PRESSURE CONTROL APPLICATIONS

CONTENTS

 Pressure Control Applications

 Temperature Control Applications

 Level Control Applications

 Control Installations

BACK TO LEARN ABOUT STEAM

PRESSURE CONTROL APPLICATIONS

There are many good reasons for reducing (and sometimes maintaining) steam pressure. This tutorial
details common applications for direct operating, pilot operated, pneumatic, electric and
electropneumatic pressure control systems, including the advantages and disadvantages of each
different control method.

Direct operating, self-acting pressure reducing valve – bellows type

Description

With this self-acting type of pressure controller, the downstream (control) pressure is balanced (via a
bellows) against a spring force.

Advantages:

 Inexpensive.

 Small.

 Easy to install

 Very robust, giving long life with minimum maintenance.

 Tolerant of imperfect steam conditions.

 Self-acting principle means that no external power is required.

Disadvantages:

 Proportional only control.

 Proportional band is 30% to 40% of the upstream pressure.

 Wide proportional band means that maximum flow is only achieved when the downstream
pressure has dropped considerably. This means that the reduced pressure will vary depending
on flowrate.

 Limited in size
  Limited flowrate.

 Variation in upstream pressure will result in variation in downstream pressure.

Applications:

Non-critical, moderate load applications with constant running flowrates, for example:

 Small jacketed pans.

 Tracer lines.

 Ironers.

 Small tanks.

 Acid baths.

 Small storage calorifiers.

 Unit heaters.

 Small heater batteries.

 OEM equipment.

Points to note:

1. Different versions for steam, compressed air, and water.

2. Soft seat versions may be available for use on gases.

3. A wide range of body materials means that particular standards, applications and preferences
can be satisfied.

4. A wide proportional band means care is needed if the safety valve needs to be set close to the
working pressure.
Direct operating, self-acting pressure reducing valve – diaphragm type

With this self-acting type of pressure controller, the downstream (control) pressure is balanced (via a
diaphragm) against a spring force.

Advantages:

 Very robust.

 Tolerant to wet and dirty steam.

 Available in large sizes, so high flowrates are possible.

 Easy to set and adjust.

 Simple design means easy maintenance.

 Self-acting principle means that no external power is required.

 Able to handle pressure drops of 50:1 in small sizes, and 10:1 in large sizes.

Disadvantage:

 Large proportional band means that close control of downstream pressure is improbable with
large changes in load.

 Relatively high purchase cost, but lifetime cost is low.

 Bulky.

Application:

 Distribution mains.

 Boiler houses.

Points to note:

1. Because the diaphragm is subject to fairly low temperature limitations, a water seal is required
on steam applications. This adds to the cost slightly.

2. Because of the large proportional band, this type of valve is better suited to reducing steam
pressure to plant areas rather than individual plant items.

3. A bellows sealed stem ensures zero maintenance and zero emissions.

4. Although wide proportional band provides stability, care is needed if a safety valve needs to be
set close to the apparatus working pressure.

5. Suitable for liquid applications.

6. More expensive than a pilot operated valve, but less expensive than a pneumatic control system.
Pilot operated, self-acting pressure reducing valve

Description

These have a more complex self-acting design, and operate by sensing the downstream pressure via a
pilot valve, which in turn operates the main valve.

The effect is a very narrow proportional band, typically less than 200 kPa.

This, together with low hysterisis, results in very tight and repeatable control of pressure, even
with widely varying flowrates.

Advantages:

 Accurate and consistent pressure control, even at high and variable flowrates.

 A variety of pilot valves may be used on one main valve. Pilot valve options include electrical
override, multi-pilot for a choice of control pressures, a surplussing option and remote control,
as well as different temperature/pressure control combinations.

 Self-acting principle means that no external power is required.

 Tolerant of varying upstream pressure.

Disadvantages:

 More expensive than bellows operated direct acting controls.

 Small clearances mean that steam must be clean and dry to ensure longevity, but this can be
achieved by fitting a strainer and separator before the pressure reducing valve.

