Lab Manual

11/14/2019
Instrumentation and Control

Submitted By: RAO KALEEM SATTAR

Registration #: 2016-Ch-714

Subject : Instrumentation & Control

Submitted To: Sir Sabiah Qamar

Semester : 7th

MNS UET MULTAN

Table of contents:
Experiment # Experiment Title
1 Demonstration on Pressure Control Demonstration Unit.

2 P-control via software-Verification of residual offset.

3 PI control via software.

4 PI control via software-Effects of a disturbance.

5 PID control via software-Effects of a disturbance.

6 Demonstration on Temperature Control Demonstration Unit.

7 To ascertain the properties and response of the control system underlying

the unit using P-Controller.

8 To control the cold-water temperature using PI-Controller.

9 To ascertain whether the differential component can further accelerate the

Controller's response and improve control performance using PID
Controller.

10 Demonstration on Basic Process Rig.

11 Demonstration on Dead Weight Calibrator.

1
 Experiment # 01
Objective:
Demonstration Pressure Control and Regulation unit

Theory:

Introduction:

Pressure Controllers are high-precision instruments which can sense very low pressures. When
set pressure is attained, the controller sends out an electric or pneumatic proportional signal (or
“on-off” signal), which is relayed to a control valve that can be set to open, close, or modulate
to a flow rate proportional to the signal .Compared to other quantities such as the level or the
temperature the pressure varies as a function of the regulating signal unit makes it possible to
analyses the behavior of a control loop where the controlled quantity is the pressure of the air
in a tank. Pressure control is one of the main problems encountered in factory automation and
process control. In a very quick way. This makes the problem of choosing the most suitable
control technique very interesting. Students can examine the effects of the different control
parameters on the performance of the control chain and on the stability of the system;
furthermore, they can become familiar with the components commonly adopted in modern
industrial applications, as the system is entirely made of industrial quality components. With
this trainer, all the tests can be performed through a Personal Computer and a special software
for Windows.

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Equipment’s Description:

Pressure gauge:

Pressure measurement is the analysis of an applied force by a fluid on a surface.

Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many
techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.

Buffer Tank:

A buffer tank is a storage tank used on the cold user side of an air-conditioning system.
The tank is used as storage to cover peak loads or in situations when a surge in demand exceeds
the capacity of the cooling system. A buffer tank is a storage tank used on the cold user side of
an air-conditioning system.

I/P Converter:

A “current to pressure” converter (I/P) converts an analog signal (4 to 20

mA) to a proportional linear pneumatic output (3 to 15 psig). Its purpose
is to translate the analog output from a control system into a precise,
repeatable pressure value to control pneumatic actuators/operators,
pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes, etc.

Control panel:

Control panel is a flat, often vertical, area where control or monitoring instruments are
displayed or it is an enclosed unit that is the part of a system that users can access, such as the
control panel of a security system (also called control unit).

Safety valve:

A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe. An example of safety valve is a pressure relief
valve, which automatically releases a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system,
when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits.

Pneumatic control valve:

Pneumatic systems like hydraulic system also require control valves to direct and regulate the
flow of fluid from the compressor to the various devices like air actuators and air motors.

3
Pressure and flow rates of the compressed air to be controlled to obtain the desired level of
force and speed of air actuators.

Solenoid valve:

It is an electrically activated valve, typically used to control the flow or direction of air or liquid
in fluid power systems. Solenoid valves are used in both pneumatic and hydraulic fluid power
systems, and most often in either poppet or spool configurations.

Control and Monitoring Software:

The Control and Monitoring Software, running in the MS-Windows environment, makes it
possible to perform PID type digital control via software. Control parameters can be set
independently and in real time and so can the characteristics of the Set-Point and disturbance
signals. The software makes it possible to observe the process in real time by displaying on
screen the diagram of the controlled quantity, the actuating signal, the Set-Point signal and the
disturbance signal as a function of time. This can be printed at any time, whilst the samples of
the signals and the control parameters can be saved in a file, in ASCII format, or printed out. It
is also possible to use the software only to observe the process, using an external regulator (e.g.
the optional MiniReg). In this case, it is possible to transmit the Set-Point to the regulator via
software.

PID Controller:

A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to regulate

temperature, flow, pressure, speed and other process variables. PID (proportional integral
derivative) controllers use a control loop feedback mechanism to control process variables and
are the most accurate and stable controller. PID control is a well-established way of driving a
system towards a target position or level. PID control uses closed-loop control feedback to keep
the actual output from a process as close to the target or set point output as possible.

4
Process Diagram:

1. Compressed air inlet.

2. Pressure gauge for auxiliary tank input air.
3. Manual regulator for I/P converter input air.
4. Pressure gauge for I/P converter input air.
5. Safety pressure reducer for auxiliary tank.
6. Pressure gauge for main tank.
7. Pressure / Current transducer.
8. Optional MiniReg electronic regulator.
9. Electrical equipment.
10. Personal Computer (not included).
11. Current / Pressure converter.
12. Actuating pressure gauge.
13. Proportional pneumatic valve.
14. Manual valve to introduce the disturbance.
15. Valve for disturbance flow-rate manual adjustment.
16. Solenoid valve to introduce the disturbance.
17. Main tank.
18. Manual valve for main tank input air.
19. Auxiliary buffer tank.
20. Manual regulator for auxiliary tank input air.

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21. Actuating signal.
22. Controlled variable signal.
23. Disturbance signal.

Pressure Control Applications:

 There are many reasons for reducing steam pressure:

 Steam boilers are usually designed to work at high pressures in order to reduce their
physical size. Operating them at lower pressures can result in reduced output and
‘carryover’ of boiler water. It is, therefore, usual to generate steam at higher pressure.
 Steam at high pressure has a relatively higher density, which means that a pipe of a
given size can carry a greater mass of steam at high pressure, than at low pressure. It is
usually preferable to distribute steam at high pressure as this allows smaller pipes to be
used throughout most of the distribution system.
 Lower condensing pressures at the point of use tend to save energy. Reduced pressure
will lower the temperature of the downstream pipework and reduce standing losses, and
also reduce the amount of flash steam generated when condensate from drain traps is
discharging into vented condensate collecting tanks.
 It is worth noting that if condensate is continuously dumped to waste, perhaps because
of the risk of contamination, less energy will be lost if the condensing pressure is lower.
 Because steam pressure and temperature are related, control of pressure can be used to
control temperature in some processes. This fact is recognized in the control of
sterilizers and autoclaves, and is also used to control surface temperatures on contact
dryers, such as those found in papermaking and corrugator machines. Pressure control
is also the basis of temperature control in heat exchangers.
 For the same heating duty, a heat exchanger designed to operate on low-pressure steam
will be larger than one designed to be used on high-pressure steam.
 The construction of plant means that each item has a maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP). If this is lower than the maximum possible steam supply pressure,
the pressure must be reduced so that the safe working pressure of the downstream
system is not exceeded.
 Many plants use steam at different pressures. A ‘stage’ system where high-pressure
condensate from one process is flashed to steam for use in another part of the process
is usually employed to save energy.

