GKD 350

SOIL CLASSIFICATION – A Natural and

Anthropogenic System for South Africa
Mrs Leushantha Mudaly
Procedure to identify natural soils
Recommended procedure

1. Confirm that natural pedogenic weathering processes are present at the soil profile. This implies that
drastic man-induced alteration of natural pedological weathering is absent at that site.
2. Identify the diagnostic horizons sequentially from the surface over the full extent of the recommended
1.5m profile observation depth.
3. Identify the soil form by means of a Soil Form Key.
4. Identify the soil family with the Soil Family table for each soil form.
Procedure to identify natural soils
Optional additional procedures

5. Where additional diagnostic horizons have been determined (within the 1.5 m depth or where the total
profile observation depth is deeper), insert sequentially all additional diagnostic horizons after the soil
form name or code.
6. Insert any characteristic soil property qualifiers
Diagnostic horizons
Topsoil horizons

TOPSOIL
HORIZONS
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Peat Topsoil Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Contains > 20% OC in environments associated with water inundation / at least water saturation for
extended periods
ii. Inundation or saturation must be recognized by the physical presence of water or inferred through
lowland terrain positions capable of accumulating & storing water, or via wetland vegetation.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Organic Topsoil Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is a surface horizon that contains as average of 10% – 20% OC
ii. Is subjected to extended periods of water saturation expressed variously in as soil water in the surface
horizons or upper sub-surface horizon, or as rusty root channels; & has a terrain morphological position
capable of receiving regular supplies of groundwater, river water, or hillslope water.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Organic Topsoil Horizon

Ecosystem:
• These are usually associated with wetland soils.
• It should not be cultivated but may be used for subsistence farming & grazing.
• These soils play an important role in the regulation & purification of water supply.
• As part of the wetland’s ecology, it is home to a myriad of flora & fauna.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Vertic Topsoil Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has a strong structure
ii. Has a clay content of ≥ 30% throughout the horizon
iii. Has at least one of the following:
 Cracks of up to ≥ 10 mm that, in the dry state, extend upwards to the surface, or to the base of a
mechanically disturbed layer
 Clearly visible, regular occurring slickensides in some part of the horizon
 Wedge-shaped aggregates
 Self-mulching properties expressed by disintegration on exposure of large consolidated clods to fine
ped fragments
 A plasticity index (PI) ≥ 30 (using an SA Standard Casgrande cup)
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Vertic Topsoil Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These soils are inherently very fertile with extreme physical properties.
• They are resistant to fertility, chemical (pH, etc.) & physical (compaction, etc.) degradation.
• They are drought sensitive as they dry out faster & deeper than sandy soils.
Natural ecosystem
• The cracking nature of these soils controls water movement & dissolved pollutants.
• Although they have a high pH to precipitate certain heavy metals, & high CEC to adsorb cations, these
soils need to be carefully managed to be effective in pollution management.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Vertic Topsoil Horizon

Ecosystem
Urban ecosystem
• The physical activity makes these soils expensive to build on, & may result in high maintenance costs, &
possible destruction of buildings over time.
• The movement caused by wet/dry cycles reaches to a depth of about 1.5 m.
• They lift buildings, fences, pipelines, anchor poles, etc.
• Several solutions exists, varying from building on pillars to keeping the soil continually moist or dry.
• This soil material is useful for isolating refuge dumps, building cricket pitches, constructing earth dam
cores & other uses where the swelling & high CEC is advantageous.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Melanic Topsoil Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has dark colours in the dry state that both Munsell value & chroma are ≤ 3 but with the exclusion of
10YR3/3; red variants with Munsell colours of 5YR or redder are not permitted
ii. Has ≥ 4 cmol(+) of exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na) per kg clay for every 1% of OC present
iii. Has, in the moist state, a moderate or stronger blocky structure
iv. Has less than10% OC
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Melanic Topsoil Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These soils are inherently very fertile & physically active.
• They are resistant to fertility, chemical (pH, etc.) & physical (compaction, etc.) degradation.
• They are drought sensitive as they dry out faster & deeper than sandy soils.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Humic Topsoil Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Contains > 1.8% OC throughout the depth of the horizon
ii. Contains < than 4 cmol(+) of exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na) per kg clay for every 1% of OC
present
iii. Has a structure that is massive or weaker than moderate in the dry state
iv. Does not directly overlie a horizon having grey matrix colours as defined for the albic horizon, or
displaying redox morphology or having podzolic character
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Humic Topsoil Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Humic soils play an important role in rain fed agriculture.
• They generally have favourable physical, but both favourable & restrictive chemical properties.
• They can supply large amounts of N to crops, but this is not sustainable & results in humus losses.
Natural ecosystem
• These soils provide the recharge zones for hillslope seeps & wetlands.
• Very high biological activity results in high OC sequestration.
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Orthic Topsoil Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Occurs at the surface
ii. Does not qualify as a peat, organic, vertic, melanic or humic topsoil horizon although it may have been
darkened by the accumulation of humified organic matter
Diagnostic Horizons
Topsoil horizons

Horizon Critical concept(s) for identification

Peat Very high organic carbon; dark; wet.

Organic High organic carbon; dark; wet.

Vertic Moderate to strong, coarse blocky structure; dark; slickensides;

cracks.
Melanic Moderate to strong, blocky structure; dark; slickensides absent.

Humic Dark; carbon-rich; apedal to weak structure; freely drained.

Orthic None of the above; may be dark, chromic or bleached. (Does not
fit diagnostic criteria for other topsoils).
Diagnostic horizons
Subsoil horizons

SUBSOIL
HORIZONS
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gley Horizon (Formerly G Horizon)

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has prominent dark grey to light grey matrix colours variously defined as any of:
 A moist Munsell colour of hue N, G or B
Or
 A moist Munsell colour hue of 2.5Y or 5Y with chromas of ≤ 2
Or
 Must have one of the following matrix colours:
 If hue is 10YR, then a value of 4 and chromas of ≤ 2; or values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 3; or values of ≥ 6
with a chroma of 4
 If hue is 7.5YR, then values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 2; or values of ≥ 6 & chromas of ≤ 4
 If hue is 5YR, then values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 2; or values of ≥ 6 with a chroma of 3
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gley Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
ii. Has in a sandy loam & finer textured materials, an increase in silicate clay with respect to an overlying
horizon (note – when directly overlying a vertic or melanic horizon, textural differences are not
diagnostic)
OR
Has in wet pure sand & sand textured materials lacking prominent textural gradation, bluish grey
colourations, with respect to the immediate, overlying horizon where the horizon is third or deeper in the
diagnostic horizon sequence
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gley Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
iii. Lacks both a moderate or stronger ped structure or columnar structure when expressed as a colour
gradation to the ped interiors with prominent oximorphic properties
iv. Lacks moderate to strong permanent prismatic or columnar structure together with uniformly coloured
dark ped faces
v. Diffuse, irregular mottling & localization of Fe & Mn oxides is permitted, but does not meet the
requirements of a diagnostic soft plinthic horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gley Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Soils with these horizons are wetlands & should not be disturbed.
• They are not suitable for crop production because they are waterlogged.
• In semi-arid climates, it’s water (stored close to the surface) evaporates & dries out quickly.
• Crop yields are limited when there is excessive waterlogging in their root zones.
• Where soils with these horizons are under cultivation, permanent pastures are the best cropping system.
• In the winter rainfall region, drier variants are dry in summer & with ridging they are suitable for grapes
under irrigation.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gley Horizon
Ecosystem
Natural ecosystem
• These horizons are frequently the end products of fractured rock soilscape flowpaths, & serve as storage
mechanisms, as they release water slowly & supply large amounts of water to natural vegetation.
Urban ecosystem
• Soils with these horizons occur in wetlands & should not be developed.
• Large urban development projects have been stopped when it was found that the site was part of a
wetland.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Albic Horizon (Formerly E horizon)