Application:

 A system which requires accurate and consistent pressure control, and installations which have
variable and medium flowrates. For example: autoclaves, highly rated plant such as heat
exchangers and calorifiers.

 A system where installation space is limited.

Points to note:
 1. Installation must include a strainer and separator.

2. Size for size, pilot operated valves are more expensive than bellows type self-acting controls, but
cheaper than diaphragm type self-acting controls.

3. Size for size, they have higher capacity than bellows type self-acting controls, but less than
diaphragm type self-acting controls.

4. Can be installed before temperature control valves to maintain a constant upstream pressure,
and hence stabilise control.

5. Not suitable for liquid applications.

6. Do not use if the plant is subject to vibration, or other equipment is causing pulses in flow.

Pressure reduction – pneumatic

Description

These control systems may include:

 P + I + D functions to improve accuracy under varying load conditions.

 Set point(s), which may be remotely adjusted.

Advantages:

 Very accurate and flexible.

 No limit on valve size within the limits of the valve range.

 Acceptable 50:1 flow rangeability (typically for a globe control valve).

 Suitable for hazardous environments.

 No electrical supply required.

  Fast operation means they respond well to rapid changes in demand.

 Very powerful actuation being able to cope with high differential pressures across the valve.

Disadvantages:

 More expensive than self-acting controls.

 More complex than self-acting controls.

 Not directly programmable.

Application:

A system which requires accurate and consistent pressure control, and installations which have variable
and high flowrates and/or variable or high upstream pressure. For example: autoclaves, highly rated
plant such as large heat exchangers and calorifiers.

Points to note:

1. A clean, dry air supply is required.

2. A skilled workforce is required to install the equipment, and instrument personnel are required
for calibration and commissioning.

3. The control is ‘stand-alone’, and cannot communicate with PLCs (Programmable Logic
Controllers).

4. The failure mode can be important. For example, a spring-to-close on air failure is normal on
steam systems.
Pressure reduction – electropneumatic

Description

These control systems may include:

 P + I + D functions to improve accuracy under varying load conditions.

 Set point(s) which may be remotely adjusted, with the possibility of ramps between set points.

Advantages:

 Very accurate and flexible.

 Remote adjustment and read-out.

 No limit on valve size within the limits of the valve range.

 Acceptable 50:1 flow rangeability (typically for a globe control valve).

 Fast operation – rapid response to changes in demand.

 Very powerful actuation being able to cope with high differential pressures across the valve.
Disadvantages:

 More expensive than self-acting or pneumatic controls.

 More complex than self-acting or pneumatic controls.

 Electrical control signal required. Costly for hazardous areas.

Application:

A system which requires accurate and consistent pressure control, and installations which have variable
and high flowrates and/or variable or high upstream pressure, including autoclaves, highly rated plant
such as large heat exchangers and calorifiers, and main plant pressure reducing stations.

Points to note:

1. A clean, dry air supply is required.

2. A skilled workforce is required to install the equipment, and instrument personnel are required
for calibration and commissioning.

3. Can be part of a sophisticated control system involving PLCs, chart recorders and SCADA systems.

4. Always consider the failure mode, for example, spring-to-close on air failure is normal on steam
systems.

Pressure reduction – electric

Description

These control systems may include:

 P + I + D functions to improve accuracy under varying load conditions.

 Set point(s), which may be remotely adjusted.

Advantages:

 Both controller and valve actuator can communicate with a PLC.

 No compressed air supply is required.

Disadvantages:

 If a spring return actuator is required, the available shut-off pressure may be limited.

 Relatively slow actuator speed, so only suitable for applications where the load changes slowly.

Application:

 Slow opening/warm-up systems with a ramp and dwell controller.

 Pressure control of large autoclaves.

 Pressure reduction supplying large steam distribution systems.