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Process Description:
 The process simulator can be connected to a PC with the aid of a suitable A/D and DA
 Conversion board. The control action is achieved in one of the following ways:
 By means of an electronic controller (e.g., the optional MiniReg electronic controller)
 Through the pneumatic control module MSRR (optional)
 . By means of the CRS (Control Regulation Software, and a Personal Computer
 The air coming from the main line and suitably subjected to a reduction in pressure by
means
 Of reducer is introduced into the auxiliary tank. From tank, which serves as a buffer,
the air is
 Conveyed into the main tank through manual valve. From tank the air can be released
via a
 channel which is controlled manually with the aid of valve or through a channel which
is
 Controlled by means of proportional valve. The proportional opening of valve makes it
possible
 To control the pressure applied by the air contained in the main tank to the interior
walls. Work
 on solenoid valve to have the air flow out via a supplementary channel, whose is flow
can be
 Adjusted manually by means of valve. Measuring instruments and give the values of
the
 pressure controlling the proportional pneumatic valve (i.e, the control signal) and the
pressure
 in tank (i.e. the controlled variable), respectively.
 Control Board:
 The control board of the CRP performs the following functions:
 •
 It powers all the electrical components of the unit
 It performs the conditioning of the electric signals to and from the NI (National
 Instrument) conversion board, so as to adapt the board's inputs/outputs to the
 Inputs/outputs of the transducers and actuators equipping the unit
 Supplies a number of control switches and selectors:
 Supplies a number of test points to let the user check out the most important
 Electric signals by means of an oscilloscopes.

Apparatus:
Pressure Control Demonstration Unit.

Procedure:

 Main switch on, to produced air in tank by compressor.

 Air pressure check by the pressure gauge which connected on top of tank.

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 Main valve open, air enter from it.
 Passing through the reducer valve to the auxiliary tank.
 Air from Auxiliary tank (Buffer tank) to the main tank.
 Safety valve on the buffer tank.
 Main air can manually control by valve.
 The outflow of air from the main tank is adjusted by a proportional pneumatic valve.
 By working on 8Proportional Integral Derivative type, and is achieved by comparing
the signal corresponding to the actual flow rate (Y) with a Set-Point signal selected by
the user.
 As a function of the control logic, the regulator generates an actuating signal (X) that,
converted into a pressure signal by means of the I/P.
 Converter acts on the pneumatic valve modifies the output flow rate from the main tank.
 Furthermore, the Personal Computer can control the disturbance flow rate by generating
a signal (n) which acts on the solenoid valve.
 The electrical equipment includes the controls for the main electrical components of
the unit, an AD/DA 8conversion board to interface with the Personal Computer through
the USB.
 Port, a digital indicator to display the instantaneous pressure value in the main tank.

8
 Experiment #02
Objective:
Proportional Control by Software and Verification of Residual Offset.
Theory:
Proportional Controllers:
In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the error signal,
which is the difference between the set point and the process variable. In other words, the
output of a proportional controller is the multiplication product of the error signal and the
proportional gain.

There are certain conditions that must be fulfilled. With proportional controllers there are two
conditions and these are written below:

1. Deviation should not be large; it means there should be less deviation between the input and
outputs.

2. Deviation should not be sudden.

Now we are in a condition to discuss proportional controllers, as the name suggests in

proportional controller the output (also called the actuating signal) is directly proportional to
the error signal. Now let us analyze proportional controller mathematically. As we know in
proportional controller output is directly proportional to crror signal, writing this

Mathematically we have,

A (t) e (t)

A (t) = Kp x e (t)

9
Removing the sign of proportionality we have, Where, Kp is proportional constant also known

As controller gain.

It is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the value of Kp is greater than
Unity (>1), then it will amplify the error signal and thus the amplified error signal can be
detected easily.

Pressure controllers and Regulation:

PID controller:
I-controller doesn’t have the capability to predict the future behavior of error. So it reacts
normally once the set point is changed. D-controller overcomes this problem by anticipating
future behavior of the error. Its output depends on rate of change of error with respect to time,
multiplied by derivative constant. It gives the kick start for the output thereby increasing system
response.
Controller PID Response:
In the above figure response of D controller is more, compared to PI controller and also settling
time of output is decreased. It improves the stability of system by compensating phase lag
caused by I-controller. Increasing the derivative gain increases speed of response.So finally we
observed that by combining these three controllers, we can get the desired response for the
system. Different manufactures design different PID algorithms.

10
Tuning methods of PID Controller:
Before the working of PID controller takes place, it must be tuned to suit with dynamics of the
process to be controlled. Designers give the default values for P, I and D terms and these values
couldn’t give the desired performance and sometimes leads to instability and slow control
performances. Different types of tuning methods are developed to tune the PID controllers and
require much attention from the operator to select best values of proportional, integral and
derivative gains.

Proportional Controllers:
We cannot use this types of controllers at anywhere and with each type controller, there are
certain conditions that must be fulfilled. With proportional controllers there are two conditions
and these are written below:
 Deviation should not be large; it means there should be less deviation between the input
and output.
 Deviation should not be sudden.
 It is recommended that KP should be kept greater than unity. If the value of KP is greater
than unity (>1), then it will amplify the error signal and thus the amplified error signal
can be detected easily.

Advantages of Proportional Controller:

 Now let us discuss some advantages of proportional controller.
 Proportional controller helps in reducing the steady state error, thus makes the system
more stable. Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the help
of these controllers.

