LEARNING MODULE IN general biology 1 1

MARFRANCISCO, PINAMALAYAN,
BASIC EDUCATION DEPARTMENT ORIENTAL MINDORO

Senior High School

043-284-7504
Abada College Basic Education Department

ABADA COLLEGE

Quarter 2:
Energy transformation

Date of Submission: November 13, 2021

Most Essential Learning Competencies

A W Explain
A R E Ncoupled C O M processes
E S S. reaction M I T M Eand E X the
describe
N T. C Erole
L LofE ATP S E Rcoupling
in energy
N C E. V I C E
and transfer;
 Describe the patterns of electron flow through light reaction events; and

LEARNING MODULE IN general biology 1 2

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to;
explain the importance of chlorophyll and other pigments;
describe the significant events of the Calvin Cycle;
describe the major features and chemical events in photosynthesis and respiration;
describe the role of oxygen in respiration and describe pathways of electron flow in the
absence of oxygen;
test the effect of light on photosynthetic activity; and
recognize the importance of reactions that produce and consume ATP.

EXPLORE
Directions: Read and analyze the given situation below. Write your answer in the
answer sheet provided.
Based on your knowledge of photosynthesis and other related processes, how can we
solve food storage?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Your answers will be evaluated based on the following criteria:
Relevance – 2 points
_____________________________________________________________________________
Organization of Thoughts – 2 points
Focus – 2 points
Firm Up
Abstraction

Living things depend on energy. Cells In the body need energy to perform their
functions. Adenosine triphosphate or ATP provides energy for the mechanical functions of cells.
ATP is a complex molecule that contains the nucleoside adenosine and a tail consisting of three
phosphates. ATP is composed of the purine base adenine and the sugar ribose which together form
the nucleoside adenosine. The basic building blocks used to construct ATP are carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorous.

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ATP Is sometimes called the

energy currency of cells. All
ATP organisms from the
tiniest bacteria to humans use
ATP as their primary energy
currency. The energy level it
carries is just sufficient for
most biological reactions. It is
used to build ATP-ADP
energy complex molecules, for
the movement of cilia and
flagella in bacteria, contract
muscles, generate electricity in
nerves, and even light fireflies.

ATP transports chemical for

cells within energy
metabolism. It stores energy
ADP within its chemical bonds and diffuses throughout the cell, transporting the energy to the
place where the energy is needed. Energy is usually liberated from the ATP when It is broken
down, removing one of the phosphate-oxygen groups, leaving adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

Key Points in the ATP-ADP Cycle

1. Energy is stored from the breakdown of food molecules. The phosphate bonds in ATP are very
helpful for storing energy.

2. Energy that is released during breakdown of chemical bonds linking the phosphate groups in
ATP is used by the cells to do their functions.

3. The used up energy, the ADP has a reduced amount of chemical energy than ATP.

4. In making ATP, energy that is released during chemical processes and series of reaction are used
to bond a phosphate group to ADP.

Unlike glycogen and fats, adenosine triphosphate is a short-term energy-storage molecule. Each
cell approximately contains about one billion ATP molecules. This amount is enough for that cell's
needs for only a few minutes and must be rapidly recycled. For instance, without rapid conversion
of ATP in the cells, a marathon runner will only last a short distance.

ATP is linked to a process known as coupled reactions. It means the two reactions occur at the
same time and at the same place, usually utilizing the same enzyme complex. All chemical
reactions either give off (exothermic) or take in (endothermic) energy. In a coupled reaction, an
exothermic reaction supplies the energy needed to drive an endothermic reaction. For example in
plants, by the aid of sunlight (exothermic reaction), high-energy glucose molecules are synthesized
(endothermic reaction) from carbon dioxide and water.

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The exothermic and endothermic processes of coupled reactions happen in various places within a
cell, so there are some means to transfer the energy from exothermic reactions that give off energy
to the endothermic reactions that need it. In coupled reactions, energy is transferred from one site
to another by energy-carrier molecules such as ATP. The release of phosphate from ATP is
exothermic and the reaction it is connected to is endothermic. The terminal phosphate group is then
transferred by hydrolysis to another compound, a process called phosphorylation, producing ADP,
phosphate and energy. If this is uncoupled, the energy merely transforms into heat. Since it is
coupled, the energy can be used to fuel other processes like in the case of ATP-ADP reaction to a
certain protein, the energy can be used to modify the shape of that protein.

Photosynthesis
All cells need energy to live and survive. The sun is the ultimate source of energy to the earth.
Almost all of the organisms derive their energies from sunlight but the only organisms which have
the ability to directly trap this energy source are those that perform photosynthesis. Photosynthesis
is the process where light energy is converted into a form of chemical energy that can be stored
and used later on. It is derived from two words: photo meaning light and synthesis meaning putting
together. It is a major process in synthesizing ATP.

The net process of photosynthesis is summarized by the formula:

6CO2 + 6H20 + Light Energy = C6H1206 + 602

This formula simply means that carbon dioxide from the air and water combine in the presence of
sunlight to form sugars; oxygen is released as a by-product of this reaction.