Points to note:

1. Safety: If electrical power is lost the valve position cannot change unless a spring return actuator
is used.

2. Spring return actuators are expensive and bulky, with limited shut-off capability.

Pressure reduction (other possibilities) – Parallel pressure reducing stations

Description
Pressure reducing stations may be configured as shown below for one of two reasons:

1. The valves are serving a critical application for which downtime is unacceptable. The equipment
is operated on a ‘one in operation, one on stand-by’ basis to cover for breakdown
and maintenance situations

2. The turndown ratio between the maximum and minimum flowrates is very high. The equipment
is operated on a pressure sequence principle with one valve set at the ideal downstream
pressure, and the other at a slightly lower pressure. When demand is at a maximum, both valves
operate; when flow is reduced, the valve set at the lower pressure shuts off first, leaving the
second valve to control.

Points to note:

The valves selected for this type of application will require narrow proportional bands (such as pilot
operated pressure reducing valves or electropneumatic control systems) to avoid the downstream
pressure dropping too much at high flow rates.

Pressure reduction (other possibilities) – Series pressure reducing stations

A pressure reducing station may be configured in this manner if the ratio between the upstream and
downstream pressure is very high, and the control systems selected have a low turndown ability. 10:1 is
recommended as a practical maximum pressure ratio for this type of reducing valve.

Consider the need to drop pressure from 25 bar g to 1 bar g. The primary reducing valve might reduce
pressure from 25 bar g to 5 bar g, which constitutes a pressure ratio of 5:1. The secondary reducing valve
would drop pressure from 5 bar g to 1 bar g, also 5:1. Both valves in series provide a pressure
ratio of 25:1.

It is important to check the allowable pressure turndown ratio on the selected reducing valve, this may
be 10:1 on a self-acting valve, but can be much higher on electrically or pneumatically operated valves.
Be aware that high pressure drops might have a tendency to create high noise levels. Refer to Module
6.4 for further details.

The trapping point between the two reducing valves (Figure 8.1.8) is to stop a build up of condensate
under no-load conditions. If this were not fitted, radiation losses would cause condensate to fill the
connecting pipe, which would cause waterhammer the next time the load increased.

Desuperheaters

Desuperheating is the process by which superheated steam is either restored to its saturated state, or its
superheated temperature is reduced. Further coverage of desuperheaters is given in Block 15.

The system in Figure 8.1.9 illustrates an arrangement of a pressure reducing station with a direct contact
type pipeline desuperheater.

In its basic form, good quality water (typically condensate) is directed into the superheated steam flow,
removing heat from the steam, causing a drop in the steam temperature.
It is impractical to reduce the steam temperature to its saturated value, as the control system is unable
to differentiate between saturated steam and wet steam at the same temperature.

Because of this, the temperature is always controlled at a value higher than the relevant saturation
temperature, usually at 5°C to 10°C above saturation.

For most applications, the basic system as shown in Figure 8.1.9 will work well. As the downstream
pressure is maintained at a constant value by the pressure control loop, the set value on the
temperature controller does not need to vary; it simply needs to be set at a temperature slightly above
the corresponding saturation temperature.

However, sometimes a more complex control system is required, and is shown in Figure 8.1.10. Should
there be a transient change in the superheated steam supply pressure, or a change in the water supply
temperature, the required water/steam flow ratio will also need to change.

A change in the water/steam flow ratio will also be required if the downstream pressure changes, as is
sometimes the case with certain industrial processes.

The system shown in Figure 8.1.10 works by having the pressure controller set at the required
downstream pressure and operating the steam pressure control valve accordingly.

The 4-20 mA signal from the pressure transmitter is relayed to the pressure controller and the saturation
temperature computer, from which the computer continuously calculates the saturation temperature for
the downstream pressure, and transmits a 4-20 mA output signal to the temperature controller in
relation to this temperature.

The temperature controller is configured to accept the 4-20 mA signal from the computer to determine
its set point at 5°C to 10°C above saturation. In this way, if the downstream pressure varies due to any of
the reasons mentioned above, the temperature set point will also automatically vary. This will maintain
the correct water/steam ratio under all load or downstream pressure conditions.