Disadvantages of Proportional Controller:

Now there are some serious disadvantages of these controllers and these are written as follows:
 Due to presence of these controllers we get some offsets in the system.
 Proportional controllers also increases the maximum overshoot of the system.

Integral Controllers:
As the name suggests in integral controllers the output (also called the actuating signal) is
directly proportional to the integral of the error signal. Now let us analyze integral controller
mathematically. As we know in an integral controller output is directly proportional to the
integration of the error signal, writing this mathematically we have, Removing the sign of
proportionality we have, Where, Ki is integral constant also known as controller gain. Integral
controller is also known as reset controller.

Apparatus:
Pressure Control and Regulation Module

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Procedure:
 Set the CONTROL mode selector on 1 (PC).
 Set the NOISE selector on 0.
 Launch the CRP program.
 Select File-New.
 Select "PID Regulator" in the "Select Exercise Type" window and press OK.
 Enter the operator's name and your remarks in the "Test description" window and press
OK.
 In the "Set-Point Set-up" window select a continuous Set-up function (DC function) width
a width of 0% and offset of 50%, and press OK. This amounts to setting a Set-
 Point level of 1 bar.
 In the "PID parameters" window, set:
 Proportional Band = 80%
 Integrative time=0 min
 Derivative time=0 min
 In the "Noise Set-up" window, select a continuous noise (DC function) and click on OK.
 Do not make any manual alignment, i.e., leave the control signal in the "Manual
 Alignment" window on 0 and click on OK.
 In the "Real Time Diagram" window disable the disturbance by means of the "Enable"
Field in the "Noise" panel.
 Press "Start" to start the test.
 Watch the behavior of the system for a few minutes.
 Return to the "PID Parameters" window by means of the "Param" button in the
 "Real Time Diagram" window and sel a Proportional Band of 50%; press OK.
 Examine the behavior of the system for a few minutes.
 Recall the "PID Parameters" window again, set a Proportional Band of 100% and press
ОK.
 Examine the behavior of the system for a few minutes.
 Recall the "PID Parameters" window again, set a Proportional Band of 120% and press ОК.
 Examine the behaviour of the system for a few minutes.
 At the end of the test, press the "Stop" and "Cancel" buttons.
 Examine the samples of the signals produced during the test and their evolution in time
 By means of the file-Browse-Data and File-Browse-Diagram functions.
 Print the data and/or the diagram, if desired.
 Save the data on disk by means of File-Save, if desired.
 Conclude the exercise by means of File-Close.

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Figure No: 01 Figure No: 02

Figure No: 3

Table:
Figure # Time (sec) Proportional Band

1 49 80

2 56 100

3 59 120

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Remarks:
Proportional band and Time directly proportional to each other. But Gain is inversely
proportional to the time. Gain = 100% / Proportional Band%.

14
 Experiment #03
Objective:
Effect of P-I controller by using software.

Theory:
Proportional and Integral Controller:
In many process control situations proportional only controllers are not adequate because they
cannot bring the process back exactly to sel point under the influence of process load changes.
Increasing the proportional gain of the controller can reduce the amount of the offset but cannot
eliminate it, and in many instances the dynamics of the process are such that a gain high enough
to reduce the offsets to tolerable levels result in a system that is unstable.
This is a classic problem, and the classic solution is to add integral action to a proportional
controller. The resulting controller is called by many names: a two mode controller, two term
controller, a proportional plus reset controller, a PI controller, or a proportional plus integral
controller.
As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and an integral controller the output
(also called the actuating signal) is equal to the summation of proportional and integral of the
error signal. Now let us analyze proportional and integral controller mathematically. As we
know in a proportional and integral controller output is directly proportional to the summation
of proportional of error and integration of the error signal, writing this mathematically we have,

A (t) ꭍ e (t) dt + A(t) e (t)

A (t) = Ki ꭍe (t) dt + Kpe (t)

Removing the sign of proportionality we have, Where, Ki and KP proportional constant and
integral constant respectively. K-Disturbance Measured Sensor.

Advantages:
The most salient feature and advantage of integral action is that the controller continues until
the error becomes zero. By adding automatic reset action to a proportional controller, offsets
can be eliminated. With offsets eliminated, high controller gains may not be needed, and the
system can be tuned for more stability.

Disadvantages:
The three main disadvantages to integral action are:

 Reset windup
 Additional phase lag added to loop
 Additional tuning complexity.

15
Apparatus:
Pressure Control and Regulation Module

Procedure:
 Set the CONTROL mode selector on I (PC).
 Set the NOISE selector on PC
 Launch the CRP program.
 Select File-New.
 Select "PID Regulator" ir the "Select Exercise Type" window and press OK.
 Enter the operator's name and your remarks in the "Test description" window and press
OK.
 In the "Set-Point Set-up" window select a continuous Set-up function (DC function)
with a width of 0% and offset of 50%, and press OK. This amounts to setting a Set-
Point level of 1 bar.
 In the "PID parameters" window, set; O Proportional Band= 80%, O Integrative time
=0 min, O Derivative time=0 min and press OK.
 In the "Noise Set-up" window, select a continuous noise (DC function) and click on
OK.
 Do not make any manual alignment, i.e., leave the control signal in the "Manual
Alignment" window on 0 and click on OK
 In the "Real Time Diagram window disable the disturbance by means of the "Enable"
field in the "Noise" panel.
 Press "Start" to start the test.
 Watch the behaviour of the system for a few minutes and wait for equilibrium
conditions to be reached.
 Recall the "PID Parameters" window by means of the "Param" button in the “Real Time
Diagram window and set: o Integrative Time = 1 min Framine the behaviour of the
system for a few minutes and wait for equilibrium conditions to be reached.
 At the end of the test, press the "Stop" and "Cancel" buttons.
 Examine the samples of the signals produced during the test and their evolution in time
by means of the File-Browse-Data and File-Browse-Diagram functions.
 Print the data and/or the diagram, if desired.
 Save the data on disk by means of File-Save, if desired.
 Conclude the exercise by means of File-Close.

Conclusion:
The PI controller takes more time to reach the value of the set point as compared to
simple P controller but it is more precise and does not fluctuate on the set point like a
P controller.

16
We observe from the trend that as we increase the value of integrative time by
keeping the proportional band constant, the response time of the PI controller also
increases.

