LEARNING MODULE IN general biology 1 1

MARFRANCISCO, PINAMALAYAN,
BASIC EDUCATION DEPARTMENT ORIENTAL MINDORO

Senior High School 043-284-7504

Abada College Basic Education Department

ABADA COLLEGE

Quarter 2: Module 2
Energy transformation

Date of Submission: November 13, 2021

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Most Essential Learning Competencies

Explain coupled reaction processes and describe the role of ATP in
energy coupling and transfer;
Describe the patterns of electron flow through light reaction events; and
Describe the significant events of the Calvin Cycle.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you shall be able to;
explain the importance of chlorophyll and other pigments;
describe the significant events of the Calvin Cycle;
describe the major features and chemical events in photosynthesis and
respiration;
describe the role of oxygen in respiration and describe pathways of electron
flow in the absence of oxygen;
test the effect of light on photosynthetic activity; and
recognize the importance of reactions that produce and consume ATP.

EXPLORE
Directions: Read and analyze the given situation below. Write your
answer in the answer sheet provided.
Based on your knowledge of photosynthesis and other related processes,
how can we solve food storage?
_______________________________________________________________________________
Your answers will be evaluated based on the following criteria:
_______________________________________________________________________________
Relevance – 2 points
_____________________________________________________________________________
Organization of Thoughts – 2 points
Focus – 2 points
Firm Up
Abstraction

Living things depend on energy. Cells In the body need energy to

perform their functions. Adenosine triphosphate or ATP provides energy for the
mechanical functions of cells. ATP is a complex molecule that contains the
nucleoside adenosine and a tail consisting of three phosphates. ATP is composed
of the purine base adenine and the sugar ribose which together form the
nucleoside adenosine. The basic building blocks used to construct ATP are carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorous.

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ATP Is sometimes called

the energy currency of
cells. All ATP organisms
from the tiniest bacteria
to humans use ATP as
their primary energy
currency. The energy
level it carries is just
sufficient for most
biological reactions. It is
used to build ATP-ADP
energy complex
molecules, for the
movement of cilia and
flagella in bacteria,
contract muscles,
generate electricity in
nerves, and even light fireflies.

ATP transports chemical for cells within energy metabolism. It stores energy ADP
within its chemical bonds and diffuses throughout the cell, transporting the energy
to the place where the energy is needed. Energy is usually liberated from the ATP
when It is broken down, removing one of the phosphate-oxygen groups, leaving
adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

Key Points in the ATP-ADP Cycle

1. Energy is stored from the breakdown of food molecules. The phosphate bonds in
ATP are very helpful for storing energy.

2. Energy that is released during breakdown of chemical bonds linking the

phosphate groups in ATP is used by the cells to do their functions.

3. The used up energy, the ADP has a reduced amount of chemical energy than
ATP.

4. In making ATP, energy that is released during chemical processes and series of
reaction are used to bond a phosphate group to ADP.

Unlike glycogen and fats, adenosine triphosphate is a short-term energy-storage

molecule. Each cell approximately contains about one billion ATP molecules. This
amount is enough for that cell's needs for only a few minutes and must be rapidly

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recycled. For instance, without rapid conversion of ATP in the cells, a marathon
runner will only last a short distance.

ATP is linked to a process known as coupled reactions. It means the two reactions
occur at the same time and at the same place, usually utilizing the same enzyme
complex. All chemical reactions either give off (exothermic) or take in
(endothermic) energy. In a coupled reaction, an exothermic reaction supplies the
energy needed to drive an endothermic reaction. For example in plants, by the aid
of sunlight (exothermic reaction), high-energy glucose molecules are synthesized
(endothermic reaction) from carbon dioxide and water.

The exothermic and endothermic processes of coupled reactions happen in

various places within a cell, so there are some means to transfer the energy from
exothermic reactions that give off energy to the endothermic reactions that need
it. In coupled reactions, energy is transferred from one site to another by energy-
carrier molecules such as ATP. The release of phosphate from ATP is exothermic and
the reaction it is connected to is endothermic. The terminal phosphate group is then
transferred by hydrolysis to another compound, a process called phosphorylation,
producing ADP, phosphate and energy. If this is uncoupled, the energy merely
transforms into heat. Since it is coupled, the energy can be used to fuel other
processes like in the case of ATP-ADP reaction to a certain protein, the energy can
be used to modify the shape of that protein.

Photosynthesis
All cells need energy to live and survive. The sun is the ultimate source of energy to
the earth. Almost all of the organisms derive their energies from sunlight but the only
organisms which have the ability to directly trap this energy source are those that
perform photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process where light energy is
converted into a form of chemical energy that can be stored and used later on. It
is derived from two words: photo meaning light and synthesis meaning putting
together. It is a major process in synthesizing ATP.

The net process of photosynthesis is summarized by the formula:

6CO2 + 6H20 + Light Energy = C6H1206 + 602

This formula simply means that carbon dioxide from the air and water combine in
the presence of sunlight to form sugars; oxygen is released as a by-product of this
reaction.