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has, in the dry state unless otherwise specified, one or more of the following “grey” matrix colours:
 If hue is 2.5Y, then values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 2; or values of ≥ 6 & chromas of ≤ 4
 If hue is 10YR, then a value of 4 & chromas of ≤ 2; or values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 3; or values of ≥ 6 &
chromas of ≤ 4
 If hue is 7.5YR, then values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 3; or values of ≥ 6 & chromas of ≤ 4
 If hue is 5YR then values of ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 2; or values of ≥ 6 & chromas of ≤ 3; or values of ≥ 6 & a
chroma of 4 in both the dry & moist states
ii. Has, when located directly below a diagnostic topsoil horizon with a colour as defined in (i), a Munsell
colour value that is at least one unit higher than that of the overlying topsoil horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Albic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
iii. Contains < 10% discernible plinthic mottling
iv. Has single-grained, massive or weak structure
v. Has a moist consistence that is loose, friable, or slightly firm, & a dry consistence that may vary from
soft to very hard & brittle
vi. Does not effervesce with cold 10% HCl
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Albic Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Soils with these horizons are waterlogged for short periods in the peak rainy season, but generally not
long enough to limit the production of most summer cash crops.
• Agricultural machines may get bogged down in soils with E horizons when wet.
• After periods of waterlogging, these soils dry out.
• Permanent pastures can do well on soils with these horizons because they are less sensitive to
waterlogging than most cash crops, & they can benefit from the increased profile available water, by
exploiting the underlying horizon.
• Soils with these horizons are extremely prone to compaction.
• Cultivation is difficult due to hard setting when dry.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Albic Horizon
Ecosystem
Natural ecosystem
• These horizons serve as flowpaths for water draining downslope in a soilscape.
• They are important indicators of hydrological response & influence the fate of pollutants in the
landscape.
Urban ecosystem
• Soils with these horizons are not suitable for urban development, as they damage walls & foundations &
in the wet season gardens can become inaccessible.
• These are often wetland soils & should preferably be kept in their natural state.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gleyic Horizon (To account for gleying in structured materials)

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is a subsurface soil horizon with matrix colours that are not uniform throughout the horizon. The
horizon has reductimorphic properties expressed as prominent low chroma, grey to light yellow colours
as defined for the albic horizon, on external aggregate surfaces or within lithic fissures, macropores &
root channels
ii. The remaining soil matrix, ped interiors or lithic material exhibits oximorphic properties comprising
darker, & variegated yellow, brown, red or black colours with chromas two units higher than those of
the ped exteriors
iii. Has a moderate or strong structure with prominent cutans or ped surfaces
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gleyic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
iv. Remnant lithic material has undergone weathering to the extent that it is no longer hard or extremely
hard to qualify as lithic or hard rock horizon
v. High chroma colouration, located within ped interiors, has a distribution pattern related to remnant lithic
features & is insufficient to qualify as a soft or hard plinthic horizon
vi. The soil material exhibits both reductimorphic & oximorphic properties, that together with sandy loam,
sandy clay to clay texture, does not qualify as a diagnostic albic horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Yellow-Brown Apedal Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has one or more of the following “yellow” colours in the moist state unless otherwise specified:
 If hue is 2.5Y, then values of ≥ 5 or more with chromas of ≥ 6; or 2.5Y4/4 & 5/4;
 If hue is 10YR, then values of 3 to 4 & chromas of ≥ 3; or values of 5 to 6 with chromas of ≥ 6; 10YR5/4,
7/6, 7/8, 8/6 & 8/8 are permitted;
 If hue is 7.5YR, then a value of 4 with chromas of ≥ 2; or values of ≥ 5 with chromas of ≥ 4; 7.5YR3/4 &
5/4 are permitted;
 If hue is 5YR, then a value & chroma of 6 or more
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Yellow-Brown Apedal Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
ii. The colour must be substantially uniform, although some variability is permitted in the form of mottles &
concretions insufficient to qualify as a diagnostic plinthic horizon, or form darker infillings from faunal
reworking
iii. Has structure that is single-grain, massive or weak in the moist state
iv. Does not contain sufficient Ca or Ca-Mg carbonate to effervesce visibly when treated with cold 10%
HCl
v. Does not contain alluvial or aeloian stratifications
vi. Does not contain sufficient pyrophosphate extractable Fe or Al to qualify as a podzol horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Yellow-Brown Apedal Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• The deep soils are popular dryland & irrigation soils.
• They are freely drained, have homogenous bulk densities & serve as a suitable growth medium.
• Root growth, water holding & water movement is good.
• Root growth can often be improved by deep ripping.
Natural ecosystem
• These are potential recharge soils releasing excess water to the fractured rock.
• The draining water may be forced to interflow in the fractured rock.
• They saturate for short periods.
Urban ecosystem
• These soils are good for engineering structures – easy to dig & move, physically inactive & freely
drained.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Red Apedal Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has one or more of the following “red” colours in both the moist & dry states unless otherwise
specified:
 If hue is 5YR, then values of 3 to 5 & chromas of ≥ 4; or values of 3 to 4 & a chroma of 3; or values of 6
to 7 & chromas of ≥ 4 in the dry state if in the moist state the values are ≤ 5; or 5YR/3 in the dry state
only;
 If hue is 2.5YR, then values of ≥ 3 & chromas of ≥ 6; or values of 2 to 4 & a chroma of 4;
 If hue is 10R, then values of ≥ 3 & chromas of ≥ 4; or values of 3 to 4 & a chroma of 3; or 10R3/2;
 If hue is 7.5R, then values of ≥ 3 & chromas of ≥ 6; or values of 2 to 4 & a chroma of 3 to 4; or 7.5R3/2
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Red Apedal Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
ii. The colour must be substantially uniform, although variability including defined red hues is permitted. A
colour which is defined as “red” in the moist state, & “yellow” in the dry state, qualifies as a diagnostic
“red” horizon
iii. Has macrostructure that is single-grain, massive or weak in the moist state
iv. Does not contain sufficient Ca or Ca-Mg carbonate to effervesce visibly when treated with cold 10%
HCl
v. Does not contain alluvial or aeloian stratifications
vi. Does not contain sufficient pyrophosphate extractable Fe or Al to qualify as a podzol horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Red Apedal Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• The deep soils are popular for dryland cropping & irrigation.
• They have homogenous bulk densities & serve as a suitable growth medium.
• Root growth, water holding capacity & water movement is good.
• Sandy soils are sensitive to compaction by agricultural traffic, which impedes root growth.
• Amelioration with deep ripping is possible.
Natural ecosystem
• These are potential recharge soils releasing excess water to the deep subsoil & fractured rock.
• Draining water may be forced to interflow in the fractured rock.
Urban ecosystem
• Red apedal soils are good for engineering structures – easy to dig & move, physically inactive & freely
drained.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Red Structured Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has uniform red colours on ped surfaces & interiors, as defined for the red apedal horizon, extending
throughout the horizon; the red colour is the result of the relative accumulation of Fe oxides following
mineral weathering & is not a red colouration directly inherited from the parent rock
ii. Has moderate or strong structure
iii. Lacks clearly visible slickensides or wedge-shaped structural units
iv. Has a diffuse, gradual or clear transition (not abrupt) with the overlying horizon with respect to texture
&/or structure
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Red Structured Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These soils are good for cropping, as they have high water holding capacity, homogenous bulk density
& serve as a suitable root growth & water movement medium.
• They are very unlikely to saturate with water.
• They have a slightly acid to neutral pH.
Natural ecosystem
• These are potential recharge soils releasing excess water to the groundwater & water moves freely
through them.
Urban ecosystem
• Red structured soils have moderate (shrink/swell) capacity.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Soft Plinthic Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has undergone localization & accumulation of Fe & Mn oxides to give many (> 10% by volume)
randomly distributed, prominent, red &/or yellow-brown &/or black, high chroma vesicular mottles,
with/without hardening to form concretions
ii. Has redox depletions of grey colours, as defined for an albic horizon, in the matrix itself, or in a horizon
immediately below the mottled horizon
iii. Has a single-grain, massive or weak structure
iv. Has a consistency of the soil matrix that is loose to slightly firm in the moist state
v. May contain individual loose, indurate Fe & Mn concretions of gravel size that can be easily disrupted
using hand tools
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Soft Plinthic Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
vi. Does not contain sufficient pyrophosphate extractable Fe or Al to qualify as a podzol horizon
vii. In the presence of CaCO3 accumulation, the redox accumulation (in the form of Fe & Mn mottling), &
redox depletion (in the form of grey colourations), should strongly dominate the morphology. The
carbonate accumulations must therefore be of a limited extent so that the horizon does not qualify as a
carbonate horizon
viii. Fe & Mn oxide coatings of limited extent, precipitated in fissures & on the external surfaces of a soil
matrix that is dominated by partly weathering lithic materials, are excluded from a soft plinthic horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons
Soft Plinthic Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Soft plinthic horizons are good for water storage.
• In this respect they are not a hazard for root development, but are indicators of underlying impeding
layers.
• In dry, semi-arid areas, it indicates beneficial water storage against droughts, & in humid climates they
are indicative of excess water in the profile.
• As the water table lowers, plant roots penetrate into soft plinthic horizons & are able to dry it out
completely.
• These soils are termed ‘water table’ soils in the north west Free State irrespective of their depth.
• Due to a low frequency of saturation, many water table soils do not have mottling.
• When these horizons occur at a depth of between 1 & 2 m as frequently in Avalon & Bainsvlei form,
these soils are highly valued.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Soft Plinthic Horizon