Controlling pressure to control temperature

Description

These are applications which utilise the predictable relationship between saturated steam pressure
and its temperature.

Advantages:

 The pressure sensor may be located in the steam space, or close to the control valve rather than
in the process medium itself. This is an advantage where it is difficult to measure the process
temperature.

 This arrangement can be used to control a number of different elements from a single point.

Disadvantage:

 Control is ‘open loop’, in that the sensor is not measuring the actual product temperature.

Applications:

 Autoclaves and sterilisers

 Presses and calenders

 Constant pressure plant, for example, jacketed pans, unit heaters, and steam-jacketed pipes.

Points to note:

 Good air venting is essential (refer to Module 11.12 for further details)
Differential pressure control

Description
In these applications the control valve will open and close to maintain a set differential pressure
between two points.

Advantages:

 A constant differential steam pressure is maintained in the system.

 The differential pressure ensures that condensate is actively purged from the heat exchange
system. This is particularly important where accumulated condensate could act as a heat barrier,
and create a temperature gradient across the heat transfer surface. This temperature gradient
could, in turn, result in a distorted or poorly heated product.

 Different operating temperatures can be achieved.

Disadvantage:

 A complex system is required if efficiency is to be maintained. This might involve flash vessels
and/or thermo-compressors, as well as downstream applications which use the lower
pressure pass-out steam.

Application:

 Blow-through drying rolls in a paper mill.

Points to note:

A special controller or differential pressure transmitter is required to accept two inputs; one from the
primary steam supply and the other from the flash vessel. In this way, the pressure differential between
the flash vessel and the primary steam supply is maintained under all load conditions.
Surplussing control

Description

The objective is to maintain the pressure upstream of the control valve. Surplussing valves are discussed
in further detail in Module 7.3, ’Self-acting pressure controls and applications’.

Application:

 Boilers on plants where the load can change by a large proportion over a very short period. The
sudden reduction in boiler pressure may result in increased turbulence and rapid flashing of the
boiler water, and large quantities of water being carried over into the pipework system.

 Accumulators where surplus boiler output is used to heat a mass of water under pressure. This
stored energy is then released when the boiler has insufficient capacity.

Points to note:

1. Minimum pressure drop is usually required over the fully open control valve; this may mean a
‘line size’ valve is needed.

2. Not all self-acting controls are suitable for this application and it is important to consult the
manufacturer before use.
Cascade control-Limiting pressure and temperature with one valve

Description

Where it is necessary to control two variables with one valve it is necessary to employ two separate
controllers and sensors. It is always the case that the control valve accepts its control signal from
the slave controller.

The slave controller is configured to accept two input signals, and its set point will change (within
defined limits) depending on the electrical output signal from the master controller.

This form of control is very important where the pressure to the apparatus must be limited, despite
the heat demand.

Application:

The steam heated plate heat exchanger shown in Figure 8.1.19 is heating water circulating in a
secondary system. The heat exchanger has a maximum working pressure, consequently this is limited to
that value in the slave controller.
In order to control the secondary water temperature, a master controller and temperature transmitter
monitors the heat exchanger outflow temperature and sends a 4-20 mA signal to the slave controller,
which is used to vary the slave set point, between pre-determined limits.

Points to note:

1. An adequate pressure margin must exist between the set pressure of the safety valve and the
pressure limitation imposed by the controller.

2. The safety valve must not be used as a device to limit pressure in the heat exchanger; it must
only be used as a safety device.

Cascade control – Combined pressure reduction and surplussing with one valve

Description

The objective is to reduce steam pressure but not at the expense of overloading
the available supply capacity.

Application:

The upstream pipework is a high-pressure distribution pipe possibly from a distribution manifold or
steam boiler supplying plant of a non-essential nature (Figure 8.1.20). Should the demand be higher than
the supply capacity, the valve closes and throttles the steam flow, maintaining the
pressure in the upstream pipework.

