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Subject: Biology

Topic: ATP- ADP Cycle

Week/ Date: Second Quarter, Week 1

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
o Describe how ATP is used in the body;
o Elaborate the role and importance of ATP; and
o Apply

Before we go to the main topics of this module which are Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration, it is important to know first the role, importance, and function of ATP.

ATP or Adenosine triphosphate is an important molecule found in all living things. Think of it as
the “energy currency” of the cell. This is what the cell needs in order to do bodily functions. An
ATP molecule consists of a five-carbon sugar or ribose, the nitrogenous base adenine, and three
phosphate groups.

If a cell needs to spend energy to accomplish a task, the ATP molecule splits off one of its three
phosphates, becoming ADP or Adenosine diphosphate (diphosphate for 2 phosphate
groups, di=2) + phosphate. The energy holding that phosphate molecule is now
released and available to do work for the cell because the bonds that connect the
phosphate have high-energy content. When the cell has extra energy, it stores that
energy by reattaching a free phosphate molecule to ADP, turning it back into ATP.
The ATP molecule is just like a rechargeable battery. When it’s fully charged, it’s ATP.
When it’s run down, it’s ADP. However, the battery doesn’t get thrown away when it’s
run down–it just gets charged up again. Thus making it a cycle.

Here’s what it looks like chemically. Each phosphate is a PO4 (oxygen has a charge of -2 and there
are 4 of them, for a total of -8, and P has a charge of +5, so the net charge on the phosphate group
is -3. If free H atoms, which are +1, get added to the O atoms that aren’t bonded to two things,
then the net charge is zero.)

ßà
ATP ADP

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Two processes convert ADP into ATP: 1)

substrate- level phosphorylation; and 2)
chemiosmosis. Phosphorylation is the
chemical attachment of phosphorous to a
molecule, usually associated with the storage
of energy in the covalent bond that is also
formed. Example is the attachment of the
third phosphate group to ADP in the
formation of the higher energy form, ATP.
Chemiosmosis is the chemical attachment of
phosphorous to a molecule, usually
associated with the storage of energy in the
covalent bond that is also formed. Example:
attachment of the third phosphate group to
ADP in the formation of the higher energy
form, ATP. Photophosphorylation is a type
of phosphorylation associated with the
formation of ATP in the photosynthesis
process.

ATP mediates energy coupling in cells. In most cases, ATP acts as a source of energy that
powers cellular work such as the synthesis of polymers from monomers, the transport of
substances across membranes against the concentration gradient, and the contraction of
muscle cells and the beating of the cilia.

References:

Evangelista, N. (2017). General Biology 1. Quezon City: C&E Publishing

Lisa Urry, Michael Cain, Jane Reece, Peter V. Minorsky, (2016). Campbell Biology, 11th
Edition

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Senior High School Program
Gen. Malvar St., Davao City 8000
Tel. Nos.: (082) 222 - 0850 to 53 Telefax: 224 - 4433

Subject: General Biology 1

Topic: Cellular Respiration

Week/ Date: Second Quarter Week 4-5

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
o differentiate aerobic from anaerobic respiration;
o explain the major features and sequence the chemical events of cellular respiration;
o distinguish major features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport system, and
chemiosmosis;
o describe reactions that produce and consume ATP; and
o explain the advantages and disadvantages of fermentation and aerobic respiration.

Activity

Study the diagram below:

Food Energy ATP Cells

1. Describe briefly the diagram.

2. Where does the energy come from?

3. What is the role of ATP?

4. Why are ATPs important?

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Tel. Nos.: (082) 222 - 0850 to 53 Telefax: 224 - 4433

Review:

Living things depend on energy. Cells in the body need energy to perform their functions.
Adenosine triphosphate or ATP provides energy for the mechanical functions of the cells. ATP
is a complex molecule that contains the nucleoside adenosine and a tail consisting of three
phosphates. ATP is composed of the purine base adenine and the ribose sugar which together form
nucleoside adenosine. The basic building blocks used to construct ATP are Carbon, hydrogen,
Oxygen, and Phosphorus.