17
 Experiment #04
Objective:
Verification of residual off-set of proportional integral controller via software

Theory:
Proportional and Integral Controller:
In many process control situations proportional only controllers are not adequate because they
cannot bring the process back exactly to set point under the influence of process load changes.
Increasing the proportional gain of the controller can reduce the amount of the offset but cannot
eliminate it, and in many instances the dynamics of the process are such that a gain high enough
to reduce the offsets to tolerable levels result in a system that is unstable.

This is a classic problem, and the classic solution is to add integral action to a proportional
controller. The resulting controller is called by many names: a two mode controller, a two term
controller, a proportional plus reset controller, a PI controller, or a proportional plus integral
controller.
As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and an integral controller the
output(also called the actuating signal) is equal to the summation of proportional and integral
of the error signal. Now let us analyze proportional and integral controller mathematically. As
we know in a proportional and integral controller output is directly proportional to the
summation of proportional of error and integration of the error signal, writing this
mathematically we have,

A (t) ꭍ et dt + A (t) e (t)

A (t) = Ki ꭍe (t) dt + Kp e(t)

Removing the sign of proportionality we have, Where, Ki and Kp proportional constant and
integral constant respectively.

18
Advantages:
 The most salient feature and advantage of integral action is that the controller
continues to change until the error becomes zero.
 By adding automatic reset action to a proportional controller, offsets can be
eliminated.
 With offsets eliminated, high controller gains may notbe needed, and the system can
be tuned for more stability.

Disadvantages:
The three main disadvantages to integral action are:
 Reset windup
 Additional phase lag added to loop
 Additional tuning complexity

Apparatus:
Pressure Control and Regulation Module
Procedure:
 Set the CONTROL mode selector on 1 (PC).
 Set the NOISE selector on PC
 Launch the CRP program.
 Select File-New.
 Select "PID Regulator" in the "Select Exercise Type" window and press OK.
 Enter the operator's name and your remarks in the "Test description" window and
press ОК.
 In the "Set-Point Set-up" window select a continuous Set-up function (DC function)
with a width of 0% and offset of 50%, and press OK. This amounts to setting a Set-
Point level of l bar.
 In the "PID parameters" window, set: o Proportional Band - 80%, o Integrative
time=0 min O Derivative time=0 min.
 And press OK
 In the "Noise Set-up" window, select a continuous noise (DC function and click on
OK
 Do not make any manual alignment, i.e., leave the control signal in the "Manual
 Alignment" window on 0 and click on OK
 In the "Real Time Diagram" window disable the disturbance by means of the
"Enable" field in the "Noise" panel.
 Press "Start" to start the test.
 Watch the behaviour of the system for a few minutes.
 Wait for equilibrium conditions to be reached and introduce a step like disturbance;
the disturbance can be either introduced manually, by means of the NOISE selector

19
 set on MAN, or via software after setting the NOISE selector on PC. In this case, just
set the characteristics of the noise through the "Noise Set-up" window and enable the
disturbance by clicking the "Noise" field in the "Real Time Diagram" window.
 Wait for the new stability conditions to be reached
 Recall the "PID Parameters" window by means of the "Parum" button in the
 "Real Time Diagram" window and set: o Integrative time = 1 min
 Examine the behaviour of the system for a few minutes.
 Eliminate the noise.
 Examine the behaviour of the system.
 At the end of the test, press the "Stop" and "Cancel" buttons.
 Examine the samples of the signals produced during the test and their evolution in
time by means of the File-Browse-Data and File-Browse-Diagram functions. Print the
data and/or the diagram, if desired.
 Save the data on disk by means of File-Save, if desired.
 Conclude the exercise by means of File-Close.

Graphs:
Proportional Band = 80 %
Integral time = 0.1, 1.0, 1.5
Derivative time = 0

0.1 1.0 1.5

Remarks:
For a constant proportional band, when we increase the integral time the response time of the
controller increases means to say proportional gain increase and the system takes more time to
achieve the steady state condition. At integral time is 0.1, system takes less time to achieve the
steady state condition than the integral time 1.0 and 1.5.

20
 Experiment #05

Objective:
PID controller by using software and effects of disturbances.

Theory:
PID Controller:
A proportional integral derivative controller (PID controller) is a control technique widely
used in control systems.
A PID controller continuously calculates an error value e (t) as the difference between a
desired set point and a measured process variable and applies a correction based on
proportional, integral, and derivative terms. PID is an initialism for Proportional Integral
Derivative, referring to the three terms operating on the error signal to producou control
signal.
The theoretical understanding and application dates from the 1920s, and they are
implemented in nearly all analogue control systems; originally in mechanical controllers, and
then using discrete electronics and latterly in industrial process computers. The PID
controller is probably the most-used feedback control design.
If u (t) is the control signal sent to the system, y (t) is the measured output and r (t) is the
desired output, and
e (t) = r (t) - y (t).
9) is the tracking error, a PID controller has the general form de (t)
𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
u (t) = Kpe (t) + K1ꭍe(г)dг + KD 𝒅𝒕

The desired closed loop dynamics is obtained by adjusting the three parameters Kı, K, and
ku, often iteratively by "tuning" and without specific knowledge of a plant model. Stability
can often be ensured using only the proportional term. The integral term permits the rejection

21
of a step disturbance (often a striking specification in process control). The derivative term is
used to provide damping or shaping of the response. PID controllers are the most well-
established class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more
complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered.
Apparatus:
Pressure Control and Regulation Module
Procedure:
 Set the CONTROL mode selector on 1 (PC).
 Set the NOISE selector on PC .Launch the CRP program.
 Select File-New.
 Select "PID Regulator" in the "Select Exercise Type" window and press OK.
 Enter the operator's name and your remarks in the "Test description" window and
press OK.
 In the "Set-Point Set-up" window select a continuous Set-up function (DC function)
with a width of 0% and offset of 50%, and press OK. This amounts to setting a Set-
Point level of I bar.
 In the "PID parameters" window, set

Proportional Band = 80%,

Integrative time=0 min,
Derivative time =0 min
 And press OK
 In the "Noise Set-up" window, select a continuous noise (DC function and click on
OK .
 Do not make any manual alignment, i.e., leave the control signal in the "Manual
Alignment" window on 0 and click on OK.
 In the "Real Time Diagram" window disable the disturbance by means of the
"Enable" field in the "Noise" panel.
 Press "Start" to start the test.
 Watch the behaviour of the system for a few minutes and wait for equilibrium
conditions to be reached.
 Recall the "PID Parameters" window by pressing the "Param" button in the "Real
 Time Diagram" window and set:

Integrative time = I'min

Derivative tine = 0.50 min
 Wait for the new stability conditions to be reached.
 Wait for equilibrium to be reached, and introduce a step like disturbance; the
disturbance can be either introduced manually, by means of the NOISE selector set on
MAN, or via software after setting the NOISE selector on PC. In this cuse, just set the

22
 characteristics of the noise through the "Noise Set-up" window and enable the
disturbance by clicking the "Noise" field in the "Real Time Diagram" window,
 Examine the behaviour of the system for a few minutes.
 At the end of the test, press the "Stop" and "Cancel" buttons.
 Examine the samples of the signals produced during the test and their evolution in
time by means of the File-Browse-Data and File-Browse-Diagram functions.
 Print the data and/or the diagram, if desired.
 Save the data on disk by means of File-Save, if desired.
 Conclude the exercise by means of File-Close.

Conclusion:

As it can be seen from the plotted graph the response of the PID controller is fast but
pulsating or fluctuating about the value of the set point and it never reaches the proper value
of set point. The fluctuations are due the derivative time effect in the controller. It’s the main
disadvantage of this controller and it does not do well with disturbance in the process. So it is
not suitable for every control even though it has a faster response.

23
 Experiment #06
Objective:
Demonstration on Temperature Control Demonstration Unit.

Theory:
Introduction Temperature Controllers:
A temperature controller is a device used to hold a desired temperature at a specified value.
The system comprises two water circuits. In the secondary circuit fresh water is heated up by
a heat exchanger. The temperature is measured by a temperature sensor at the fresh water outlet.
The outlet temperature of the fresh water is controlled by the flow rate of warm water in the
primary circuit. The primary circuit comprises an electrically heated tank, a pump and an
electromagnetic proportional valve as the actuator. Both circuits include Rota meters. The
controller used is a state-of-the-art digital industrial controller. A ball valve in the secondary
circuit enables defined disturbance variables to be generated. The controlled variable X and the
manipulating variable Y can be tapped as analogue signals at lab jacks.
Equipment Parts:
1. Controller
2. Thermometer
3. Electric Proportional valve
4. Hot water flow valve
5. Centrifugal pump
6. Electric Heater
7. Storage Tank
8. Adjustment cock with scale
9. Heat Exchanger
10. Temperature Sensor

Centrifugal pump:
It is used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy
to the hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy
typically comes from an engine or electric motor.

24
Flow meter:
It is a device used to measure the flow rate or quantity of a gas or liquid
moving through a pipe. Flow meters are referred to by many names, such
as flow gauge, flow indicator, liquid meter, flow rate sensor etc.
Electric heater:
It is an electrical device that converts an electric current into heat.
The heating element inside every electric heater is an electrical resistor, and
works on the principle of Joule heating. The electric current passing through
a resistor will convert that electrical energy into heat energy.

Heat exchanger:
It is a device used to transfer heat between two or more fluids. The fluids
may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct
contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air
conditioning, power stations, chemical plants.
Solenoid valve:
It is used wherever fluid flow has to be controlled automatically. They are being used to an
increasing degree in the most varied types of plants and equipment.
Thermometer:
It is a device used to indicate the temperature of an item being monitored. The
display can be an analogue dial, an analogue range or a digital readout. Common
methods of measuring temperature include bimetallic strip (The bending of
which increases with temperature) and the thermocouple. Which produces an
electronic voltage that depends on the temperature.

Controller Variables:
Proportional controller (P controller):
P controller is mostly used in first order processes with single energy storage to stabilize the
unstable process. The main usage of the P controller is to decrease the steady state error of the
system. As the proportional gain factor K increases, the steady state error of the system
decreases. However, despite the reduction, P control can never manage to eliminate the steady
state error of the system. We can use this controller only when our system is tolerable to a
constant steady state error. In addition, it can be easily concluded that applying P controller
decreases the rise time and after a certain value of reduction on the steady state error, increasing
K only leads to overshoot of the system response. P control also causes oscillation if sufficiently
aggressive in the presence of lags and/or dead time. The more lags (higher order), the more
problem it leads. Plus, it directly amplifies process noise.

25
Proportional-Integral controller (PI controller):
P-I controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from P controller.
However, in terms of the speed of the response and overall stability of the system, it has a
negative impact. This controller is mostly used in areas where speed of the system is not an
issue. Since P-I controller has no ability to predict the future errors of the system it cannot
decrease the rise time and eliminate the oscillations.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID controller):
P-I-D controller has the optimum control dynamics including zero steady state error, fast
response (short rise time), no oscillations and higher stability. The necessity of using a
derivative gain component in addition to the PI controller is to eliminate the overshoot and the
oscillations occurring in the output response of the system. One of the main advantages of the
P-I-D controller is that it can be used with higher order processes including more than single
energy storage.
Total correction = Pe (t) + Iʆe (t) dt + Dde/dt
(e (t) is error signal with to time, P, I and D are constant)

Temperature Controller Applications:

A basic temperature controller provides control of industrial or laboratory heating and cooling
processes .Temperature controllers are used in a wide variety of industries to manage
manufacturing processes or operations. Some common uses for temperature controllers in
industry include plastic extrusion and injection molding machines, thermo-forming machines,
packaging machines, food processing, food storage, and blood banks.
Limitations of PID control:
PID controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PID loop gains must
be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or hunt about the control set
point value. Nevertheless, with 3 control elements, it can be a drawback, since that can increase
the complexity of the implementation. Although, each control element is a different function,
these elements are not exclusively independent from each other; one element can change by
adjusting the other. Therefore, designing PID is more complex than P, PD or PI.

26
Apparatus:
Temperature Control Demonstration Unit.

Procedure:
 A water storage tank equipped with electric heater and heated it.
 Require heat adjustable with help of thermostat.
 Hot water fed by pump through the flow meter, indicates the volume of hot water.
 Thermostat indicates the inlet temperature of hot water into the heat exchanger.
 Heat exchanger contains secondary cycle of cold water, connection with it.
 The flow rate of cold water control by the regulating valve.
 The measured outlet temperature of hot water from heat exchanger by thermometer.
 The temperature sensor measured the exit temperature of process water form heat
exchanger.
 The input variable X signal is fed to the controller.
 The control circuit of actuator consists of an electric proportional valve, which used
flow of hot water in primary cycle.
 The sensor signal X and controller single Y can measured.