Ecosystem
Natural ecosystem
• Plinthic soils indicate a very low degree of recharge to ground water.
• In semi-arid climates, they occur on flat areas, & in wetter climates in steeper slopes.
• Under natural vegetation, rainwater drained past the relatively shallow grass roots, to wet & periodically
saturate the subsoil of the deep Bainsvlei (p 106) & Avalon (p 103) soils of the dry semi-arid western
Free State.
• The water tables that developed were temporary, as the deep-rooted tree component of the natural
vegetation, rapidly depleted the deep water.
• However, in the advent of dryland cropping & removal of the trees, water tables develop.
• In wetter climates, it impairs vertical flow of drainable water, thereby promoting interflow & redox
conditions.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Plinthic Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. An indurated horizon with the dominant matrix material comprising indurated Fe of Fe/Mn
accumulations with prominent red, brown, yellow, black &/or grey colours
ii. Has a continuous sheet structure with concretionary & vesicular morphology of variable thickness &
porosity, or a near-continuous sheet of indurated Fe & Mn stones & boulders with concretionary
vesicular morphology with spaces between individual stones & boulders filled with soil material from a
contiguous horizon. These accumulations cannot be easily dislodged with hand tools
iii. Lacks significant evidence of carbonate, sulphate or silicate cementation
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Plinthic Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These are indicators of water stored in the deep subsoil, as well as a fluctuating water table in the hard
plinthic horizon itself.
• They have variable permeability.
• Water drains through most of them & plant roots also grow through those cracks, making use of the
water in the horizon.
• In the drier climates, the dryland crop production potential of relatively deep Lichtenburg (p106) &
Glencoe (p 103) soils are higher than Hutton (p 108) & Clovelly (p 104) soils.
• They can be managed as soils with the ability to develop seasonal water tables.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Plinthic Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Permeable hard plinthite horizons are good conductors for capillary rise water from a water table deeper
in the profile.
• Waterlogging restrictions are more important than drought restrictions in wetter climates.
• When occurring within the working depth of implements, they cause excessive wear & tear on the
implements.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Plinthic Horizon