The master controller is set at the normal expected supply pressure. If the master detects a drop in
upstream pressure below its set value (due to an increase in demand) it reduces the set point in the
slave controller, in proportion to pre-determined limits.

The slave closes the valve until the steam demand falls to allow the upstream pressure to re-establish to
the required value. When this is achieved, the set point of the slave controller is set at its original value.
Typical settings

The output from the master controller is direct acting, that is, when the upstream pressure is at or above
its proportional band, the master’s output signal is maximum at 20 mA; when at the bottom of, or below
the proportional band, the control signal is minimum at 4 mA.

When the control signal is 20 mA, the slave set point is the required downstream pressure; when the
signal is 4 mA, the slave set point is at a pre-determined minimum.

Consider the ‘normal’ upstream pressure to be 10 bar g, and the maximum allowable downstream
pressure to be 5 bar g. The minimum allowable upstream pressure is 8.5 bar g, which means that if this
pressure is reached the valve is fully shut. The minimum reduced pressure is set at 4.6 bar g.

These conditions are recorded in Table 8.1.1

Cascade control – Limiting and controlling temperature with one valve

Description

The main objective is to limit and regulate the temperature to a particular process, where steam is the
available heat source but it cannot be used directly to heat the final product for operational reasons.

Application:
A typical application is a dairy cream pasteuriser requiring a pasteurisation temperature of 50°C. Because
of the low control temperature, if steam were applied directly to the pasteurisation heat exchanger, it is
possible that the relatively large amount of heat in the steam would make control difficult, causing the
system temperatures to oscillate, overheating and spoiling the cream.

To overcome this problem, the system in Figure 8.1.21 shows two heat exchangers. The pasteuriser is
heated by hot water supplied from the primary steam heated heat exchanger.

However, even with this arrangement, if only the master controller operated the valve, a time lag would
be introduced into the system, and poor control might again be the result.

Two controllers are therefore used, working in cascade, each receiving a 4-20 mA signal from their
respective temperature transmitters.

The slave controller is used to control the final temperature of the product within clearly defined limits
(perhaps between 49°C and 51°C). These values are altered by the master controller relative to the
product temperature such that, if the product temperature increases, the slave set point reduces
in proportion.
TOP OF THE PAGE

NEXT - TEMPERATURE CONTROL APPLICATIONS

Products

 Boilerhouse

 Clean Steam Solutions

 Compressed Air Products

 Condensate Pumps

 Control Systems

 Flowmetering

 Heat Transfer Solutions

 Humidification Products

 Isolation Valves

 Pipeline Ancillaries

 Steam Traps

Industries

 Food and Beverage

 Brewing and distilling

 Hospitals

 OEM

 Oil and gas

 Pharmaceutical

Services

 Audits for plant optimisation

 Installation and commissioning

 Repair and maintenance

 Steam quality testing

 Steam trap survey

About Spirax Sarco

 About
  Contact head office

 Spirax Group

 Privacy Policy

 Legal Notice

 Cookie Notice

International Page Change Location

© 2024 Spirax Sarco Limited. All Rights Reserved.

  ABOUT US

 LEARN ABOUT STEAM

 RESOURCES AND DESIGN TOOLS

 CAREERS

 CONTACT HEAD OFFICE

 GLOBAL LOCATIONS

SEARCH Search

Looking for Spirax Sarco products and services?

SELECT YOUR LOCATION

CONTROL APPLICATIONS

LEARN ABOUT STEAM /

LEVEL CONTROL APPLICATIONS

CONTENTS

 Pressure Control Applications

 Temperature Control Applications

 Level Control Applications

 Control Installations

BACK TO LEARN ABOUT STEAM

LEVEL CONTROL APPLICATIONS

A range of level control systems and methods are used in industry. Systems may be based on the use of
floats, probes or even more sophisticated technology. This tutorial studies the use of probes to provide
adjustable & non-adjustable on/off control, and modulating control of liquids. Simple flow control
applications are also considered.