Image source: http://loretocollegebiology.weebly.com/atp-structure--function.html

ATP is sometimes called the energy currency of cells. All organisms from the tiniest
bacteria to humans use ATP as their primary energy currency. The energy level it carries is just
sufficient for most biological reactions. It is used to build complex molecules, for the movement
of cilia and flagella in bacteria, contract muscles, generate electricity in nerves, and even light
fireflies.

ATP transports chemical energy for metabolism. It stores energy within its chemical bonds
and diffuses throughout the cell, transporting the energy to the place where the energy is needed.
Energy is usually liberated from the ATP when it is broken down, removing one of the phosphate-
oxygen groups, leaving adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

Image source: https://www.biA

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/tutorials/biological-energy-adp-atp 14
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Abstraction

Cellular Respiration

u Before energy from food can be utilized, it must be transferred to ATP in a process called
cellular respiration.

u Cellular respiration is the set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the
cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

u Cellular respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis.

Image source: https://www.britannica.com/science/cellular-respiration

u Cellular respiration can be aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Anaerobic
Presence of Oxygen Yes No
Cells that use it Most cells Mostly prokaryotes
Energy released High (36-38 ATP molecules) Lower (36-2 ATP molecules)
Reaction sites Cytoplasm, mitochondria Cytoplasm

1. Glycolysis
1. Krebs cycle 2. Fermentation
Stages involved
2. Electron Transport (Alcoholic, Lactic
Chain Acid)

u Cellular respiration begins in the cytoplasm, and ends in the mitochondria.

u Cellular respiration releases much of the energy in food to make ATP.

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3 Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain

1. Glycolysis

Image source: https://media1.shmoop.com/com/images/biology/biobook_cellresp_graphik_3

➢ Oxidation of glucose to produce of pyruvate or lactic acid and energy stored in high-
energy phosphate bonds of ATP.
➢ Literally means “splitting sugars”.
➢ Takes place in the cytoplasm and is anaerobic.
➢ Series of reactions which break the 6-carbon glucose molecule down into two 3-carbon
molecules called pyruvate.
➢ Yields 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule broken down.
➢ Yields 2 NADH per glucose molecule.

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. It is derived from the Greek word
“glycol” meaning sweet and “lysis” meaning to split apart. Literally, it means to break
down something sweet. It is a series of reactions that extracts energy from glucose (six
carbon sugar) by splitting it into two molecules of pyruvate (three-carbon molecule) with
the production of two molecules of ATP. In this process, some of the electrons from
glucose are transferred to an electron carrier molecule known as NADH. It does not need
the presence of oxygen and proceeds the same way under both aerobic and anaerobic
conditions.

After glycolysis, the ATP molecules are converted to energy while the pyruvate
molecules and the NADH enter the mitochondria.

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2. Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

➢ Also known as Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA) and is aerobic.
➢ Takes place in the mitochondrion (matrix)
➢ Named after Hans Adolf Krebs, a British biochemist
➢ Takes the 2 pyruvates (3-carbon molecules) and breaks it down producing 6 CO2, 8
NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

The pyruvate produced by glycolysis are transformed into a molecule called coenzyme A
to form acetyl coenzyme A or simply known as acetyl CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle. This
cycle was named after its discoverer, Hans Adolf Krebs, a British biochemist.

Krebs cycle is a set of reactions wherein the acetyl CoA combines with a four-carbon
molecule known as oxaloacetate. The resulting six-carbon molecule is called citrate. This is the
reason why this cycle is also called citric acid cycle. In the course of the cycle, citrate is rearranged
and oxidized. Along the process, CO2, ATP, NADH, and FADH2 are also formed.

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Since there are two molecules of acetyl CoA from one glucose molecule, there are two
rounds of Krebs cycle. Hence, the end products are four (4) ATP, 10 NADH molecules, and two
(2) FADH2 molecules. The cell ejects CO2 as waste.