Ecosystem
Natural ecosystem
• Hydrologically hard plinthic B horizons can be considered as storage mechanisms, & they do not play a
role in flowpaths.
• Water moves mainly downward by drainage/leaching & upward by capillarity.
• The subsoil saturation that occurs in them is inclined to reduce reducible substances like nitrate.
• Where water moves in the landscape, hard plinthics rarely form.
Urban ecosystem
• When occurring within 0.6 m from the soil surface, these soils may be too wet for urban development &
may require drainage.
• The constituent material of hard plinthic horizons is very stable & is used for road building where it is
thick & worthwhile excavating.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Podzol Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Occurs continuously or as mottles or as tongues (cutans on ped faces are excluded)
ii. Has in its uppermost part or at the points of accumulation in the horizon, more pyrophosphate
extractable Fe + Al than the overlying horizon & at least three of:
 More than 0.5% pyrophosphate extractable C
 More acid oxalate extractable fulvic acid than the overlying horizon
 More than 0.3% pyrophosphate extractable Fe + Al
 A ratio of [(Fe+Al)p]/[(Fe+Al)d] of 0.3 or more (where p = pyrophosphate extractable & d = dithionite
extractable)
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Podzol Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
iii. Has, at the points of accumulation, a darker colour than the overlying albic horizon or the horizon which
directly underlies the podzol horizon
iv. Lacks cementation of thin, hard layers of Fe, Fe & Mn, or Fe-organic matter of a placic pan
v. When moist, has either loose to slightly firm consistence or has hard & brittle consistence that is non-
plastic
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Podzol Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Podzols are not cultivated to a large extent.
Natural ecosystem
• Podzolic soils are integrated products & control mechanisms of the ecosystems where they occur.
• Although the formation of podzols has been widely studied, their function in the ecosystem has not.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Placic Pan Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Occurs in a podzol horizon or within 100 mm of the lower limit of a podzol horizon
ii. Is a thin, usually 2 – 10 mm thick, wavy, continuous, or discontinuous, black to dark reddish-brown
layer, roughly parallel to the soil surface, cemented by Fe, by Fe & Mn, or by an Fe-organic matter
complex, & has a hard or brittle consistence when moist
iii. Has at least two of:
 More than 0.5% pyrophosphate extractable C
 More than 1.0% pyrophosphate extractable Fe + Al
 A ratio of [(Fe+Al)p]/[(Fe+Al)d] of 0.3 or more (where p = pyrophosphate extractable & d = dithionite
extractable)
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Placic Pan Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• The placic pan limits root growth & is not widely used for agro-ecosystems.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Prismacutanic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has an abrupt transition with the overlying horizon with respect to at least two of the following three
properties:
 Texture: If the clay content of the material above the abrupt transition is < 20%, then the clay content
below it must be at least twice as high (e.g., 15% increasing abruptly to at least 30%); if the material
above the transition has more that 20% clay, the material below must show an absolute increase of at
least 20% clay (e.g., 25% increasing abruptly to at least 45%)
 Structure: At least one grade stronger than that of the overlying horizon
 Consistence: At least two grades harder or firmer than that of the overlying horizon