27
 Experiment #07
Objective:
To ascertain the properties and response of the control system underlying the unit using P-
Controller.
Apparatus:
Temperature control demonstration unit:

Theory:
Proportional Controllers:
In the proportional control algorithm, the controller output is proportional to the error signal,
which is the difference between the set point and the process variable. In other words, the
output of a proportional controller is the multiplication product of the error signal and the
proportional gain.
There are certain conditions that must be fulfilled. With proportional controllers there are two
conditions and these are written below:
1. Deviation should not be large; it means there should be less deviation between the input
and output
2. Deviation should not be sudden.
Now we are in a condition to discuss proportional controllers, as the name suggests in a
proportional controller the output (also called the actuating signal) is directly proportional to
The error signal. Now let us analyze proportional controller mathematically. As we know in
proportional controller output is directly proportional to error signal, writing this
mathematically we have,
A (t) e (t)
A (t) = Kp x e (t)

Removing the sign of proportionality we have, Where, Kp is proportional constant also

known as controller. Gain It is recommended that Kp should be kept greater than unity. If the

28
value of Kp is greater than unity (>1), then it will amplify the error signal and thus the
amplified error signal can be detected easily.

Advantages of Proportional Controller:

Now let us discuss some advantages of proportional controller.
1. Proportional controller helps in reducing the steady state orror, thus makes the system
more stable.
2, Slow response of the over damped system can be made faster with the help of these
controllers.
Disadvantages of Proportional Controller:
Now there are some serious disadvantages of these controllers and these are written as
follows:
1. Due to presence of these controllers we get some offsets in the system.
2. Proportional controllers also increases the maximum overshoot of the system,
Procedure:
 Turn on the demonstration unit via its main switch.
 Using the heater, raise the temperature of the water in the tank to -55°C.
 Using the adjustment cock (2), set the flow of cold water to 100 lu/h.
 Set the controller to the manual mode and the manipulated variable y to 10%.
 Observe the temperature of the cold water at the heat exchanger's outlet.
 This temperature is indicated on the controller. After a certain time, the temperature
attains a constant value.
 Increment the manipulated variable by setting the controller to a value of 45%. After a
certain time, the temperature will again become constant.
 Now, change the flow of cold water via the adjustment cock (2) to 200ltr/h or
300ltr/hfor example, and repeat the procedure described above.

Result:
This system evidently possesses a compensatory mechanism which causes the temperature to
assume a stable final value each time. This characteristic can also be expected, because the
temperature of the cold water emerging from the heat exchanger naturally cannot exceed that
of the heat source, i.e. the water in the tank. This imposes a limit on the system. This
characteristic is typical of temperature control systems.

29
 Experiment #08
Objective:
To control the cold water temperature using PI-Controller.

Theory:
Proportional and Integral Controller:

In many process control situations proportional only controllers are not adequate because
they cannot bring the process back exactly to set point under the influence of process load
changes. Increasing the proportional gain of the controller can reduce the amount of the oliset
bul cannot eliminate it, and in many instances the dynamics of the process are such that a
gain high cho to reduce the offsets to tolerable levels result in a system that is unstable.
This is a classic problem, and the classic solution is to add integral action to a proportional
controller. The resulting controller is called by many names: a two mode controller, a two
lem controller, a proportional plus reset controller, a PI controller, or a proportional plus
integral controller.
As the name suggests it is a combination of proportional and an integral controller the output
(also called the actuating signal) is equal to the summation of proportional and integral of the
error signal. Now let us analyze proportional and integral controller mathematically. As we
know in a proportional and integral controller output is directly proportional to the
summation of proportional of error and integration of the error signal, writing this
mathematically we have,
A(t) ꭍ e (t) dt + A (t) e(t)
A (t) = Ki ꭍe (t) dt + Kpe(t)

Removing the sign of proportionality we have, Where, Ki and Kp proportional constant and
integral constant respectively.
Advantages:
The most salient feature and advantage of integral action is that the controller change until
the error becomes zero. By adding automatic reset action to a proportional controller, offsets

30
can be eliminated. With offsets eliminated, high controller gains may not be needed, and the
system can be tuned for more stability,
Disadvantages:
The three main disadvantages to integral action are:
 Resel windup
 Additional phase lag added to loop
 Additional tuning complexity

Procedure:
 Turn on the demonstration unit via its main switch
 Set the controller and demonstration unit as shown in the following table:

Controller Type PI controller

Controller Mode Automatic

P-Component 75
I-Component 70S
D-component 0.0 s

Controller settings
Start value: 23°C
Stop value: 30°C

Hot water temperature 60°C

Cold water flow rate 100 ltr/hr

 Observe the temperature indicated by the dial thermometer and controller. After a certain
time, the temperature assumes a constant value of 23°C.
 Increment the reference variable by setting the controller to 30°C. The temperature rises
to assume a constant value of 30°C after a certain time.

Result:
The controller responds at once to changes in the reference variable. However, the target
temperature of 30°C is attained very slowly (~ 6 minutes). The reason for this is indicated by
the input signal y. The controller opens the control valve slowly. The controller's P
component provides the fast response, while the l-component prevents an occurrence of
permanent control deviations. This characteristic is typical of Pl-controllers. Evidently, the
control parameters in this operating mode have yet to be optimized.

31
 Experiment #09
Objective:
To ascertain whether the differential component can further the differential component can
further accelerate the Controller's response and improve control performance using PID
Controller.
Apparatus:
Temperature demonstration unit.