Photosynthesis in plants happens

within an enclosed double-
membrane structure known as
chloroplasts contained within leaf
cells. Leaf surfaces are flattened to
have a larger surface area exposed
in the sun, and are only few cells
thick in order for sunlight to
penetrate and reach the light-
trapping chloroplasts inside, thus
increasing the photosynthetic
activity.

The upper and the lower surfaces

of a leaf are made up of a single-
cell transparent layer called
epidermis that serves as boundary
between the plant and the external

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environment. The walls of the epidermal cells contain cutin, and are covered with a cuticle. The
cuticle is a transparent and waxy covering that reduces water loss to the atmosphere.

The chloroplast contains a semi-fluid medium, the stroma. It is made up of mixture of enzymes and
water. Embedded in the stroma is a complex network of stacked sacs. Each stack is known as
granum. A granum consists of disk-shaped, interconnected membranous sacs known as thylakoids.

Photosynthetic organs of plants always contain assortment of pigments. Each pigment absorbs only
certain rays of light. One of the most commonly known pigments is chlorophyll which makes the
plant green. Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light within the visible light spectrum.
Green light is not absorbed but reflected making the plant appear green.

Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts of plants. There are three types chlorophyll: chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll b, and chlorophyll c. Chlorophyll a is present in all photosynthetic plants including
red, brown, and blue-green algae except in photosynthetic bacteria. It plays an active role in
photosynthesis functioning as photoenzyme. It also makes photosynthesis possible, by passing its
energized electrons on to molecules which will manufacture sugars. No plant was found to be
capable of photosynthesis without the presence of chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll b is an accessory
pigment and acts indirectly in photosynthesis by transferring light it absorbs to chlorophyll-a. It is
present in higher plants and green algae. Chlorophyll c is found in certain marine algae, including
the photosynthetic chromista (ex. diatoms, brown algae) and dinoflagellates.

Carotenoids or tetraterpenoids are plant pigments responsible for bright red, yellow and orange
colors in many fruits and vegetables. They help plants absorb light energy for use in
photosynthesis. It cannot transfer sunlight energy directly to the photosynthetic pathway, but must
pass their absorbed energy to chlorophyll. Carotenoids also protect chlorophyll from photodamage.
They also have an important antioxidant function of deactivating free radicals - single oxygen
atoms that can damage cells by reacting with other molecules. There are two classes of
carotenoids: xanthophyll (which contain oxygen) and carotenes (which are purely hydrocarbons
and contain no oxygen). Carotene gives carrots their color.

Phycobilins are photosynthetic pigments efficient at absorbing red, orange, yellow, and green light,
wavelengths that are not well absorbed by chlorophyll a. They are water soluble pigments, and are
found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the chloroplasts. They occur only in Cyanobacteria and
Rhodophyta. Etymologically, its name came from the Greek words phykos meaning alga and bilin
meaning bile pigment.

Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle

The process of photosynthesis is divided into two main groups: the '"light reactions” which require
light energy to operate and the "Calvin cycle" or also known as the light independent reactions
because they do not require sunlight to complete the process. The first phase of the photosynthetic
process is the light dependent reaction. Here, light energy is trapped and converted into chemical
energy by the thylakoids of the chloroplasts. This process is aided by the different pigment
molecules that form clusters known as photosystems. Two photosystems work together during

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light reactions: photosystem I (PS I) or also known as PS 700 because it is most reactive to 700
nanometers wavelength of light and photosystem Il (PS I) or otherwise called PS 680 because it
reacts most in 680 nanometers light wavelength. They are termed PS I and PS Il based on the order
of their discovery; however, the sequence in which they proceed within the light reactions is from
PS Il to PS I.

Each photosystem contains a cluster of chlorophyll and accessory pigments. The two photosystems
vary in electron transport chain located adjacent to them. The light reactions start when
photosystem ll absorbs light which excites the electrons in the reaction center chlorophyll then
captured by the primary electron acceptor.

The reaction center must have a continuous replacement for electrons that jump out when
energized by light. An enzyme associated with PS Il splits water molecules that allow electrons to
escape and serve as replacement electrons in the reaction center.

Once the electron is captured by a primary electron acceptor, it is passed through the first molecule
of electron transport chain in photosystem II. While the electron moves from one electron carrier
molecule to the next, its energy is being depleted. Some of this energy is released and is used to
pump hydrogen ions (H+) from stroma to thylakoid compartment, where they will be utilized to
generate ATP, in a process known as chemiosmosis.

Energy Transfer and the Light Reactions

The electrons the leave
electron transport system
with very low energy and
enter the reaction center
of photosystem I where
they gain energy when the
pigments absorb solar
energy. The excited
electrons are passed to the
primary electron acceptor
of photosystem I and
along the electron
transport chain of PS I
until they reach
nicotinamide dinucleotide
phosphate (NADP+), also
an electron carrier.
Together with the
electron, NAPD+ picks up hydrogen ion from water to become NADPH.