Note: In the case of structure & consistence, the abrupt change should take place over a very small vertical
distance to give a line along which a knife can be run. Textural requirements should be met if sampling is
done within 100 mm above & below the transition
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Prismacutanic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
ii. Has moderate or strongly developed, vertically aligned prismatic or columnar structure. A primary
blocky structure, more pronounced than the secondary prismatic structure or columnar structure, is
allowed only when the upper boundary of the horizon is abrupt
iii. Exhibits colour contrast between ped exteriors & ped interiors
iv. Lacks prominent evidence of gleying in the form of low chromas, or, if evidence of gleying (in the form
of mottling) is present, then the vertical prism or column faces have continuous coatings of uniform
dark colour
v. Does not qualify as a diagnostic gley horizon
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons
Prismacutanic Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Prismacutanic soils are not good agricultural soils.
• The horizon limits water & root penetration.
• Natural veld on them is very prone to degradation & should be managed carefully & preferably utilized
apart from other veld types.
• Families with black cutans also have signs of wetness & are wetter than the other families.
Natural ecosystem
• Prismacutanic soils are related to parent material & topography.
• Parent materials of the Karoo sedimentary rocks weather to duplex soils that occur on crests on the
landscape.
• However, prismacutanic horizons occur more typically on footslopes & toeslopes where their genesis is
linked to the hydrology of the soilscape.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons
Prismacutanic Horizon
Ecosystem
Urban ecosystem
• Prismacutanic horizons vary in physical activity.
• The sandy ones & those with thick silicans (white sand cutans) are not physically active.
• However, the clay variant is physically active.
• However, they all seem to be dispersive & & are often called sugar clay horizons because they melt
away when wet.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Pedocutanic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. A subsurface horizon that has, when directly underlying an orthic topsoil or an albic horizon, an
increase in clay, often significantly (usually meeting luvic criteria), with respect to the overlying horizon.
(When underlying a melanic topsoil or other horizon, textural differences are not diagnostic)
ii. Has moderately to strongly developed subangular or angular blocky structure in the moist state; or has
prismatic structure only when the upper boundary of the horizon to an overlying horizon is clear (not
abrupt) with respect to at least two of texture, structure or consistence
iii. Has dark brown, brown, dark yellowish brown, or red colours, often variegated
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Pedocutanic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
iv. Has clearly expressed cutanic character resulting from the illuviation of fine material manifested as
prominent clay cutans on most ped faces
v. Lacks prominent evidence of gleying in the form of low chroma colours, or evidence of mottling in the
form of high chroma yellow, red, or black colours
vi. Lacks lithic character in the form of partly weathered materials, or if lithic material is present in ped
interiors, has at least a moderately developed blocky structure with prominent clay cutans on most ped
surfaces
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Pedocutanic Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Pedocutanic soils are relatively poor agricultural soils & special practices should be applied when
cultivated with cash crops.
• Natural veld on them is also prone to degrade, & should be managed carefully & preferably utilized apart
from other veld types.
• This horizon limits permeability & root penetration to some extent. The extent of the latter varies
between difference crops; sunflower roots, for example, penetrate & ramify pretty strongly.
• Root penetration seems to be restricted only under dry conditions.
• These soils are, for example, suitable for certain crops under infield rain-water harvesting in the eastern
Free State.
• These horizons seem to be dispersive & should not be ploughed out as an impermeable crust could form
on the surface.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Neocutanic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Occurs in unconsolidated material, which has undergone intermediate pedogenic alteration to the
extent that excludes the horizon from diagnostic alluvial, or regic sand horizons
ii. Has undergone intermediate pedogenic alteration to the extent that the soil matrix is not dominated by
lithic material, although remnant hard fragments may be present
iii. Has a distinct (more than one unit difference in hue, value, or chroma) colour variegation of red, yellow,
brown, or black colours in a non-uniformly coloured matrix, & lacks evidence of gleying
iv. Has, in the moist state, a single-grain, massive or weak structure
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Neocutanic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
v. Has not undergone localization & accumulation of Fe & Mn oxides in a redox environment to give rise
to randomly distributed reddish, yellowish, brown or black mottles
vi. Does not contain sufficient Ca or Ca-Mg carbonate to effervesce visibly when treated with cold 10%
HCl
vii. Does not contain sufficient pyrophosphate extractable Fe or Al to qualify as a podzol horizon
viii. Does not contain crystalline or amorphous gypsum
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Neocutanic Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Neocutanic soils vary in suitability for the production of cash crops.
• Cases are known where they have severely affected crop production under dryland & irrigated
conditions. The cause is uncertain.
Natural ecosystem
• Neocutanic soils behave like apedal soils in the ecosystem.
Urban ecosystem
• Neocutanic soils behave like apedal soils in urban ecosystems.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Neocarbonate Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Contains sufficient Ca or Ca-Mg carbonate, intimately mixed in a mineral soil matrix, to visibly
effervesce when treated with cold 10% HCl. The soil matrix may have red, yellow-brown or brown
colouration in addition to the generally whitish colouration of carbonates
ii. Has macrostructure that is single-grain, massive or weak in the moist state
iii. Has a loose to slightly firm consistence
iv. Lacks strong coalescence of Ca or Ca-Mg carbonates to form globular or spherical type nodular
concentration of carbonates indicative of soft carbonate horizons, or induration of carbonates to form
continuous cemented concretions, larger stones or sheet structures indicative of hard carbonate
horizons. The horizon may contain isolated individual concretions
v. Contains < 5% gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
vi. Occurs in unconsolidated material which has undergone pedogenesis to the extent that textural
variations of the alluvial & regic sand horizons are absent
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Neocarbonate Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These soils only differ from their non-calcareous equivalents in their chemical characteristics associated
with the CaCO3.
• Plant availability of micronutrients & P, & reaction of N fertilizer applications, is affected by the high pH
related to CaCO3.
• CaCO3 is also a pH buffer & will resist acidification.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Neocarbonate Horizon
Ecosystem
Natural ecosystem
• These soils only differ from their non-calcareous equivalents in their chemical characteristics associated
with the CaCO3.
• That implies a high pH, a pH buffer capacity & presence of a high content of Ca, Mg & often Mn.
Urban ecosystem
• These soils only differ from their non-calcareous equivalents in their chemical characteristics associated
with the CaCO3.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Soft Carbonate Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has morphology & chemical composition that is dominated by that of Ca &/or Ca-Mg carbonates,
whether in powder form where the colour of the carbonates strongly dominates the colour of any non-
carbonate material, or in losses, nodular, honeycomb, or boulder forms
ii. The soil clay fraction, where separated from the accumulations of Ca or Ca-Mg carbonate, lacks strong
morphological evidence of gleying
iii. Has a moist consistence that is slightly firm to firm, lacking sheet-like induration
iv. May or may not contain sepeolite (with a similar morphology) as determined by the field test method
v. Lacks redox or podzolic character, ped structural development, & evidence of recent deposition
vi. Contains less than 5% gypsum
vii. Lacks dominant lithic character in the form of partly weathered lithology or hard rock fragments
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Soft Carbonate Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These horizons store a large amount of water, & farmers use these soils effectively for dryland
agriculture. Some are saline, however, & should be avoided.
Natural ecosystem
• Carbonates play a major role in the environment.
• CaCO3 is a buffer against pH changes in the soil, making calcareous soils resistant to acid rain &
acidifying fertilizers.
• CaCO3 distribution in the landscape is an indicator of the flowpaths & storage positions of water in the
landscape.
Urban ecosystem
• These soils are very stable urban soils.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Carbonate Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is a continuous indurated layer, cemented by Ca &/or Ca-Mg carbonates with fractures that have a
horizontal spacing of ≥ 10 cm & occupy < 20% by volume
ii. Has massive, vesicular or platy structure
iii. Is extremely hard when dry, or very firm to hard when moist
iv. Lacks evidence of silica cementation
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Carbonate Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• This is a limitation to plant roots & water movement.
• In irrigation schemes it limits draining of excess water.
Natural ecosystem
• Carbonates play a major role in the environment.
• CaCO3 is a buffer against pH changes in the soil, making calcareous soils resistant to acid rain &
acidifying fertilizers.
• CaCO3 distribution in the landscape is an indicator of the flowpaths & storage positions of water in
landscape hydrology.
Urban ecosystem
• These soils are very stable urban soils.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Gypsic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Has ≥ 5% gypsum
ii. Appears as powdery gypsum accumulations or as individual to weakly-cemented fine to coarse
gypsum crystal clusters distributed throughout the horizon
OR
Occurs as an indurated horizon with fractures that have an average horizontal spacing of ≥ 10 cm & occupy
< 20% by volume
iii. The indurated horizon variant has air-dried fragments that do not disperse in water & lack evidence of
silica cementation
iv. Gypsum accumulations may occur in combination of Ca or Ca-Mg carbonate accumulations
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Dorbank Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is hard to extremely hard when moist
ii. Has a reddish-brown colour
iii. Has a massive or laminated structure that is orientated parallel to the soil surface
iv. Is cemented by silica, or silica combined with sepeolite, to the extent that air-dry fragments do not
disperse if soaked only in either water or acid; will disperse if treated with hot, concentrated alkali;
when other cementing agents (mainly CaCO3) are present, alternate treatments with alkali & acid are
needed to cause dispersion
v. Fractures must have an average horizontal spacing of ≥ 10 cm & occupy < 20% by volume of the layer.
The horizon cannot be cut with a spade, even when wet
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Dorbank Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Dorbank is a limitation to plant roots & water movement.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Alluvial Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is unconsolidated soil material that commonly contains relatively fine stratifications manifested as
generally horizontal layers, caused by alluvial deposition with limited evidence of pedogenic
horizonation
ii. May contain occasional partly weathered to hard rock fragments, but lacks morphological evidence of
weathering on their external surfaces that is indicative of lithic type soil materials
iii. May show evidence of extended periods of water saturation that may be expressed as grey matrix
colours
iv. Lacks consistent continuous structural development of a moderate or stronger grade
v. Lacks oxidic apedal weathering, redox morphology or podzolic properties
vi. Lacks continuous sheet cementation of Fe or Mn oxides, carbonates, gypsum or silica
vii. is the product of natural depositional events, lacking visible evidence of industrial, settlement or other
human disturbance
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Alluvial Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Alluvium is naturally fertile because it originates from topsoils.
• In some areas, vineyards are optimally grown without adding any fertilizers.
• The layering limits root growth & it should be treated before planting perennial crops.
Natural ecosystem
• They form the riparian zone of the river & have very specific vegetation.
• The riparian zone gets water from the river & from the soilscape, & may consume large amounts of
water.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Unconsolidated Material with Wetness

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Occurs in unconsolidated soil material & contains poorly sorted soil materials, with irregular texture,
structure, consistence & colour properties, resulting mainly from colluvial, depositional or erosional
origin
ii. Has evidence of gleying in some part of the horizon that is clearly expressed as grey soil matrix colours
iii. By virtue of the colluvial, depositional, or erosional origin of the soil material, the horizon lacks the
generally uniform texture, structure & consistence properties of gley & albic horizons
iv. May contain hard to partly weathered rock fragments, but lacks morphological evidence of weathering
on their external surfaces that is indicative of lithic type soil materials
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Unconsolidated Material with Wetness