Theory:
PID Controller:
A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a control technique widely
used in control systems.
A PID controller continuously calculates an error value (1) as the difference between a
desired set point and a measured process variable and applies a correction based on
proportional, integral, and derivative terms. PID is an initialism for Proportional Integral-
Derivative, referring to the three terms operating on the error signal to produce a control
signal.
The theoretical understanding and application dates from the 1920s, and they are
implemented in nearly all analogue control systems; originally in mechanical controllers, and
then using discrete electronics and latterly in industrial process computers. The PID
controller is probably the most-used feedback control design.
If u (t) is the control signal sent to the system, y (t) is the measured output and r(t) is the
desired
Output, and e(t) = r(t) - yt) is the tracking error, a PID controller has the general form(1)
𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
u (t) = Kpe(t) +Ke ꭍ e(⸆) + KeD
𝒅𝒕

The desired closed loop dynamics is obtained by adjusting the three parameters Kp, Ki and
Kd often iteratively by "tuning" and without specific knowledge of a plant model. Stability
can often be ensured using only the proportional term. The integral terin permits the rejection
step disturbance (often a striking specification in process control). The derivative term is
usedto provide damping or shaping of the response? PID controllers are the most well-
established class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more
complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered.

Procedure:
 Turn on the demonstration unit via its main switch.

32
 Set the controller and demonstration unit as shown in the following tables:

Controller type PID controller

Controller mode Automatic

P-component 75

l-component 30 s

D-component 5s

Controller settings
Start value: 23°C
Stop value: 32°C

Hot water temperature 60°C

Cold water temperature 100 liter/hr

 Observe the temperature indicated by the dial thermometer and controller. After a certain
time, the temperature assumes a constant value of 23°C.
 Increment the reference variable by setting the controller to 30°C. The temperature rises
to assumeaconstantvalueof30°C after a certain time.

Results:
The controller's reduced l-component and D-component cause a slower but stronger response
in this case. The temperature approaches the target value more slowly (8 minutes) than in the
previous experiment involving the Pl-controller. It clearly shows that now the control signal
varies, this has a slightly noticeable effect on the temperature profile. Here, it seems likely
that the D-component is too large. The control performance is not acceptable.
The experiment results can be further optimized by means of a corresponding technique.
Most experiments involving temperature control are very time-consuming. According, such
experiments usually make use of an optimization technique which calculates parameters from
the inflection tangent of the step response.

33
 Experiment #10
Objective:
Demonstration on Basic Process Rig.
Apparatus:
Basic Process Rig

Theory:
Basic Process Rig:
The Basic Process Rig is a single loop system allowing the study of the principles of process
control, using liquid level and flow rates as the measured process variables.
It comprises a dual compartment process tank, linked to a sump tank by manual and solenoid
operated valves. Water is pumped through the system, via a variable area flow meter and
motorised control valve. Level is measured in the process tank. Flow is measured through an
optical pulse flow meter.

Figure 1. Basic Process Rig

34
The system is a completely self-contained, low pressure flowing water circuit supported on a
benchtop-mounted panel, making it suitable for individual student work or for group
demonstrations.
P, PI and PID Controllers:
P, PI or PID controllers can be used with all instrumentation to minimize the error in the
process and run the process to get constant set values of process variables. They try to keep
the controlled variable such as temperature, liquid level, and motor velocity at a certain value
called the set point by looking at the error signal, which is the difference between where the
controlled variable is, and where it should be.

P Controller:
In Proportional control, the actuating signal for the control action in a control system is
proportional to the error signal. The error signal being the difference between the
referenceinput signal and the feedback signal obtained from the output The main usage of the
P controller is to decrease the steady state error of the system and it never manage to
eliminate the steady state error of the system.

PI Controller:
A Proportional Integral controller continuously calculates an error, which is the difference
between a set point and a measured process variable and continuously takes the integral of
that error value to eliminate it and to stable the process. But as a result the speed of process
lowers.

PID Controller:
A proportional–integral–derivative controller is a control loop feedback mechanism. It
continuously calculates an error, which is the difference between a set point and a measured
process variable and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative of the
error. It attempts to minimize and eliminate the error over time by adjustment of a control
variable such as the position of a control valve or the power supplied to a heating element.

Possible Control:

 Control Objective:
To maintain the level of water in tank
 Possible Disturbances:
Increased or decreased flow rates at inlet or outlet.
 Manipulated Variables
Flow rates of inlet and outlet streams and flow rate of pump.
State of drain valves (either open or close).

Possible Instrumentation:

The circuit includes the following elements:

 Sump Tank for storing water from where it may be circulated throughout the circuit
 Dual-compartment Process Tank
 Circulating Centrifugal Pump to circulate water throughout the pump
 Visual indication Flow Meter to observe and measure flow rate. The variable area
flow meter consists of a tapered shape, typically made of glass with a float, actually a

35
 shaped weight, inside that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down
by gravity. A higher volumetric flowrate through a given area increases flow speed
and drag force, so the flow will be pushed upwards.
 Solenoid operated valves:
The valve is controlled by an electric current through a solenoid. Their tasks is to
shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design
 Manual valves for manually controlling the flow rate.
 Pulse flow sensor
 Float level sensor
 Servo valve:
A Hydraulic Servo Valve is a type of final control element that control the flow of
water in response to an electrical input signal from the controller usually through a piston
or cylinder. Flow control servo valves are designed to produce hydraulic flow output
proportional to electrical current input signal. Different flow control devices can be used
in this setup to control the flows of both circuits e.g. Venturi valve, Globe valve, Gate
valve, Needle valve etc.

Features:
 Dual circuit benchtop system.
 Water used as the process fluid.
 Contains a selection of level and flow sensors and indicators.
 Discovery software provides on-screen instruction and instrumentation.
 Robust centrifugal pump delivers 5 liter/min
 P, PI and full PID control.
 May be coupled to the Temperature Rig for dual loop control.

36
 Experiment #11

Objective:

Demonstration on Dead Weight Calibrator.

Theory:
Deadweight testers / Calibrator can be calibrated using either the “Fundamental” or
“Calibrated” methods to measure the pressure and effective area. A fundamental calibration
involves having the effective area of the gauge determined using only measurements of the
SI base units (e.g. mass, length) plus a suitable model. A calibrated calibration has the
effective area determined via calibration against a gauge for which the effective area or
generated pressure is already known.
The base formula for deadweight testers is P = F/A. Where F equals the force or amount of
weight, A equals the area over which the force is applied and P equals the resulting pressure.
Two general types of deadweight testers exist. First, a closely fit piston and cylinder with
weights applied to the piston. Second, a precision ceramic ball within a tapered nozzle, with
weights applied to the ball.
Many different types of deadweight testers are available. In order for a user to select the
correct tester, several aspects of the task to be performed should be considered.
The first item that should be considered is the required accuracy of the tester. Accuracy of
most instruments is expressed as "percent of full scale".