The control of liquid levels, for example in a process tank, is an important function. An example would be
a hot water tank where water is removed, perhaps for washing down, and the level needs to be restored
ready for the next wash cycle.
Control of water level and alarms for steam boilers is specifically excluded from this Module, and the
reader is referred to Block 3 (The Boiler House), which deals with the subject in depth.

Many different types of level control systems are used in industry, covering a wide range of processes.
Some processes will be concerned with media other than liquids, such as dry powders and chemical
feedstock. The range of media is so wide that no single instrument is suitable forall applications.

Many systems are available to serve this wide range of applications. The following list is not exhaustive
but, in most cases, the final control signal will be used to operate pumps or valves appropriate to the
application:

Float operated types – a float rises and falls according to the change in liquid level and operates
switches at predetermined points in the range.

Solid probe types – these measure conductivity or capacitance and are discussed in more detail in the
following pages.

Steel rope capacitance types – a flexible steel rope is suspended in the liquid, and the change in
capacitance is measured relative to the change in water level.

Ultrasonic types – a high frequency acoustic pulse is directed down from a transducer to the surface of
the medium being measured and, by knowing the temperature and speed of sound in air, the time it
takes for the pulse to rebound to the sensor is used to determine the level.

Microwave radar types – similar in principle to the ultrasonic type but using high frequency
electromagnetic energy instead of acoustic energy.

Hydrostatic types – a pressure transmitter is used to measure the pressure difference between the
confined hydrostatic pressure of the liquid head above the sensor and the outside atmospheric pressure.
Changes in pressure are converted into a 4-20 mA output signal relative to the head difference.

Differential pressure types – similar to hydrostatic but used where the application being measured is
subjected to dynamic pressure in addition to static pressure. They are capable of measuring small
changes in pressure in relation to the output signal range. Typical applications might be to measure the
level of water in a boiler steam drum, or the level of condensate in a reboiler condensate pocket.

Magnetic types – a float or cone is able to rise and fall along a stainless steel probe held in the tank fluid
being measured. The float can interact magnetically with switches on the outside of the tank which send
back information to the controller.

Torsion types – a moving float spindle produces a change in torsion, measured by a torsion transducer.

It is important that the level control system is correct for the application, and that expert advice is sought
from the manufacturer before selection.

It is not within the scope of this Module to discuss the pros and cons and potential applications of all the
above control types, as the types of level control systems usually employed in the steam and condensate
loop and its associated applications are float and solid probe types. The operation of float types is fairly
self-explanatory, but conductivity and capacitance probes may require some explanation. Because of
this, this section will mainly focus on conductivity and capacitance probetype level controls.
Methods of achieving level control

There are three main methods of achieving level control:

 Non-adjustable on/off level control.

 Adjustable on/off level control.

 Modulating level control.

Non-adjustable on/off level control (Figure 8.3.1)

The final control element may be a pump which is switched on/off or a valve which is opened/closed.

Two main types of on/off level control systems are usually encountered; float operated types and types
using conductivity probes. Float type level controls either rely upon the direct movement of a control
valve, or upon electrical switches being operated by a float moving on the surface of the liquid.
Conductivity probes (see Figure 8.3.1) may have several probe tips; the control points being located
where the separate tips have been cut to different lengths.

Adjustable on/off level control (Figure 8.3.2)

Again, the final control element may be a pump which is switched on/off or a valve which is
opened/closed. One method used to adjust the control points is that of a capacitance probe (see Figure
8.3.2). The probe will monitor the level, with control points adjusted by the controller. Capacitance
probes are not cut to length to achieve the required level and, of course, the whole probe length must
be sufficient for the complete control range.

Modulating level control (Figure 8.3.2)

The final control element may be a valve that is adjusted to a point between fully open and fully closed,
as a function of the level being monitored. Modulating level control cannot be achieved using a
conductivity probe. Capacitance probes are ideal for this purpose (see Figure 8.3.2).
In systems of this type, the pump can run continuously, and the valve will permit appropriate quantities
of liquid to pass. Alternatively, the final control element may be a variable speed drive on a pump. The
speed of the drive may be adjusted over a selected range.