Diagnostic Criteria
v. Lacks strong evidence of horizonation that the horizon is not appreciably darkened by OM, has not
undergone weathering to have produced uniform colourations of chromatic apedal horizons, or the
localization of Fe & Mn oxides evident in plinthic horizons, or the structural development of
prismacutanic or pedocutanic horizons
vi. May contain limited accumulation of Ca or Mg carbonates or sulphates, but does not qualify as a
diagnostic carbonate horizon
vii. Lacks continuous sheet cementation of Fe or Mn oxides, carbonates, gypsum or silica
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Regic Sand Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is a recent aeolian deposit. The materials are potentially subject to continual movement
ii. Occurs in arid regions (with a Weinert Index of ≥ 5, or an Aridity Index of ≤ 0.2) as grey, red or yellow
sands which may exhibit cross-bedding
OR
occurs in semi-arid to sub-humid regions as unstable land surfaces lacking horizon differentiation &
cohesiveness, & has a collapsible structure. These land surfaces may lack permanent vegetation cover or
exhibit only sparse vegetation cover
iii. Pedogenesis is absent as a result of the aridity, recent deposition, &/or dune instability
iv. Lacks morphological evidence of the accumulation of water
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Regic Sand Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Regic sands are irrigated, but profile available water is low & infiltration rates may be too fast.
Natural ecosystem
• Regic sands are typical of deserts where they dominate the soilscape.
• The soils are wet at depth & indicate that recharge is dominant once the water escaped the evaporation
zone (about 0.2 m at the surface).
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Lithic Horizon
Diagnostic Criteria
i. Is comprised of soil irregularly located between partly weathered to hard rock fragments. The
fragments grade with depth to underlying country rock with reduced weathering &/or reduced fracture
planes
OR
A saprolite-type material that has a general organization with distinct affinities to the underlying parent rock,
& grades with increased weathering towards the surface to other defined subsoil or topsoil horizons, & with
depth & reduced weathering to the underlying country rock
ii. May contain only limited carbonate or sulphate accumulations such that the soil & rock fragments
strongly dominate the morphology
iii. Lacks morphological evidence of either oxidic apedal weathering, podzolic character, ped structural
development continuous sheet cementation of Fe or Mn, carbonates, silica or gypsum, or of recent
alluvial material deposition to the extent that these properties dominate the horizon morphology
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Lithic Horizon
Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• These soils are a poor growth medium.
• In the winter rainfall region it is used for perennial crops under irrigation.
• The soft families are suitable & can be improved with deep rip actions.
• They are not used for cropping in the summer rainfall regions.
Natural ecosystem
• A true lithic soil (with soil penetrating the fractured rock) in sedimentary rocks is indicative of recharge of
groundwater. A degree of fractured rock interflow is expected.
Urban ecosystem
• These soils are good foundations for engineering structures.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Rock Horizon

Diagnostic Criteria
i. A horizon of hard rock material exhibiting primary physical weathering without displacement of the
original country rock. The horizon may contain numerous, closely aligned fracture planes to widely
spaced fracture plans
ii. Excludes indurated pedogenic horizons (hard plinthite, placic pan, hard carbonate, hard gypsic &
dorbank)
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons

Hard Rock Horizon

Ecosystem
Agricultural ecosystem
• Hard rock is a limitation to plant roots & water movement.
Natural ecosystem
• Hard rock restricts water movement.
• When hard rock occurs under an orthic topsoil horizon at near level slope gradients, the horizon is
bleached due to periodic saturation.
Urban ecosystem
• Hard rock is not a good urban substratum.
• Although it is very stable, digging of trenches for installation of services is expensive & building of streets
is expensive as too little fill material is available.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons
Horizon Critical concept(s) for identification
Gley Grey colours (blue-grey in sands); luvic character; apedal to weak structure; little mottling; often wet.

Albic Grey colours; apedal to weak structure; few mottles (< 10%).

Gleyic Grey colours; moderate to strong structure; grey colour variation on ped exteriors.

Yellow-brown Apedal Uniform yellow and brown colouring; apedal to weak structure; non-calcareous.

Red Apedal Uniform red colouring; apedal to weak structure; non-calcareous.

Red Structured Uniform red colouring; moderate to strong structure; red cutans.

Soft Plinthic Accumulation of vesicular Fe/Mn mottles (> 10%); grey colours in or below horizon; apedal to weak
structure.
Hard Plinthic Accumulation of vesicular Fe/Mn mottles; cemented.
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons
Horizon Critical concept(s) for identification
Podzol Enriched with iron and organic matter; commonly dark. (Occurs in the Southern Cape).

Placic Pan Thin, wavy; dark; occurs in association with podzols. (Occurs in the Southern Cape).

Prismacutanic Structured; vertical prisms; abrupt transition; absence of gleying.

Pedocutanic Structured (moderate to strong); absence of gleying.

Neocutanic Apedal to weak structure; colour variegation; not gleyed; non-calcareous.

Neocarbonate Calcareous (though soil material dominates the horizon); apedal to weak structure; colour variegation; absence
of gleying.
Soft Carbonate Calcareous (carbonate material dominates the horizon, often powdery or nodular); absence of gleying; colour
variegation.
Hard Carbonate Cemented calcareous layer; usually hard to very hard; little soil present. (Occurs in semi-arid to arid areas).
Diagnostic Horizons
Subsoil horizons
Horizon Critical concept(s) for identification
Gypsic Powdery or crystalline gypsum accumulation; may be cemented. (Occurs in arid areas).

Dorbank Cemented siliceous layer; usually hard to very hard; little soil present. (Occurs in arid areas).

Alluvial Unconsolidated; apedal to weak structure; usually has fine stratifications; may contain wetness.
(Often in low-lying areas).
Unconsolidated with wetness Unconsolidated; apedal to weak structure; irregular texture varaitions; gleyed.

Regic Sand Recent Aeolian deposit; sandy; little or no structure; usually grey to red colours. (Dunes may occur).

Lithic Dominantly weathering rock material; some soil will be present.

Hard Rock Rock material; no soil; may be fractured or solid.

Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Subsoil horizons

PROPERTIES
DIAGNOSTIC FOR THE
SOIL FAMILIES
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Alluvial wetness

• Alluvial wetness is identifies via either: the presence of grey matrix colours or the physical presence of
water in the horizon.
• Grey matrix colours are the preferred criterion, & should take precedence when the horizon contains
sufficient silt plus clay that redox reactions are operative in the soil matrix.
• They are defined as for the albic horizon & must occupy ≥ 10% of the soil matrix of the alluvial horizon.
• Where quartz sand strongly dominates the horizon, the colouration of quartz particles may mask the
evidence of gleying as derived from redox chemical reactions.
• In this case, alluvial wetness should be identified by the physical presence of water.
• Alluvial wetness is recognized as a family criterion in all soil forms where the alluvial horizon is identified
as the second or third diagnostic horizon.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Albic colours expressed as grey, yellow, or red colours