Fig: Dead Weight Calibrator

37
  First important consideration is the test fluid. Since the test fluid will enter the
pressure sensing element of the instrument being tested, the test fluid must be
compatible with the process fluid to which the instrument will be attached. Otherwise,
all instruments must be cleaned after testing, an expensive operation. The most
common test fluid is instrument grade oil. Where usable, oil provides an outstanding
combination of corrosion resistance with lubrication of the close fitting piston and
cylinder.
 The Second consideration Distilled water provides an excellent test fluid that is
inert to most process fluids. Clean dry air or nitrogen gas; however, eliminates the
problem altogether. The user must be particularly careful that the tester selected is
designed for operation with the intended test fluid.
 The third consideration is the pressure range. A survey should be made of the
pressure range of all instruments to be tested. The tester should produce pressures in
excess of the highest instrument to be tested.
 Deadweight testers are available with accuracy ranging from +/- .015% to +/- 0.1% of
indicated reading. This range of accuracy can be appropriately matched with the
various types of process instrumentation (and their respective performance) which are
to be calibrated. Ideally, a calibration device should be 4x as accurate as the test
device. However, the improved performance in process instrumentation has resulted
in a 2:1 ratio as being minimally acceptable.
 Piston and cylinder testers are most responsive within the upper 90% of the
operating range. If a broad range of pressures are to be tested, the user should
consider dual range testers which contain piston and cylinders of more than one size.
A second consideration is two types of testers, pneumatic at low pressures and oil or
water at higher pressures.
 A final consideration should be the task to be performed. If most of the instruments
to be tested are fixed in place, such as recorders, the portability of the tester is
important. If many instruments are to be tested, dual column testers that change test
range quickly are helpful. If many technicians will use the tester, the tester should be
rugged and relatively independent of operator technique. High performance tasks,
such as testing of instruments at manufacture, require custom designed testers.

Types:
In general, there are three different kind of DWT's divided by the medium which is measured
and the lubricant which is used for its measuring element:
 Gas operated gas lubricated PCU's.
 Gas operated oil lubricated PCU's.
 Oil operated oil lubricated PCU's.

Principle:

Dead weight calibration unit works on Pascal’s Law.

Pascal’s law or the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure states that pressure exerted
anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout
the fluid such that the pressure variations (initial differences) remain the same.
Or Pascal’s principle is defined as
A change in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished to all
points in the fluid. Δ𝑃=𝜌𝑔Δℎ
38
Δ𝑷= Is the hydrostatic pressure or the difference in pressure at two points within a fluid column,
due to the weight of the fluid.
Δ𝒉 = Is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in elevation between
the two points within the fluid column.
Pascal’s principle applies to all fluids, whether gases or liquids.
Applications:

 Hydraulic Jack.
 Braking system.
 Scuba divers.

Calibration:
Calibration is process of finding a relationship between two unknown (when the
measurable quantities are not given a particular value for the amount considered or found a
standard for the quantity) quantities. When one of quantity is known, which is made or set
with one device, another measurement is made as similar way as possible with the first device
using a second device. The measurable quantities may differ in two devices which are
equivalent. Proper calibration of an instrument allows people to have a safe working
environment and produce valid data for future reference.

Apparatus:
 The dead weight tester
 Standard weights
 Precision gauge if possible

Procedure:
 Close the needle valve 5, 6, 6’ while the valve 2 is kept open. Pour the hydraulic oil
through the cup 3 into the tester to fill it.
 Rotate the piston outwards to suck oil in it.
 Close the valve 2 and open valve 5 and 6 after mounting the gauge to be tested on
nipple provided for pressure gauge. In case a precision gauge is available mount it on
the other position and open valve 6’ as well.
 Put the standard weights on the pan.
 While rotating slowly the weight pan turn the handle of the cylinder piston to
transmit the pressure towards the weight and pressure gauges.
 When the fluid pressure is equal to the pan, it is lifted as well as the gauge indicates
the corresponding pressure. Note that the weight should be lifted only to the red line.
Beyond white line it would be ineffective.
 Mark the point on the gauge, release the pressure, put the next weight and repeat the
same procedure for the next calibration.

Precautions:
 The relevant valves should be promptly closed and opened as mentioned above,
otherwise the hydraulic oil might spill outside or on the face of the user.
 The standard weights should be placed with ease not to damage the apparatus.

39
Conclusion:
Calibration is the set of operations that establish the relationship between the values of
quantities indicated by a measuring instrument and the corresponding values realized by
standards. The result of a calibration allows for the determination of corrections to be made
with regards to the indicated values. Based on the experimental results obtained a deviation in
the calibrated reading was compared to the theoretical values. Therefore the pressure gauge
on the downwards pressure was observed to be not appropriate for very low pressure levels;
especially when the supplied pressure is low & incapable of lifting the applied load.

Results and Discussion:

TABLE 1: Calibration of Pressure Gauge in Ascending Order

Run Dead Weight Pressure (atm) Gauge Pressure (atm)

1 1 0
2 2 0.5
3 3 1
4 4 2
5 5 3
6 6 4
7 7 5
8 12 10
9 17 16
10 22 22
11 27 27
12 37 37
13 47 47
14 57 57

TABLE 2: Calibration of Pressure Gauge in Descending Order

Run Dead Weight Pressure (atm) Gauge Pressure (atm)

1 57 57
2 47 47
3 37 37
4 27 27
5 22 22
6 17 16
7 12 10
8 7 5
9 6 4
10 5 3
11 4 2
12 3 1
13 2 0.5
14 1 0

40
The results show that Pressure Gauge is well calibrated. The results were not accurate at the
smaller values of pressure because of the least count of the gauge is somewhat on the higher
side. So it is difficult to measure the smaller values. But at the higher values of pressure we
have pretty accurate results. Readings are taken in two different ways:

Both times results were same as indicated in the above table.

Conclusion and Recommendations:

Dead weight calibrator method is one of the most accurate but old method of calibrating a
pressure gauge. Now there are many new methods which can be used for calibration of
pressure gauges in the industries. This apparatus should be handled very carefully. Valves
should be opened and closed very carefully otherwise there are many chances of leakage of
oil.

41