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Photosynthesis in plants
happens within an enclosed
double-membrane structure
known as chloroplasts
contained within leaf cells.
Leaf surfaces are flattened to
have a larger surface area
exposed in the sun, and are
only few cells thick in order for
sunlight to penetrate and
reach the light-trapping
chloroplasts inside, thus
increasing the
photosynthetic activity.

The upper and the lower

surfaces of a leaf are made
up of a single-cell transparent layer called epidermis that serves as boundary
between the plant and the external environment. The walls of the epidermal cells
contain cutin, and are covered with a cuticle. The cuticle is a transparent and waxy
covering that reduces water loss to the atmosphere.

The chloroplast contains a semi-fluid medium, the stroma. It is made up of mixture

of enzymes and water. Embedded in the stroma is a complex network of stacked
sacs. Each stack is known as granum. A granum consists of disk-shaped,
interconnected membranous sacs known as thylakoids.

Photosynthetic organs of plants always contain assortment of pigments. Each

pigment absorbs only certain rays of light. One of the most commonly known
pigments is chlorophyll which makes the plant green. Chlorophyll absorbs certain
wavelengths of light within the visible light spectrum. Green light is not absorbed
but reflected making the plant appear green.

Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts of plants. There are three types chlorophyll:
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and chlorophyll c. Chlorophyll a is present in all
photosynthetic plants including red, brown, and blue-green algae except in
photosynthetic bacteria. It plays an active role in photosynthesis functioning as
photoenzyme. It also makes photosynthesis possible, by passing its energized
electrons on to molecules which will manufacture sugars. No plant was found to be
capable of photosynthesis without the presence of chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll b is
an accessory pigment and acts indirectly in photosynthesis by transferring light it
absorbs to chlorophyll-a. It is present in higher plants and green algae. Chlorophyll

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c is found in certain marine algae, including the photosynthetic chromista (ex.

diatoms, brown algae) and dinoflagellates.

Carotenoids or tetraterpenoids are plant pigments responsible for bright red, yellow
and orange colors in many fruits and vegetables. They help plants absorb light
energy for use in photosynthesis. It cannot transfer sunlight energy directly to the
photosynthetic pathway, but must pass their absorbed energy to chlorophyll.
Carotenoids also protect chlorophyll from photodamage. They also have an
important antioxidant function of deactivating free radicals - single oxygen atoms
that can damage cells by reacting with other molecules. There are two classes of
carotenoids: xanthophyll (which contain oxygen) and carotenes (which are purely
hydrocarbons and contain no oxygen). Carotene gives carrots their color.

Phycobilins are photosynthetic pigments efficient at absorbing red, orange, yellow,

and green light, wavelengths that are not well absorbed by chlorophyll a. They are
water soluble pigments, and are found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the
chloroplasts. They occur only in Cyanobacteria and Rhodophyta. Etymologically,
its name came from the Greek words phykos meaning alga and bilin meaning bile
pigment.

Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle

The process of photosynthesis is divided into two main groups: the '"light reactions”
which require light energy to operate and the "Calvin cycle" or also known as the
light independent reactions because they do not require sunlight to complete the
process. The first phase of the photosynthetic process is the light dependent
reaction. Here, light energy is trapped and converted into chemical energy by the
thylakoids of the chloroplasts. This process is aided by the different pigment
molecules that form clusters known as photosystems. Two photosystems work
together during light reactions: photosystem I (PS I) or also known as PS 700 because
it is most reactive to 700 nanometers wavelength of light and photosystem Il (PS I)
or otherwise called PS 680 because it reacts most in 680 nanometers light
wavelength. They are termed PS I and PS Il based on the order of their discovery;
however, the sequence in which they proceed within the light reactions is from PS
Il to PS I.

Each photosystem contains a cluster of chlorophyll and accessory pigments. The

two photosystems vary in electron transport chain located adjacent to them. The
light reactions start when photosystem ll absorbs light which excites the electrons in
the reaction center chlorophyll then captured by the primary electron acceptor.

The reaction center must have a continuous replacement for electrons that jump
out when energized by light. An enzyme associated with PS Il splits water molecules

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that allow electrons to escape and serve as replacement electrons in the reaction
center.

Once the electron is captured by a primary electron acceptor, it is passed through

the first molecule of electron transport chain in photosystem II. While the electron
moves from one electron carrier molecule to the next, its energy is being depleted.
Some of this energy is released and is used to pump hydrogen ions (H+) from stroma
to thylakoid compartment, where they will be utilized to generate ATP, in a process
known as chemiosmosis.

Energy Transfer and the Light Reactions

The electrons the
leave electron
transport system with
very low energy and
enter the reaction
center of
photosystem I where
they gain energy
when the pigments
absorb solar energy.
The excited electrons
are passed to the
primary electron
acceptor of
photosystem I and
along the electron
transport chain of PS I
until they reach nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+), also an electron
carrier. Together with the electron, NAPD+ picks up hydrogen ion from water to
become NADPH.