• Albic horizons are primarily recognized by their light grey colours in the dry state.
• Albic horizons with defined grey colours in the both the moist & dry states have been shown to have
longer durations of water saturation.
• Conversely, many albic horizons have defined grey horizons in the dry state only, while in the moist state
they have brighter yellow colours as defined for the yellow-brown apedal horizon.
• “Yellow” albic horizons, as distinguished at the family category, will generally have shorter durations of
water when compared to their grey counterparts.
• Occasionally, “red” albic horizons with 5YR Munsell colours, are present.
• Albic horizons must thus be positively identified via the dry colours.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Base status of apedal and red structured horizons expressed as dystrophic, mesotrophic or
eutrophic horizons
• Dystrophic refers to soil that has been the product of marked leaching, such that the sum of the
exchangeable (as opposed to soluble) Ca, Mg, K & Na, expressed in cmol(+) per kg clay, is < 5.
• In mesotrophic soils, this figure is in the range of 5-15, and in eutrophic soils, the figure is greater than
15.
• It is calculated using the S-value & clay percentage as follows:
Exchangeable cations [cmol(+)kg-1 soil] x 100 ÷ % clay
• Dystrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic refer to soils with low, medium & high base status respectively.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Colour of neocutanic and neocarbonate horizons

Colour of neocutanic and neocarbonate horizons

• Brown colours refer to those defined for the yellow-brown apedal horizon, while red colours refer to
those defined for the red apedal horizon.
• The colours are defined in the dry state.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Colour of alluvial horizons

• Brown or grey colours refer to those defined for the yellow-brown apedal horizon & albic horizons
respectively, while red colours refer to those defined for the red apedal horizon.
• The colours are defined in the dry state.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Colour of regic sand horizons

• Brown, yellow or grey colours refer to those defined for the yellow-brown apedal horizon & albic horizons
respectively, while red colours refer to those defined for the red apedal horizon.
• The colours are defined in the dry state.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Colour of prismacutanic and pedocutanic horizons and occurrence of vertic properties

• Brown colours refer to those defined for the yellow-brown apedal horizon, while red/maroon colours refer
to those defined for the red apedal horizon, with darker colours being more prevalent.
• The maroon colours are those inherited from the colours of the parent rock (commonly mudstones).
• For “vertic properties” refer to vertic topsoil horizon.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Consistence of underlying material

• Consistence of material underlying podzol horizons is recognized by the pressure required to crush
moist soil between thumb & forefinger.
• Firm (or stronger) consistence requires at least moderate pressure between thumb & forefinger where
resistance is distinctly noticeable.
• Soil material with friable consistence is crushed under only gentle pressure while the soil coheres when
pressed together.
• The criterion is noted under podzol horizons & often in association with ortstein hardening.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Consistence and/or texture of gley expressed as friable consistence and/or sand or loamy
sand texture, or slightly firm consistence and/or sandy loam or firmer texture in gley
horizons
• Gley horizons are recognized primarily by their grey or blueish grey matrix colours.
• They commonly have clay contents given sandy loam or finer texture.
• This is readily identified in the field by a slightly firm or firmer consistence.
• However, to distinguish the sand or loamy sand textured gley horizons from albic horizons with similar
textures, a blueish grey colour is required for gley horizons while standard grey colours are required for
albic horizons.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Extent of decomposition of peat and organic horizons expressed as fibric, hemic or sapric
families of peat and organic horizons
Fibric organic materials
• Fibric organic materials are poorly decomposed, comprising > 2/3 identifiable plant material & < 1/3
decomposed plant material (Von Post classes H1-H3).
Hemic organic materials
• Hemic organic materials have an intermediate degree of decomposition (Von Post classes H4-H6).
Sapric organic materials
• Sapric organic materials are highly decomposed, comprising > 2/3 decomposed plant material & < 1/6
identifiable plant material (Von Post classes H7-H10).
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Extent of decomposition of peat and organic horizons expressed as fibric, hemic or sapric
families of peat and organic horizons – Table of classes of peat and organic soils
Family Criteria
Family Symbol Combined Von Post humification scale description
Fibric H1 to H3 Completely to slightly undecomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases almost
clear, yellowish to muddy water from which no peat passes between the fingers.
Plant remains are easily identifiable. No amorphous materials is present.
Hemic H4 to H6 Slightly to moderately decomposed peat which, when squeezed, releases small
amounts of very muddy, dark water or very small amounts of amorphous granular
peat with up to 1/3 of the peat escaping through the fingers. The residue is very
paste-like but shows the plant structure more distinctly than before squeezing.
Sapric H7 to H10 Highly to completely decomposed. Contains much amorphous material with very
faintly recognizable to no discernible plant structure. Any plant material
remaining in the hand consists of residues such as roots & fibres that resist
decomposition. When squeezed, about ½ of the peat escapes between then
fingers & the escaped material is completely decomposed. The water, if any is
released, is very dark & almost paste-like.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Extent of lithic weathering expressed as saprolithic, geolithic or gleylithic soil family criteria

• The saprolithic, geolithic or gleylithic definition may be recognized in all soil forms with a lithic horizon.
• It is introduced to recognize important differences in the extent of weathering of underlying parent rock.
• However, these differences in weathering are accommodated at family category rather than at form
category.
• Where the lithic horizon lies second in the diagnostic sequence, it is used in combination with the soil
form name.
• For example, an orthic over lithic horizon sequence has saprolithic Glenrosa, geolithic Glenrosa &
gleylithic Glenrosa (refer to p 128 of your books).
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Extent of lithic weathering expressed as saprolithic, geolithic or gleylithic soil family criteria

• The saprolithic, geolithic or gleylithic soil families meet all the criteria for a diagnostic lithic horizon.
• In addition, the respective families meet the following criteria:
Saprolithic family
i. A horizon that contains highly weathered material with a friable to slightly hard consistence lacking the
hardness of the original rock, but with distinct affinities in respect of crystalline structure & recognizable
remnant morphology of the underlying parent rock.
ii. A horizon that grades through a clear or gradual transition with reduced weathering downward into
increasingly poorly weathered & eventually fresh parent rock, & with increasing weathering intensity
upward into a defined surface or subsurface horizon.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Extent of lithic weathering expressed as saprolithic, geolithic or gleylithic soil family criteria

Geolithic family
i. A horizon that contains soil material as (a) illuvial infillings between partly weathered or fractured rock
material, usually with colour & texture properties resembling that of the overlying horizon, or (b) as
prominent tongues with colour variegations, localization of clay, Fe & Mn oxides, & OM in a generally
hard, non-homogenous matrix of the underlying geologic material.
ii. A horizon lacking gleyed properties.
Gleylithic family
i. A horizon that contains soil material as (a) illuvial infillings between partly weathered or fractured rock
material, usually with colour & texture properties resembling that of the overlying horizon, or (b) as
prominent tongues with colour variegations, localization of clay, Fe & Mn oxides, & OM in a generally
hard, non-homogenous matrix of the underlying geologic material.
ii. A horizon with gleyed properties.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Extent of rock weathering expressed as fractured rock or solid rock family criteria

