FORM 1 INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE

SCIENCE IS PART OF EVERYDAY LIFE

1.Today we can travel very far within a short time by jet planes. we can communicate with people overseas through the telephone and by e-mail. we can cure many diseases and transplant organs from person to person. This progress has been made possible by science and scientists. 2. Science is the study of natural phenomena.

Examples (a) Science studies what happens in our surroundings and why they happen. (b) Science studies the growth of a human being from the time it is formed in the mother's womb until it is an adult. (c) Science studies why a ball falls to the ground. 3. A scientist uses his knowledge on science to solve problems, to discover and invent new mankind. things help

4. Science is always expanding because we have and inquisitive mind which is always asking questions and trying to find answers to them. 5. However, science has limits and cannot answer all questions or solve all problems. For example, scientists cannot cure all diseases and cannot prevent volcanic eruptions or earthquakes.

NATURAL PHENOMENA

1. Natural phenomena are incidents that take place on their own in our natural surroundings. 2. Natural phenomena take place all the time involving living things and non-living things. 3. Examples of natural phenomena include: a) earthquakes b) volcanic eruptions c) monsoons d) eclipses of the moon and the sun e) formation of rainbow f) formation of seeds and fruits g) freezing of water and melting of ice h) germination of seeds

j) birth of babies and their growth i) turtles returning to the shore a lay eggs. 4. Scientists get a lot of knowledge by studying these natural phenomena. 5. As a result of their work, we are now able to understand and control some of these phenomena for our benefit. 6. For example, we are able to invent machines for predicting earthquakes, we are able to understand and cure many diseases and we are able to control rivers and use their water to produce electricity.

USES AND BENEFITS OF SCIENCE

Science has made great contributions towards mankind. As a result we are able to live more comfortably and longer. 1. Science help us to solve problems. Science has helped us to supply water to our paddy fields by irrigation. We are able to control plant pests and so produce more food. 2. Science help us to make things quickly. With the help of machines invented by scientists, we are able to make things very quickly in large quantities. 3. Science helps us to make our work easier. Machines make our work easier. A tractor can plough a large paddy field in a short time. This saves us a lot of time and work. 4. Science helps us to enjoy our leisure. The television and the computer games have made our leisure more enjoyable. The motorcar enables us to take our family members for joy rides whenever we are free. 5. Science makes communications easy. Information can now be relayed through telephones, computers, discs and satellites. 6. Science help us to maintain good health. With the discovery of more drugs we are now able to live healthily. Advance in surgery has even made the transfer of organs from person to person possible. We can expect to live much longer than our forefathers. Science involves the study o many things. It can be divided into many branches so that each branch deals with the study of particular things an offers different careers.

IMPORTANT OF SCIENCE

1. Science is very important to us. Through science we get to know and understand the and ourselves.

enviroment

2. Science is a way of thinking that can bring answers to the problems we face. 3. Science enables us to develop new technologies 4. Technology is the application of science knowledge for our needs. Technology can helps daily lives and improve our standard of living. us in our

STEP IN A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

The desire to understand arises from what happens in our sorroundings. Questions like the following may be asked. a) Why do frogs live in water and on land? b) Why do coconut trees grow in sandy areas?

1. A hypothesis is a proposal of thought (idea or prediction). Hypotheses are possible explanations for the phenomena that we observe. 2. A hypothesis that is accepted after going through experiments can become a theory and if the hypothesis is rejected a new hypothesis has to be formed. Example: - A problem is: Why do iron nails left out in the open rust quickly? -Hypothesis formed: Water is necessary for iron to rust. 3. Observe whether a hypothesis can be tested. If it cannot be tested then it cannot be formed as a hypothesis.

STEP IN A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

1. An investigation is planned after a hypothesis has been formed. While planning an experiment, it is necessary for you to follow some guidelines. 2. At the beginning, you need to list the material and apparatus required to carry out the experiment and the way the material and apparatus are to be set up. 3. Besides this, you need to know the way to collect, analyse and interpret data. Determine if a table or a graph is required.

1. Variables are situations or factors that can change in an investigation. Examples of variables are time, mass, temperature and the amount of substances used.

2. In a scientific investigation one variable is manipulated to study its relationship with a responding variable (dependent variable). At the same time, other variables are kept constant. 3. Three types of variables are shown below. a) A variable that is kept constant This variable is kept constant or fixed in a scientific investigation. b) A variable that is manipulated This variable is used to test a hypothesis. c) A variable that responds A change in this variable is determined by the variable that is manipulated. This variable is of data collected from the investigation carried out when testing a hypothesis. Example Hypothesis: Water is necessary for the rusting of iron nails. the result

FORM 2 . THE WORLD THROUGH OUR SENSES

SENSORY ORGANS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 1. Sensory organs are used to detect every changes in the environment. (a) Sensory organs are possessed by human and all animals. (b) Sensory organs allow the body to respond to the stimuli surroundings. Stimuli from the surroundings. Stimuli are changes that happen in the environment. (c) Sensory organs have receptors that receive the stimuli and then, send them as impulses to the brain to be analysed. The brain will then, give a response through the related effectors. Examples of effectors are muscles and glands.

