly.
• The double bond in the oxygen has higher energy than other bonds
which aids to produce more ATPs.

• It is the preferred method of degradation of pyruvate after glycolysis

where the pyruvate then enters the mitochondria to be fully oxidized during
the Kreb’s cycle.
• The process of aerobic respiration is utilized for the oxidation of
carbohydrates, but products from fats and proteins are also used as
reactants.
• Carbon dioxide gas and water are the two products of aerobic
respiration along with the energy that is used to add a third phosphate
group to ADP and form ATP.
• Other energy-rich molecules like NADH and FADH2 are converted into ATP
via electron transport chain with oxygen and protons.
• During aerobic respiration, most ATPs are produced during oxidative
phosphorylation where the energy of oxygen molecule is used to pump
protons out of the membrane.
• The passage of protons creates a potential that is then used to initiate ATP
synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group.
• Ideally, a total of 38 ATPs are produced at the end of the aerobic
respiration. However, some energy is lost due to leaking of the membrane or
the cost of moving pyruvate through the cell, as a result of which about 29-
30 ATPs are only produced.
• Aerobic respiration results in complete oxidation of carbohydrate
molecules which take place in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells as the
enzymes for the process are present there.

4
 Source: [Link]

What is Anaerobic Respiration?

Anaerobic respiration is a process of cellular respiration

where the high energy electron acceptor is neither oxygen
nor pyruvate derivatives.

Anaerobic respiration is the process of creating energy

without the presence of oxygen. Sometimes the body can’t
supply the muscles with the oxygen it needs to create
energy – such as in a sprinting situation. Without the process
of anaerobic respiration there may be no energy supplied to
muscles in times of high demand.

• In anaerobic respiration, the electron acceptor can be sulfate

ion (SO4–) or nitrate ion (NO3–) or a variety of other molecules.
• Some archaea, called methanogens, are known to use carbon
dioxide as the electron acceptor, producing methane as a by-
product.
• Similarly, another group of purple sulfur bacteria uses sulfate as
an electron acceptor, thus producing hydrogen sulfide as a by-
product.
• These organisms reside in low-oxygen environments and thus opt
for anaerobic pathways to break down the chemical fuels.
• Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration in that the
molecules enter the electron5 transport chain to pass the
electrons to the final electron acceptor.
 • The final electron acceptors involved in anaerobic respiration
have a smaller reduction potential than oxygen molecules
which results in less energy production.
• Anaerobic respiration, however, is essential for biogeochemical
cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
• The nitrate that acts as an electron acceptor in anaerobic
respiration produces nitrogen gas as a by-product, and this
process is the only route for fixed nitrogen to reach the
atmosphere.
• Fermentation is another pathway for anaerobic respiration,
where the only energy extraction pathway is glycolysis, and the
pyruvate is not further oxidized via the citric acid cycle.
• The energy-rich molecule, NADH, is also not utilized during
fermentation.
• Anaerobic respiration takes place in many environments like
freshwater, soil, deep-sea surfaces. Some microbes in
oxygenated environments also utilize anaerobic respiration
because oxygen cannot readily diffuse through their surface.

•
• Anaerobic respiration and fermentation, both take place in the
cytoplasm of the prokaryotic cell.
• Anaerobic respiration and fermentation processes take place
in the muscle cells during immediate contraction and relaxation.
• Fermentation results in a total gain of only two ATPs per glucose
molecule.

Source:[Link]

6
7
8
Activity II
I. Draw and label the parts of the Aerobic and Anaerobic
Respiration.
Write it in a 1 whole short bond paper.

Rubrics:
All parts are properly labelled – 10
Completion -- 5
Creativity -- 5
Total 20

III. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

Brain Challenge!
II. Direction: Write A if it’s Aerobic and An if it’s Anaerobic.
Write your answers in your notebook.
1. Incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates takes
place during anaerobic respiration.
2. After glycolysis, occurs in the mitochondria of
eukaryotes and cytoplasm of prokaryotes.
3. Some other electron acceptors like sulfur and
nitrogen are required along with the carbohydrates.
4. Occurs only in the cytoplasm of a cell.
5. There is an exchange of gases during aerobic
respiration where oxygen is absorbed, and carbon
dioxide is released.