• Fractured rock & solid rock character may be recognized in all soil forms with a hard rock horizon.
• In this sense, it is similar to that of the saprolithic, geolithic or geylithic character present in lithic
horizons.
• Where the hard rock horizon lies second in the diagnostic sequence it is used in combination with the
soil form name.
• For example, An orthic over hard rock horizon sequence has fractured rock Mispah & solid rock Mispah
soil families (refer to p128 of your book).
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of black cutans on ped faces expressed as continuous black cutans in
prismacutanic subsoil horizons
• Prismacutanic horizons in the Estcourt form (p 99) which have continuous black cutans on vertical ped
faces are distinguished from those which do not have such black cutans.
• The presence of black cutans is usually an indication of a wetter soil climate.
• Free lime is then usually absent in the horizon immediately below the prismacutanic, which normally
shows signs of gleying.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of gleying in or below a podzol horizon

• The occurrence of gleying is identified by the presence of grey matrix colours, as defined for the albic
horizon, in or below the podzol horizon.
• Yellow-brown or reddish colours indicate the absence of gleying in these horizons.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of lamellae

• The occurrence of lamellae in albic horizons of Fernwood form (p 101) is expressed as wavy,
horizontally-orientated layers, in vertical section often branched, which, relative to the surrounding soil,
are enriched in one or more of aluminosilicate clays, sesquioxides & OM.
• When present, the first lamellae in a profile usually occur within 400 mm to 1000 mm of the soil surface.
• In the upper part of the profile, lamellae are thin (a few mm thick), becoming thicker with depth &
eventually, at greater depth, thinner.
• They are not the boundaries between depositional layers.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of lime

• The occurrence of lime (calcareousness) criterion is recognized in a horizon if it contains, in some part,
sufficient Ca carbonates or Ca-Mg carbonate to effervesce visibly when treated with cold 10% HCl.
• The calcareous criterion is recognized in vertic, melanic, orthic, gley, red structured, prismacutanic,
pedocutanic & alluvial horizons.
• The calcareous criterion is not recognized in the neocarbonate, soft carbonate or hardpan carbonate
horizons where it forms part of the diagnostic horizon definition.
• Calcareous character is present in most gypsic horizons & is not recognized as an additional
differentiating criterion.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of lime and sepiolite

• When lime & sepiolite occur in combination in a single horizon, refer to occurrence of lime (above) &
occurrence of sepiolite (next).
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of sepiolite

• Sepiolite is easily confused with calcareous material & variable ratios of sepiolite & calcareous
components may occur.
• It occurs under arid & semi-arid conditions, generally at a Weinert N value > 5 & Aridity index < 0.2.
• The diagnostic criteria are:
i. Has ≥ 10% sepiolite
ii. Occurs as weakly cemented, fine to coarse aggregates distributed throughout the horizon, as thin
laminar layers or as massive layers up to several metres thick; or at the centre of calcrete nodules &
concretions
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of sepiolite

• In the field, sepiolite is initially identified in semi-arid to arid environments by its white to yellow colours.
• However, accumulations may be easily mistaken for Ca or Ca/Mg carbonate accumulations.
• They are initially distinguished by the lack of effervescence when tested with dilute HCl.
• In the dry state, sepiolite adheres to the tongue.
• However, when wet, the tongue test is not applicable because the extreme absorption capacity of the
sepiolite is neutralized by the presence of water.

• Accurate laboratory analysis, using electron microscopy or X-ray diffraction, is essential for the positive
identification of sepiolite, as the microfibers are not visible to the naked eye.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of ortstein hardening

• Ortstein occurs in or below podzol horizons in various forms.

• It occurs either as a horizontal, cemented layer where root penetration is restricted, as irregular columns
that are les restrictive to root penetration, or as cemented nodules.
• Ortstein is recognized as a diagnostic family criterion where it occurs in or below a podzol horizon,
occurs in a layer that is at least 50% cemented, & is greater than 25mm thick.
• It is differentiated from a placic pan that is less than 25 mm thick.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Occurrence of vertic properties

• Vertic properties in prismacutanic & pedocutanic horizons are recognized at family level when the
plasticity index is equal to, or exceeds 30 PI units.
• A confirmed laboratory analysis is essential.
• However, strong structure (distinct visible peds), the occurrence of many cutans (> 50% of surface), &
coarse cracking (10-25 mm) in the dry state may assist in the identification.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Textural contrast of apedal, soft plinthic, neocutanic & neocarbonate horizons expressed as
aluvic and luvic subsoils
• A soil has a luvic subsoil:
i. Where any part of the topsoil or albic horizon has ≤ 15% clay; the underlying luvic horizon must contain
at least 5% more clay than the topsoil or albic horizon, or
ii. Where the topsoil or albic horizon has > 15% clay, the clay percentage of the underlying luvic horizon
must be more than 1.3 times that of the topsoil or albic horizon.
• Luvic character is recognized in the soil form with a yellow-brown apedal, red apedal, neocutanic or
neocarbonate horizon.
• Prominent luvic character is implicit in the definitions of the prismacutanic & pedocutanic diagnostic
horizons & is recognized via the diagnostic horizons for these soil forms.
• The absence of such character is indicated by the term “aluvic”.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Thickness of humic horizon expressed as thin or thick humic horizons

• Thin humic horizons are < 450 mm thick.

• This humic horizons are at least 450 mm thick, though they are commonly significantly thicker.
• In either case, the horizon must still meet the other criteria diagnostic for humic horizons.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Topsoil colour expressed as dark, chromic or bleached orthic topsoil horizons

• Dark, chromic & bleached character is a feature of orthic topsoil horizons.

• Accumulation, & hence darkening of orthic topsoils, is an integral part in the recognition of all orthic
topsoils by virtue of their position as a surface horizon.
• Pronounced accumulation of humified organic matter &/or prominent darkening are diagnostic criteria for
the peat, organic, vertic, melanic & humic horizons.
• It occurs in response to the diverse pedogenic processes responsible for their formation.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Topsoil colour expressed as dark, chromic or bleached orthic topsoil horizons

• Dark and bleached topsoils are apparent in profiles sampled from most soil forms, although the
mechanism for their pedogenesis is not yet fully understood.
• Dark orthic horizons commonly have higher values of OC (> 1.5% OC) when compared to their chromic
or bleached counterparts.
• However, a strong correlation between dark orthic horizons & OC is absent, in that dark colours with
relatively low OC values (< 1.0% OC) have been recorded.
• Dark coloured orthic horizons are identified by Munsell soil colours with values ≤ 4 & chromas of ≤ 2.
• Bleached orthic topsoils have Munsell colours with values ≥ 5 & chromas of ≤ 3, as defined for the albic
horizon.
• Chromic orthic horizons have Munsell colours with values ≤ 4 & chromas of ≥ 3, as defined for the
yellow-brown apedal & red apedal horizons.
• Dark, chromic & bleached families are introduced in orthic topsoils overlying a range of subsoil horizons
to better accommodate known variants.
Properties Diagnostic for the Soil Families
Topsoil colour expressed as dark or red colours in vertic horizons

• Dark colours (black, dark grey, dark brown and very dark brown) have, in the moist state, values ≤ 4 &
chromas of ≤ 2.
• Red colours have hues of 5YR or redder.