The products of light reactions are the energy carriers ATP and NADPH. Oxygen is released as a
by-product.

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The ADP and NADPH synthesized during light reactions are dissolved in the stroma. Here, ATP
and NADPH trigger the synthesis of three-carbon sugar from carbon dioxide in a series of
reactions known as Calvin Cycle.

Calvin cycle is named after Melvin Calvin who explained in detail its steps in the late 1940's. It is
divided to three main stages:

1. Carbon Fixation
This is the initial incorporation (fixation) of carbon into a larger organic molecule. This
reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco, which attaches a carbon dioxide molecule with a
ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) molecule. This produces six-carbon molecule that quickly breaks
down into 3-phosphoglycerate molecules which is the reason why Calvin cycle is often referred as
C3 pathway. This process requires two molecules of ATP.
2. Synthesis of G3P
In this stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA molecules into molecules of a
three -carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). The two molecules of GPA are converted
into 2 molecules of phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL), a 3-carbon compound. PGAL İs the first
stable product of photosynthesis. It needs 2 molecules of NADPH.

3. Regeneration of RuBP
By means of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while
others must be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. RuBP is regenerated from PGAL for the
process to continue. A molecule of ATP is needed for the regeneration process. The remaining
G3P molecule, which is the end product of photosynthesis, exits the cycle.

Three turns of Calvin Cycle are necessary to produce one net gain of PGAL. Five PGAL
molecules are required to regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP. The three turns use up 9 molecules of
ATP and 6 molecules of NADPH.

PGAL is a substance used by plants to make other organic substances. An example of these
organic substances synthesized by plants is glucose. To make one glucose molecule, a 6-carbon
sugar, two molecules of PGAL are linked. This means six turns of Calvin Cycle.

https:// www.wikidoc.org/
index.php/ Calvin_cycle

Alternate Pathways for

Carbon Fixation
One usual problem that many plants
encounter is the wasting of much solar
energy known as photorespiration. It is
a series of reactions that start when the rubisco
enzyme adds O2 rather than CO2 to
RuBP. This prevents the Calvin

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Cycle from synthesizing sugar, reducing photosynthetic efficiency. Therefore, the plants lose C0 2
wasting ATP and NADPH along the process.

To adapt to photorespiration, there are alternate pathways for carbon fixation namely: C 4 and
CAM. In the C4 pathway, mesophyll cells capture more CO 2 using PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate)
carboxylase. PEP carboxylase (3 carbons) binds to CO 2 to make oxaloacetic acid (OAA), a four-
carbon molecule. The OAA İs quickly converted into malate (4 carbons). Malate enters bundle
sheath cells and then is broken down forming the three -carbon molecule pyruvate and releases the
CO2. These additional steps, however, need more ATP. Using this extra ATP, C 4 plants are able to
convert pyruvate back into PEP permitting the cycle to continue. A typical example of a C 4 plant is
corn.

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as
an adaptation to dry or xeric conditions. This pathway is similar to C4. The difference is that in
CAM, carbon is captured and sugar is synthesized in the same mesophyll cells at different times of
the day. Unlike many plants, CAM plants open their stomata at night following CO2 to diffuse the
mesophyll cells while minimizing water loss. The CO2 through the aid of PEP carboxylase forms
into oxaloacetate which is converted to four-carbon acid malate and is stored in vacuoles. At
daytime, CAM plants close their stomata to reduce evapotranspiration. During this time, the malate
is transported to chloroplasts, then broken down, forming pyruvate and releases CO2. The CO2 is
fixed into sugar by Calvin Cycle. The pyruvate is then regenerated into PEP utilizing ATP. This
metabolism was first studied in stonecrop plant Crassulaceae family. These mainly include
succulents. CACTUS is a CAM plant.

DEEPEN
Activity 2: Cerebral Enhancer

Directions: Answer the following questions/statements as concise and meaningful as

possible. Explain your answer by citing evidences.

1. Describe the role of ATP in energy coupling and transfer.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is the Calvin Cycle sometimes described as light-independent reactions?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

TRANSFER
EXPERIMENT TIME

Effect of Light on Photosynthetic Activity

Objective :
Count and identify the pigments present in the leaves of a plant.
Materials:

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3 pieces green leaves (preferably spinach)

Alcohol
Mortar and pestle
One piece chalk
Beaker or any container

Procedure :
Wash the leaves thoroughly.
Tear the leaves and pound them using the mortar and pestle.
Add few drops of alcohol.
Continue grinding until there is a formation of liquid in the bottom of the mortar that
contains the leaf pigments.
Decant the extract into the beaker.
Dip a chalk in the extract and allow it to sip the extract.
Observe the chalk. Do you see different colors?
Film your experiment and send it on our google classroom.

Questions:
1. How many colors did you see on the chalk? What are these colors?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Based on the color, what are the pigments present in the leaves?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. What conclusions can you draw based on the activity?
__________________________________________________________________________
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Subject Teacher Academic Coordinator

Checked by: Approved by:

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Senior High School Coordinator Basic Education Principal

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