II. Essay: Discuss the answer to the following

questions. Write the answers in your notebook.
1. Why aerobic and anaerobic respiration important in
our daily life?

Rubrics:
Application of the topic -10
Clarity of answer -5
Total 15
9
REFERENCES
Webpages:
Microbe Notes: Sapkota, Anupama: July 10, 2020 ;11
Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration,
(Accessed November 11, 2020)

© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved. Aerobic And Anaerobic

Respiration [Link]
respiration/ (Accessed November 14, 2020)

Daniel Baker, Anaerobic Respiration, accessed last

November 14,2020,
[Link]
production/anaerobic-respiration/

10
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
(Chemical Events)
For General Biology 1 / Grade 11
Quarter 2 / Week 5
 FOREWORD

This learning kit will serve as a guide for students in

understanding cellular respiration which is considered as one of
the metabolic processes occurring among living organisms. All
organisms require energy in order to perform various life processes.
This energy used by the cells is in the form of ATP. Through
respiration energy is harnessed from the food taken in.

This kit will enable students to familiarize the various

significant events and stages involved in the production of energy
as well as the essential elements needed for the process to occur.

Moreover, students shall be able to distinguish the

difference between aerobic and anaerobic type of respiration
and relate it to actual commonly observed phenomenon.

2
OBJECTIVE:
K: Describe the major features of cellular respiration
S: Explain the chemical events of the cellular respiration
A: Explain the importance of Cellular respiration to our daily life.

LEARNING COMPETENCY

➢ Explain the major features and sequence the

chemical events of the cellular respiration.
STEM_BIO11/12- IIa-j-7

I. WHAT HAPPENED
Challenge Yourself

Activity 1: Essay
Direction: Answer the following question. Write your answer in
the notebook.
1. Do you think your body is able to use all the glucose
you have consumed in your meal? How much is the sugar
content in your average meal?

II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration is the process that breaks down
food molecules, usually in the form of glucose, to turn into
carbon dioxide and water. The chemical equation for
cellular respiration is C6H12O6 + 6O2 -6H2O + 6CO2. This is the
reverse chemical reaction of photosynthesis. However, it
undergoes a different process. In cellular respiration, ATP is
produced to be used in all cellular processes that require
energy.
This chemical equation of cellular respiration is also a
redox reaction. Because glucose has lost an electron, it is
3
 said to be oxidized. Meanwhile, oxygen has gained some
electrons, so it is said to be reduced.

Also, note that hydrogen atom is made up of a

hydrogen ion and a free electron, and thus, when these
hydrogen atoms are removed from glucose, the same
happens to the electron. Similarly, when hydrogen atoms are
added to oxygen, so are the electrons.

Glucose is a high-energy molecule, whereas carbon

dioxide and water are low-energy ,molecules. In the
chemical equation, the breakdown of glucose to produce
carbon dioxide and water releases energy. This is the energy
used in producing ATP.

In cellular respiration in humans, up to 36 ATP molecules can be produced with the input of oxygen and
glucose in the cells.

4
 In cellular respiration, the energy released from the
breakdown of glucose happens gradually. If the breakdown
happens all the same time, so much energy will be wasted
as unused heat. Depending on certain conditions, cellular
respiration can create up to an average yield of 36-38 ATP
molecules, which is about 39% of the energy originally stored
in glucose. This is already considered efficient, as compared
to other processes such as the conversion of solar energy to
electricity, which is only 15% efficient.

NAD+ and FAD

These are many metabolic reactions involved in cellular
respiration, and each is catalyzed by its own enzymes. One
important example is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (
NAD+), which is coenzyme in the redox reaction. During
oxidation, NAD+ accepts two electrons and a hydrogen ion,
producing NADH. The high-energy electrons received by
NAD+ are transported to the ETC. Cells need just a little
amount of NAD+ because it is used over and over again.
Another significant coenzyme in the redox reaction is flavin
adenine dinucleotide ( FAD ). Depending on the conditions
where NAD+ cannot be used, cells use FAD instead to
accept two electrons and two hydrogen ions to become
FADH2. Both NAD+ and FAD are important electron carriers
(coenzymes) in cellular respiration.