The products of light reactions are the energy carriers ATP and NADPH. Oxygen is
released as a by-product.

The ADP and NADPH synthesized during light reactions are dissolved in the stroma.
Here, ATP and NADPH trigger the synthesis of three-carbon sugar from carbon
dioxide in a series of reactions known as Calvin Cycle.

Calvin cycle is named after Melvin Calvin who explained in detail its steps in the
late 1940's. It is divided to three main stages:

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1. Carbon Fixation
This is the initial incorporation (fixation) of carbon into a larger organic
molecule. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme rubisco, which attaches a
carbon dioxide molecule with a ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) molecule. This
produces six-carbon molecule that quickly breaks down into 3-phosphoglycerate
molecules which is the reason why Calvin cycle is often referred as C3 pathway.
This process requires two molecules of ATP.

2. Synthesis of G3P
In this stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA molecules into
molecules of a three -carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). The two
molecules of GPA are converted into 2 molecules of phosphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL), a 3-carbon compound. PGAL İs the first stable product of photosynthesis. It
needs 2 molecules of NADPH.

3. Regeneration of RuBP
By means of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, some G3P molecules go to make
glucose, while others must be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. RuBP is
regenerated from PGAL for the process to continue. A molecule of ATP is needed
for the regeneration process. The remaining G3P molecule, which is the end
product of photosynthesis, exits the cycle.

Three turns of Calvin Cycle are necessary to produce one net gain of PGAL.
Five PGAL molecules are required to regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP. The three
turns use up 9 molecules of ATP and 6 molecules of NADPH.

PGAL is a substance used by plants to make other organic substances. An

example of these organic substances synthesized by plants is glucose. To make one
glucose molecule, a 6-carbon sugar, two molecules of PGAL are linked. This means
six turns of Calvin Cycle.

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https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Calvin_cycle

Alternate Pathways for Carbon Fixation

One usual problem that many plants encounter is the wasting of much solar energy
known as photorespiration. It is a series of reactions that start when the rubisco
enzyme adds O2 rather than CO2 to RuBP. This prevents the Calvin Cycle from
synthesizing sugar, reducing photosynthetic efficiency. Therefore, the plants lose
C02 wasting ATP and NADPH along the process.

To adapt to photorespiration, there are alternate pathways for carbon fixation

namely: C4 and CAM. In the C4 pathway, mesophyll cells capture more CO 2 using
PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate) carboxylase. PEP carboxylase (3 carbons) binds to CO 2
to make oxaloacetic acid (OAA), a four-carbon molecule. The OAA İs quickly
converted into malate (4 carbons). Malate enters bundle sheath cells and then is
broken down forming the three -carbon molecule pyruvate and releases the CO2.

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These additional steps, however, need more ATP. Using this extra ATP, C4 plants are
able to convert pyruvate back into PEP permitting the cycle to continue. A typical
example of a C4 plant is corn.

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved

in some plants as an adaptation to dry or xeric conditions. This pathway is similar to
C4. The difference is that in CAM, carbon is captured and sugar is synthesized in
the same mesophyll cells at different times of the day. Unlike many plants, CAM
plants open their stomata at night following CO2 to diffuse the mesophyll cells while
minimizing water loss. The CO2 through the aid of PEP carboxylase forms into
oxaloacetate which is converted to four-carbon acid malate and is stored in
vacuoles. At daytime, CAM plants close their stomata to reduce
evapotranspiration. During this time, the malate is transported to chloroplasts, then
broken down, forming pyruvate and releases CO2. The CO2 is fixed into sugar by
Calvin Cycle. The pyruvate is then regenerated into PEP utilizing ATP. This
metabolism was first studied in stonecrop plant Crassulaceae family. These mainly
include succulents. CACTUS is a CAM plant.

DEEPEN
Activity 2: Cerebral Enhancer

Directions: Answer the following questions/statements as concise and

meaningful as possible. Explain your answer by citing evidences.

1. Describe the role of ATP in energy coupling and transfer.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Why is the Calvin Cycle sometimes described as light-independent reactions?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

TRANSFER
EXPERIMENT TIME

Effect of Light on Photosynthetic Activity

Objective :
Count and identify the pigments present in the leaves of a plant.
Materials:
3 pieces green leaves (preferably spinach)
Alcohol
Mortar and pestle

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One piece chalk

Beaker or any container

Procedure :
Wash the leaves thoroughly.
Tear the leaves and pound them using the mortar and pestle.
Add few drops of alcohol.
Continue grinding until there is a formation of liquid in the bottom of the mortar
that contains the leaf pigments.
Decant the extract into the beaker.
Dip a chalk in the extract and allow it to sip the extract.
Observe the chalk. Do you see different colors?
Film your experiment and send it on our google classroom.

Questions:
1. How many colors did you see on the chalk? What are these colors?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Based on the color, what are the pigments present in the leaves?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. What conclusions can you draw based on the activity?
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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