2. The sensory organs found in humans are the skin, eyes, nose, ears and tongue.

The Skin and the Sense of Touch

1. The skin is the outermost layer of the human body which covers and protects the human body.

2. The skin is a sensory organs which is sensitive to touch.

3. The human skin sonsists of two layers: (a) The epidermis layer which consists of dead cells and acts as a protector. (b) The dermis layer consists of living cells, blood vessels, nerves and sweat glands. The dermis also has receptors which are sensitive to head, cold, contact (touch) and pressure.

4. Receptors are the ends of the nerves which are very sensitive to stimuli.

5. Each receptor is connected to a nerve. When stimulated, it sends a nerve signal known as an impluse to the brain to be interpreted.

6. Pain receptors are the closest to the skin surface. This is followed by touch receptors, heat receptors and cold receptors. Pressure receptors lie deep down in the adipose tissue beneath the dermis layer.

7. Different parts of the skin have different levels and sensitivity. The skin sensitivity depends on: (a) The depth of receptors in the skin. The palms of our hands, the lips and the neck are more than the soles of our feet. (b) How close together the receptors are. The parts of the skin which have receptors close to one another are more sensitive. sensitve

FORM 3 REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1.

Reproduction is a process that takes place in living organisms in order to perpetuate their respective species.

2.

There are two types of reproduction, i.e.: (a) (b) sexual reproduction asexual reproduction

A. Sexual reproduction 1. Sexual reproduction is a process of producing a new individual through the fusion of one male reproductive cell (male gamete) with one female reproductive cell (female gamete).

2.

During sexual reproduction, the nucleus of both the male and female reproductive cell fuse through fertilisation and a zygote is produced. This zygote will develop to form a new individual.

3.

Organisms that carry out sexual reproduction include humans, all vertebrate animals, insects and most flowering plants.

4.

The new individual produced possesses characteristics that are different from the parents.

B. 1.

Fertilisation Fertilisation is a fusion process between a male gamete and a female gamete to produce a zygote.

2.

There are two types of fertilisation, i.e.: (a) (b) internal fertilisation external fertilisation

3.

Characteristic of internal fertilisation: (a) (b) it takes place in the body of the female animal the male animal puts the male reproductive cell into the female reproductive system for fertilisation to take place

(c)

internal fertilisation takes place in mammals, reptiles, birds and insects

4.

Characteristics of external fertilisation: (a) (b) it takes place outside the body of the female animal ovum and sperm are produced respectively by the female and male animal at the same time into water for fertilisation to take place (c) external fertilisation takes place in fish, frogs and toads

5.

Disadvantages of external fertilisation are: (a) (b) (c) (d) a lot of reproductive cells need to be produced a lot of reproductive cells die before fertilisation occurs a lot of ovum and sperms are wasted, as they are washed away by water the zygote or embryo produced may be eaten by other animals

6.

In internal fertilisation, the male animal puts the male gamete into the body of the female animal. This raises the chance for fertilisation to take place.

C.

Asexual reproduction

1.

Asexual reproduction only involves one individual organism without involving reproductive cells.

2.

Asexual reproduction is carried out by some plants and lower stage animals only.

3.

The new individual formed will have exactly the same characteristics as its parent.

4.

There are five types of asexual reproduction, i.e.: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) binary fission budding spore formation vegetative reproduction rejuvenation

5.

The advantage of asexual reproduction is that a new organism can be produced from only one parent.

6.

The disadvantage of asexual reproduction is that the new organism produced has the same characteristics as its parent, including characteristics that are undesirable.

Binary fission

1.

In binary fission, an organism divides into two to form two organisms.

2.

Binary fission occurs in most univellular organisms such as bacteria, amoeba, paramecium and algae.

3.

Multicellular organisms like spirogyra in the algae class also reproduce by binary fission.

Budding

1.

Organisms like yeast and hydra reproduce by budding.

2.

The parent organism forms a bud on its body. This bud will detach itself to become a new organism.

Spore formation 1. Asexual reproduction by forming spores occurs in most nonflowering plants like ferns, mushrooms, moss and mould (mucor).

2.

The spores are produced in the sporangium of the plant. When matured, the sporangium will break and release the spores.

3.

Under suitable conditions, these spores will germinate and become new plants.

Vegetative reproduction

1.

In vegetative reproduction, the new plant grows from a particular part of the parent plant like the stem and leaf.

2.

Some flowering plants like the bryophyllum, tapioca and yam trees reproduce by vegetative reproduction.

3.

Vegetative reproduction does not involve seeds.

Rejuvenation (Regeneration)

1.

Some organisms like the starfish and the planarian ( a type of flatworm) reproduce by rejuvenation.

2.

A part of the organism that breaks and detaches from the parent will develop into a new individual.

3.

For example, when a planarian is cut into two in the middle, the fornt part will grow again to produce the back part. Conversely, the bak part will produce a head. As a result, two planarians is produced.

4.

Animals like lizards, crabs and lobsters also practise rejuvenation as the following: (a) If a lizard's tail drops off when grasped by a predator, the severed tail will move to distract the predator to enable the lizard to make its escape (b) The claw or leg of a crab and lobster will drop off when grasped by a predator to enable then to escape. The missing limb will be replaced by another that grows in its place

5.

The importance or rejuvenation to an organism include: (a) (b) to produce new tissues to replace tissues that are lost or damaged to escape from its predator