5
NADH and FADH2 give off two hydrogen ions and two electrons upon oxidation. These electrons will play
an important role in cellular respiration later on.

Purpose of Cellular Respiration

All cells need to be able to obtain and transport energy

to power their life functions. For cells to continue living,
they must be able to operate essential machinery, such as
pumps in their cell membranes which maintain the
cell’s internal environment in a way that’s suitable for life.

The most common “energy currency” of cells is ATP – a

molecule which stores a lot of energy. In its phosphate
bonds. These bonds can be broken to release that energy
and bring about changes to other molecules, such as those
needed to power cell membrane pumps.

Because ATP is not stable over long periods of time, it is

not used for long term energy storage. Instead, sugars
and fats are used as a long-term form of storage, and cells
must constantly process those molecules to produce new
ATP. This is the process of respiration.

The process of aerobic respiration produces a huge

amount of ATP from each molecule of sugar. In fact, each
molecule of sugar digested by a plant or animal cell yields 36
6
molecules of ATP! By comparison, fermentation usually only
produces 2-4 molecules of ATP.

Anaerobic respiration processes used by bacteria and

archaebacteria yield smaller amounts of ATP, but they
can take place without oxygen. Below, we’ll discuss how
different types of cellular respiration produce ATP.

Types of Cellular Respiration

Aerobic respiration is the process by which organisms use

oxygen to turn fuel, such as fats and sugars, into chemical
energy. In contrast, anaerobic respiration does not use
oxygen.

Respiration is used by all cells to turn fuel into energy that

can be used to power cellular processes. The product of
respiration is a molecule called adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), which uses the energy stored in its phosphate bonds to
power chemical reactions. It is often referred to as the
“currency” of the cell.

Aerobic respiration is much more efficient, and produces ATP

much more quickly, than anaerobic respiration. This is
because oxygen is an excellent electron acceptor for the
chemical reactions involved in generating ATP.

Source: [Link]
7
Overall Equation
The equation for aerobic respiration describes the reactants and
products of all of its steps, including glycolysis. That equation is:

1 glucose + 6 O2 → 6 CO2+ 6 H2O + 38 ATP

In summary, 1 molecule of six-carbon glucose and 6 molecules of

oxygen are converted into 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 6
molecules of water, and 38 molecules of ATP.

Anaerobic respiration is the type of respiration through which cells

can break down sugars to generate energy in the absence of
oxygen. This is in contrast to the highly efficient process of aerobic
respiration, which relies on oxygen to produce energy.

Molecular oxygen is the most efficient electron acceptor for

respiration, due to its high affinity for electrons. However, some
organisms have evolved to use other final electron acceptors,
and as such, can perform respiration without oxygen.

Source: [Link]
Instead of oxygen, anaerobic cells use substances such as sulfate,
nitrate, sulfur, and fumarate to drive their cellular respiration. Many
cells can perform either aerobic or anaerobic respiration,
depending on whether oxygen is available.
8
REFERENCES
Ayuste, Thaddeus Owen D., Oliva, Mylene D. G., “ DIWA
Senior High School Series: General Biology 1 Module” ( DIWA
LEARNING SYSTEM INC., Philippines, 2017) (Accessed
November 24, 2020)

Webpages:
Cellular Respiration: [Link]
respiration/ (Accessed November 25, 2020)

11
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL

SENEN PRISCILLO P. PAULIN, CESO V

Schools Division Superintendent

FAY C. LUAREZ, TM, EdD, PhD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Acting CID Chief

NILITA L. RAGAY, EdD

OIC - Assistant Schools Division Superintendent

ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
EPS-Science/Math

ROSELA R. ABIERA
LR Manager

ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO

MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian

DEXTER JUNE G. TAGACTAC

Writer

KOREN O. BALBUENA
Lay-out Artist
______________________________________________

ALPHA QA TEAM
LIELIN A. DE LA ZERNA
MA. OFELIA I. BUSCATO
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
EUFRATES G. ANSOK JR.
LIEZEL A. AGOR

BETA QA TEAM
JUSTIN PAUL ARSENIO C. KINAMOT
PETER PAUL A. PATRON
LIEZEL A. AGOR
THOMAS JOGIE TOLEDO
MARY JOYCEN A. ALAM-ALAM

DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible learning
modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module are carefully
researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were
clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is
subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written consent from the division.