3. Electron Transport Chain

➢ Aerobic and takes place in the mitochondrion (inner membrane).

➢ Electron carriers loaded with electrons and protons from the Krebs Cycle move to this
chain-like series of steps (staircase).
➢ As electrons drop down stairs, energy is released to form a total of 32 to 34 ATP (3 ATP
per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2).
➢ Oxygen waits at bottom of staircase, picks up electrons and protons and in doing so
becomes water (H20).

In this phase, the high-energy electrons within NADH and FADH2 will be passes to a set
of membrane-bound enzymes in the mitochondrion, collectively known as the electron transport
chain.
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The Electron transport chain is a series of electron carriers existing oxidized form.
Electrons pass across carrier molecules in a series of exergonic redox reactions. It comprises an
enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a
more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor. Meaning,
the first protein in the chain accepts electrons released by NADH and FADH2 then pass it on to
the next protein in the chain and to the next, and so on. As these happen, their energy is used to
pump H+ ions across the inner membrane, establishing a protein gradient. The final electron is
oxygen, the most electronegative acceptor in the chain, which then forms a water molecule with
free H+ ions. As the hydrogen ions move from high concentration to low concentration through
the ATP Synthase complex in the mitochondrion, the enzyme ATP synthase adds phosphate to
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to yield ATP. Since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy
of hydrogen oxidation, the entire process is known as oxidative phosphorylation.

Energy Tally

➢ 2 ATP for anaerobic & 36–38 ATP for aerobic

o Glycolysis 2 ATP
o Krebs Cycle 2 ATP
o Electron Transport Chain 32–34 ATP
36–38 ATP

Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation

Many organisms including human beings cannot survive without oxygen. However, there
is life even without oxygen in sewage treatment plants and in waterlogged soils. The digestive
tract has no oxygen in it. The muscle cells can produce energy even oxygen is not present. Some
unicellular organisms including yeast can breakdown carbohydrates without oxygen. Oxygen is
even poison to bacteria that causes tetanus. In the absence of oxygen, ATP is generated through
metabolic pathways that are anaerobic. It means that energy is released in the absence of oxygen.

One metabolic pathway that requires no oxygen is fermentation. In this process, electrons
from NADH reduce pyruvate. Fermentation does not make additional ATP, but it does regenerate
NAD+ to extend glycolysis so that the process can keep running and keep producing small amounts
of ATP.

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There are two types of fermentation: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation.

Yeasts are single-celled fungi that carry out alcoholic fermentation. In alcoholic
fermentation, H+ and electrons from NADH are used to convert pyruvate into ethanol and CO2.
This releases NAD+ and which accepts higher energy electrons during glycolysis. Alcoholic
fermentation produces cider from apple, wine from grapes, beer from barley, and ethanol which is
added to gasoline. Bakers utilize the alcoholic fermentation of yeast to make breads. The carbon
dioxide causes the dough to rises; the alcohol is evaporated during baking.

In Lactic acid fermentation, NADH produced during glycolysis transfers hydrogen atoms
to reduce pyruvate thereby creating NAD+ and lactic acid (lactate) as its products. This kind of
fermentation happens in human muscle cells. During strenuous exercise, your body muscles work
vigorously that your breathing cannot supply all the oxygen that the cells need. When this occurs,
glycolysis supplies its two (2) ATPs per glucose molecule. The cells use lactic acid fermentation
to regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue. If this persists, the build-up of lactic acid in
the muscles causes fatigue and soreness. Lactic acid fermentation is also the process used in the
dairy industry to make cheese, yogurt, and buttermilk.

As compared to aerobic respiration, only very little energy is extracted from glucose but it
can happen quite well under anaerobic conditions just like in quick burst of ATP energy for
muscular activity.

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Senior High School Program
Gen. Malvar St., Davao City 8000
Tel. Nos.: (082) 222 - 0850 to 53 Telefax: 224 - 4433