Alarms – are often required to warn of either:

 A high alarm where there is a danger of the tank overflowing and hot liquid being spilled, with
the attendant danger to personnel.

 A low alarm where there is a danger of the tank water level becoming too low, with the potential
to damage a pump drawing from the tank, or running out of liquid for the process.

Installation of floats and probes in turbulent conditions

In some tanks and vessels, turbulent conditions may exist, which can result in erratic and
unrepresentative signals. If such conditions are likely to (or already) exist, it is recommended that floats
or probes be installed within protection tubes. These have a dampening effect on the water level being
sensed. The rest of this Module concerns itself with probes rather than floats for level control
applications.

Non-adjustable on/off level control

Description
Non-adjustable on/off level control uses a conductivity probe connected to an electronic controller. The
probe typically has three or four tips, each of which is cut to length during installation to achieve the
required switching or alarm level (see Figure 8.3.3).

 When the tip of the probe is immersed in liquid it uses the relatively high conductivity of the
water to complete an electrical circuit via the tank metalwork and the controller.

 When the water level drops below the tip, the circuit resistance increases considerably,
indicating to the controller that the tip is not immersed in the liquid.

 In the case of a simple ‘pumping in’ system with on/off level control:

- The valve is opened when the tank water level falls below the end of a tip.

- The valve is closed when the water level rises to contact another tip.

- Other tips may be used to activate low or high alarms.

Advantage:

A simple but accurate and relatively inexpensive method of level control.

Applications:

The system can be used for liquids with conductivities of 1 μS/cm or more, and is suitable for condensate
tanks, feedwater tanks and process vats or vessels. Where the conductivity falls below this level it is
recommended that capacitance based level controls are used.

Point to note:
If the tank is constructed from a non-conductive material, the electrical circuit may be achieved via
another probe tip.

Adjustable on/off level control

Description

An adjustable on/off level control system consists of a controller and a capacitance probe (see Figure
8.3.4), and provides:

 Valve open/closed control plus one alarm point.

 Alternatively two alarms - high and low.

The levels at which the valve operates can be adjusted through the controller functions.

Advantage:

Adjustable on/off level control allows the level settings to be altered without shutting down the process.

Disadvantage:

More expensive than non-adjustable on/off control.

Applications:

Can be used for most liquids, including those with low conductivities.
Point to note:

Can be used in situations where the liquid surface is turbulent, and the in-built electronics can be
adjusted to prevent rapid on/off cycling of the pump (or valve).

Modulating level control

Description

A modulating level control system consists of a capacitance probe and appropriate controller, which
provides a modulating output signal, typically 4-20 mA. Refer to Figure 8.3.5. This output signal may be
used to affect a variety of devices including:

 Modulating a control valve.

 Operating a variable speed pump drive.

Advantage:

1. Because the probe and controller only provide a signal to which other devices respond, rather
than providing the power to operate a device, there is no limit on the size of the application.

2. Steady control of level within the tank.

Disadvantage:
 1. More expensive than a conductivity probe system.

2. More complex than a conductivity probe system.

3. Supply system must be permanently charged.

4. Less suitable for ‘stand-by’ operation.

5. Possibly greater electricity consumption.

Point to note:

To protect the supply pump from overheating when pumping against a closed modulating valve, a re-
circulation or spill back line is provided to ensure a minimum flowrate through the pump (neither shown
in Figure 8.3.5).

Steam flow control applications

The control of steam flow is less common than pressure and temperature control, but it is used in
applications where the control of pressure or temperature is not possible or not appropriate to achieving
the process objectives. The following sections give more information on measuring and controlling the
flow of steam.

Flow control system

Typical applications:

1. Feed-forward systems on boiler plant, where the rate of steam flow from the boiler will influence
other control points, for example: feedwater make-up rate, and burner firing rate.
 2. Rehydration processes, where a measured quantity of steam (water) is injected into a product,
which has been dried for transportation or storage. Examples of this can be found in the
tobacco, coffee and animal feedstuff industries.