13
MAJOR FEATURES OF GLYCOLYSIS,
KREBS CYCLE, ELECTRON
TRANSPORT SYSTEM, AND
CHEMIOSMOSIS
For General Biology 1/ Grade 11
Quarter 2 / Week 6

1
 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit (SLK) in General Biology 1 is

made to help you continue your learning about the different
major features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport
system, and chemiosmosis.

It is our sincere aim to provide you with relevant

activities, exercises, and assessment that we believe would
be necessary in order for you to acquire the appropriate
information about the different major features of glycolysis,
Krebs cycle, electron transport system, and chemiosmosis.

Furthermore, this is made to help you enhance and

deepen your learning about adenosine triphosphate or ATP
and how it is produced and consumed. This would also
expound the concept of the role of oxygen in respiration and
describe pathways of electron flow in the absence of
oxygen.

The activities in this SLK are easily and carefully made for
you to enjoy while learning. Your eager and active
involvement in all these activities will really make a difference
for you.

2
 OBJECTIVES:

K: identify the major features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron

transport system, and chemiosmosis
S: explain the concept of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport
system, and chemiosmosis
A: value the importance of knowing the major features of glycolysis,
Krebs cycle, electron transport system, and chemiosmosis through
illustration

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Distinguish major features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport

system, and chemiosmosis (STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-8)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

PRE-ACTIVITY
Directions: Arrange the letters to form the correct word. Write
your answers in your answer sheet.

A. YRUTPEVA ________________________
B. GYSILCLYOS ________________________
C. MOSCMIOSIHES ________________________
D. NDRITOCHOMIA ________________________
E. AICEBRO RARESIOPITN________________________

3
II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW

DISCUSSION

GLYCOLYSIS
• Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract
energy for cellular metabolism.
• Glycolysis consists of an energy-requiring phase followed by an
energy-releasing phase.
• Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from
glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules called
pyruvates.
• Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway, meaning that it
evolved long ago, and it is found in the great majority of
organisms alive today.
• Glycolysis is the central pathway for the glucose catabolism in
which glucose (6-carbon compound) is converted into
pyruvate (3-carbon compound).
• Glycolysis takes place in both aerobic and anaerobic
organisms and is the first step towards the metabolism of
glucose.

Source:

Figure 1. Glycolosis. Source: [Link]

X&ved=2ahUKEwjLzYznq7jrAhXlyosBHQVoD_0Q_AUoAXoECBQQAw&biw=1366&bih=576#imgrc=Vi6hoDPp
WAWdYM

4
Highlights of Glycolysis

•The glycolytic sequence of reactions differs from one species to

the other in the mechanism of its regulation and the subsequent
metabolic fate of the pyruvate formed at the end of the process.
• In aerobic organisms, glycolysis is the prelude to the citric acid
cycle and the electron transport chain, which together release
most of the energy contained in glucose.
• It is also referred to as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas or EMP
pathway, in honor of the pioneer workers in the field.
• A summary of the process of glycolysis can be written as follows:
C6H12O6 + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ → 2C3H4O3 + 2H2O + 2ATP + 2NADH +
2H+
In words, the equation is written as:
Glucose + Adenosine diphosphate + Phosphate + Nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide
↓
Pyruvate + Water + Adenosine triphosphate + Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide + Hydrogen ions

• The following are the enzymes that catalyze different steps

throughout the process of glycolysis:

1. Hexokinase
2. Phosphoglucoisomerase
3. Phosphofructokinase
4. Aldolase
5. Phosphotriose isomerase
6. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
7. Phosphoglycerate kinase
8. Phosphoglycerate mutase
9. Enolase
10. Pyruvate kinase
11.
5
KREBS CYCLE
(Source: [Link]

The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and

generates a pool of chemical energy (ATP, NADH, and FADH2) from
the oxidation of pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or the
tricarboxylic acid cycle, is at the center of cellular metabolism, playing
a starring role in both the process of energy production and
biosynthesis. It finishes the sugar-breaking job started in glycolysis and
fuels the production of ATP in the process. It is also a central hub in
biosynthetic reactions, providing intermediates that are used to build
amino acids and other molecules. The citric acid cycle enzymes are
found in all cells that use oxygen, and even in some cells that don't.

Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon

dioxide to form acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon molecule. When acetyl-CoA
is oxidized to carbon dioxide in the Krebs cycle, chemical energy is
released and captured in the form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP.

Figure 2. Krebs cycle. Source: [Link]

esp/[Link]

Powerhouse of Energy
The citric acid cycle provides the electrons that fuel the process
of oxidative phosphorylation—our major source of ATP and energy. As
the acetyl group is broken down, electrons are stored in the carrier
NADH, and delivered to Complex I. These electrons then fuel the
production of a proton gradient by two proton pumps: cytochrome
6
bc1 and cytochrome c oxidase. This proton gradient then powers the
rotation of ATP synthase, building ATP. All of this action occurs in our
mitochondria—the citric acid cycle enzymes are inside the
mitochondria, and the protein pumps are in the mitochondrial
membrane.

Figure 3. Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle). Source: [Link]

cycle+diagram&hl=en&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7vsWAsLjrAhViL6YKHRmBBJ
oQ_AUoAXoECA4QAw&biw=1366&bih=576

ELECTRON TRANDSPORT SYSTEM

(Source: [Link]

The electron transport chain is the last component of aerobic

respiration and is the only part of glucose metabolism that uses
atmospheric oxygen. Oxygen continuously diffuses into plants; in
animals, it enters the body through the respiratory system. Electron
transport is a series of redox reactions that resemble a relay race or
bucket brigade in that electrons are passed rapidly from one
component to the next, to the endpoint of the chain where the
electrons reduce molecular oxygen, producing water. There are four
complexes composed of proteins, labeled I through IV, and the
aggregation of these four complexes, together with associated
mobile, accessory electron carriers, is called the electron transport
chain. The electron transport chain is present in multiple copies in the
7
inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes and the plasma
membrane of prokaryotes. Note, however, that the electron transport
chain of prokaryotes may not require oxygen as some live in
anaerobic conditions. The common feature of all electron transport
chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a proton gradient
across a membrane.

Figure 4. Electron transport chain. The electron transport chain is a series of electron transporters
embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH 2
to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the
intermembrane space, and oxygen is reduced to form water.
Source: [Link]

CHEMIOSMOSIS
(Source: [Link]

In chemiosmosis, the free energy from the series of redox

reactions just described is used to pump hydrogen ions (protons)
across the membrane. The uneven distribution of H+ ions across the
membrane establishes both concentration and electrical gradients
(thus, an electrochemical gradient), owing to the hydrogen ions’
positive charge and their aggregation on one side of the membrane.
If the membrane were open to diffusion by the hydrogen ions,
the ions would tend to diffuse back across into the matrix, driven by
their electrochemical gradient. Recall that many ions cannot diffuse
through the nonpolar regions of phospholipid membranes without the
8
aid of ion channels. Similarly, hydrogen ions in the matrix space can
only pass through the inner mitochondrial membrane through an
integral membrane protein called ATP synthase.
Chemiosmosis is used to generate 90% of the ATP made during
aerobic glucose catabolism; it is also the method used in the light
reactions of photosynthesis to harness the energy of sunlight in the
process of photophosphorylation. Recall that the production of ATP
using the process of chemiosmosis in mitochondria is called oxidative
phosphorylation.
The overall result of these reactions is the production of ATP from
the energy of the electrons removed from hydrogen atoms. These
atoms were originally part of a glucose molecule. At the end of the
pathway, the electrons are used to reduce an oxygen molecule to
oxygen ions. The extra electrons on the oxygen attract hydrogen ions
(protons) from the surrounding medium, and water is formed.

ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy currency for cellular

processes. ATP provides the energy for both energy-consuming
endergonic reactions and energy-releasing exergonic reactions,
which require a small input of activation energy. When the chemical
bonds within ATP are broken, energy is released and can be
harnessed for cellular work. The more bonds in a molecule, the more
potential energy it contains. Because the bond in ATP is so easily
broken and reformed, ATP is like a rechargeable battery that powers
cellular process ranging from DNA replication to protein synthesis.
When ATP is broken down, usually by the removal of its terminal
phosphate group, energy is released. The energy is used to do work
by the cell, usually by the released phosphate binding to another
molecule, activating it. For example, in the mechanical work of
muscle contraction, ATP supplies the energy to move the contractile
muscle proteins. Recall the active transport work of the
sodiumpotassium pump in cell membranes. ATP alters the structure of
the integral protein that functions as the pump, changing its affinity for
sodium and potassium. In this way, the cell performs work, pumping
ions against their electrochemical gradients.
9
 ACTIVITY
Directions: Analyze the images and statements below. Then, answer
the questions that follow. (5 points each)

A.

Figure 5. ATP synthase is a complex, molecular machine that uses a proton (H+) gradient to form
ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). (Credit: modification of work by Klaus Hoffmeier)

Dinitrophenol (DNP) is an uncoupler that makes the inner

mitochondrial membrane leaky to protons. It was used until 1938 as a
weight-loss drug. What effect would you expect DNP to have on the
change in pH across the inner mitochondrial membrane? Why do
you think this might be an effective weight loss drug?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

10
B.

Figure 6. In oxidative phosphorylation, the pH gradient formed by the electron transport chain is
used by ATP synthase to form ATP.

Cyanide inhibits cytochrome c oxidase, a component of the

electron transport chain. If cyanide poisoning occurs, would you
expect the pH of the intermembrane space to increase or
decrease? What effect would cyanide have on ATP synthesis?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

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REFERENCES
[Link]
&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjLzYznq7jrAhXlyosBHQVoD_0Q_AUoAXoECBQQAw&
biw=1366&bih=576#imgrc=Vi6hoDPpWAWdYM

[Link]
en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwji1Ojpq7jrAhVGb5QKHbU8BuEQrNwCKAB6BQgBEI
AC&biw=1349&bih=576#imgrc=ZdvbUkJ1t0hKtM

[Link]
rce=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj7vsWAsLjrAhViL6YKHRmBBJoQ_
AUoAXoECA4QAw&biw=1366&bih=576
[Link]
andfermentation/glycolysis/a/glycolysis
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
biology1/chapter/readingelectron-transport-chain/

13
ROLE OF OXYGEN IN CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
For General Biology 1/ Grade 11
Quarter 2 / Week 7

1
 FOREWORD

This self-learning kit (SLK) in General Biology 1 is made

to help you continue your learning about the different major
features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport system,
and chemiosmosis.

It is our sincere aim to provide you with relevant

activities, exercises, and assessment that we believe would be
necessary in order for you to acquire the appropriate
information about the different major features of glycolysis,
Krebs cycle, electron transport system, and chemiosmosis.

Furthermore, this is made to help you enhance and

deepen your learning about adenosine triphosphate or ATP
and how it is produced and consumed. This would also
expound the concept of the role of oxygen in respiration and
describe pathways of electron flow in the absence of oxygen.

The activities in this SLK are easily and carefully made

for you to enjoy while learning. Your eager and active
involvement in all these activities will really make a difference
for you.

2
 OBJECTIVES:

K: Define oxygen, cellular respiration, and aerobic respiration

S: Describe pathways of electron flow in the absence of
oxygen
A: Appreciate the value of oxygen in our lives by giving its
importance

LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Describe the role of oxygen in respiration and describe pathways of

electron flow in the absence of oxygen (STEM_BIO11/12-IIa-j-10)

I. WHAT HAPPENED

We know that we need oxygen to live.

But why? This oxygen is an essential component
for the optimal production of usable energy
which occurs through cellular respiration.

Respiratory System
Source: [Link]
arch?q=role+of+oxygen+in+respiration+
and+describe+pathways&source=lnms&
tbm

3
PRE-ACTIVITY
Directions: Follow the breathing exercise for five times and answer the
questions that follow.

Source: [Link]
urce=lnms

Take a deep breath in and gently exhale for five times. Every day, all
day and all night, our lungs inhale and exhale air.

Questions:

A. What gas did you inhale? ______________

B. What gas did you exhale? ______________

C. What system in your body is responsible for breathing?

___________________

D. What do you call the process of breathing in and out?

________________

4
II. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION

Many people would answer that oxygen is needed to make

carbon dioxide, the gas exhaled or released by each of the respiratory
systems listed above. However, CO2 is a waste product.
There must be more to this story than just gas exchange with the
environment. You know that humans deprived of oxygen for more than
a few minutes will quickly become unconscious and die. Oxygen is the
final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain in the final step
of cellular respiration. Oxygen combines with electrons and hydrogen
ions to produce water.
Breathing, also known as respiration, is essential for human life,
because the body cannot store oxygen for later use as it does food.
Respiration rate correlates with energy use, and that correlation reflects
the link between oxygen and energy metabolism.
For this reason, the chemical process inside your cells that
consume oxygen to produce usable energy is known as cellular
respiration. During this process, energy is converted from glucose, in the
presence of oxygen, into numerous ATP molecules. The glucose, of
course, comes from the food you eat. In biological terms, you do not
eat because you are hungry, you eat to get energy.
Cellular Respiration

Source: [Link]
ribe+pathways&source=lnms&tbm

5
 Cellular respiration is the process cells use to make energy. Our
body cells need oxygen to do this process, although other organisms,
like yeast or bacteria, don't always need it. Cellular respiration can
occur both aerobically (using oxygen) or anaerobically (without
oxygen).

All body cells engage in cellular respiration. They use oxygen and
glucose, a sugar found in the foods we eat and convert them to ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), or cellular energy, and carbon dioxide.
Although this process can be represented by a single equation, there
are actually many small steps that take place before we actually use
oxygen to get ATP.

The three stages of aerobic cellular respiration are glycolysis (an

anaerobic process), the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration refers to the metabolic pathways by which

organisms break down glucose to produce ATP. Respiration involves
four different pathways, each pathway feeding into the next.
Ultimately, respiration results in the complete oxidation of glucose and
the transfer of energy from the chemical bonds of glucose to the
chemical bonds of ATP.

Aerobic respiration happens in the presence of oxygen. In the

absence of oxygen, some organisms go through a process called
fermentation, which allows them to produce energy under anaerobic
conditions. Fermentation produces relatively less energy than
respiration, because fermentation does not result in the complete
oxidation of glucose.

Source:
[Link]
UKEwizt7zulNTrAhVI5pQKHfVjDOgQ2-
6
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic

Reactants Glucose and oxygen Glucose

Products ATP, water, CO2 ATP and lactic acid (animals); or

ATP, ethanol, and CO2 (yeast)

Location Cytoplasm (glycolysis) and Cytoplasm

mitochondria

Stages Glycolysis (anaerobic), Krebs Glycolysis, fermentation

cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

ATP Large amount (36 ATP) Small amount (2 ATP)

produced

Metabolic Pathways

Metabolism refers to the sum total of the biochemical reactions

that take place within an organism. Metabolic reactions are useful
primarily for two reasons: 1) they allow energy to be stored, transferred
or released in useable amounts, and 2) they synthesize and break
down important carbon molecules, such as the 12 key intermediates
and macromolecules. Metabolic pathways occur in a series of enzyme-
catalyzed steps, so that small amounts of energy are invested or
released at each step. In addition, having multiple steps makes it
possible to more effectively control a pathway and allows more
flexibility to link to other metabolic pathways.

7
 Source: [Link]

Electron Transport Phosphorylation

NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to specialized cell membranes,

where they are harvested to create ATP. Once the electrons are used,
they become depleted and must be removed from the body. Oxygen
is essential for this task. Used electrons bind with oxygen; these
molecules eventually bind with hydrogen to form water.

ACTIVITY
Directions: Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic
respiration using a VENN DIAGRAM. (15 points)

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

8
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DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible learning
modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module are carefully
researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers and evaluator were
clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this material. All content is
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11