3. Batch processes, where it is known from experience that a measured quantity of steam will
produce the desired result on the product.

The selection and application of components used to control flowrate require careful thought.

The flowmeter (pipeline transducer)

The flowmeter is a pipeline transducer, which converts flow into a measurable signal. The most
commonly used pipeline transducer is likely to relate flow to differential pressure. This pressure signal is
received by another transducer (typically a standard DP (differential pressure) transmitter) converting
differential pressure into an electrical signal. Some pipeline transducers are capable of converting
flowrate directly to an electrical signal without the need for a DP transmitter.

Figure 8.3.6 shows a variable area flowmeter and standard DP transmitter relating differential pressure
measured across the flowmeter into a 4 - 20 mA electrical signal. The standard DP transmitter is
calibrated to operate at a certain upstream pressure; if this pressure changes, the output signal will not
represent the flow accurately. One way to overcome this problem is to provide a pressure (or
temperature) signal if the medium is saturated steam, or a pressure and temperature signal if the fluid is
superheated steam, as explained in the next Section. Another way is to use a mass flow DP transmitter,
which automatically compensates for pressure changes.

The possible need for a computer

If steam is the fluid in the pipeline, then other temperature and/or pressure sensors may be necessary to
provide signals to compensate for variations in the supply pressure, as shown in Figure 8.3.7.
Multiple inputs will mean that an additional flow computer (or PLC) containing a set of electronic steam
tables must process the signals from each of these flow, pressure and temperature sensors to allow
accurate measurement of saturated or superheated steam.

If a flow computer is not readily available to compensate for changes in upstream pressure, it may be
possible to provide a constant pressure; perhaps by using an upstream control valve, to give stable and
accurate pressure control (not shown in Figure 8.3.7).

The purpose of this pressure control valve is to provide a stable (rather than reduced) pressure, but it
will inherently introduce a pressure drop to the supply pipe.

A separator placed before any steam flowmetering station to protect the flowmeter from wet steam will
also protect the pressure control valve from wiredrawing.

Using a mass flow DP transmitter

By using a mass flow DP transmitter instead of a standard DP transmitter, the need for a computer to
provide accurate measurement is not required, as shown in Figure 8.3.8.

This is because the mass flow transmitter carries its own set of steam tables and can compensate for any
changes in saturated steam supply pressure.
However, a computer can still be used, if other important flowmetering information is required, such as,
the times of maximum or minimum load, or is there is a need to integrate flow over a
certain time period.

A controller is still required if flowrate is to be controlled, whichever system is used.

The controller

Even if the output signal from the DP transmitter or computer is of a type that the control valve actuator
can accept, a controller will still be required (as for any other type of control system) for
the following reasons:

1. The output signal from certain flowmeters/computers has a long time repeat interval
(approximately 3 seconds), which will give enough information for a chart recorder to operate
successfully, but may not offer enough response for a control valve. This means that if the
controller or PLC to which the transmitter signal is being supplied operates at higher speeds,
then the process can become unstable.

2. PID functions are not available without a controller.

3. Selecting a set point would not be possible without a controller.

4. The signal needs calibrating to the valve travel - the effects of using either a greatly oversized or
undersized valve without calibration, can easily cause problems.

Summary
It is usually better to install the flowmetering device upstream of the flow control valve. The higher
pressure will minimise its size and allow it to be more cost effective. It is also likely that the flowmeter
will be subjected to a more constant steam pressure (and density) and will be less affected by turbulence
from the downstream flow control valve.

In some cases, the application may be required to control at a constant flowrate. This means that
features, such as high turndown ratios, are not important, and orifice plate flowmeters are appropriate.

If the flowrate is to be varied by large amounts, however, then ‘turndown‘ becomes an issue that must
be considered.

The subject of Flowmetering is discussed in greater depth in Block 4.