Chapter 2

Control Loop Hardware

and Troubleshooting
 Overall Course Objectives
• Develop the skills necessary to function as an
industrial process control engineer.
– Skills
• Tuning loops
• Control loop design
• Control loop troubleshooting
• Command of the terminology
– Fundamental understanding
• Process dynamics
• Feedback control
 Control Relevant Aspects of
Control Loop Hardware
• Necessary for control loop troubleshooting:
– To determine if each subsystem (control
computer, actuator system, and sensor system)
is functioning properly
– To understand the proper design and operation
of all the components that make-up each of the
subsystems of a control loop
 Control Diagram of a Typical
Control Loop
Actuator
System
F1 F2

T1 T2

Sensor
System
Controller TC T
F
TT
 Components and Signals of a
Typical Control Loop
Actuator System

F1 F2

T1 T2

Thermowell
3-15 psig
T
F
4-20 mA
Air I/P D/A
Thermocouple
millivolt signal

Operator Tsp DCS 4-20 mA

Control A/D Transmitter
Console
Computer

Controller Sensor System

 Controllers/Control Computers
• Pneumatic controllers
• Electronic analog controllers
• Supervisory control computers
• Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
• Fieldbus technology
 Pneumatic Controllers - Phase I
• Introduced in the 1920’s
• Installed in the field next to the valve
• Use bellows, baffles, and nozzles with an
air supply to implement PID action.
• Provided automatic control and replaced
manual control for many loops
Pneumatic Controllers - Phase II
• Transmitter type pneumatic controllers began
to replace field mounted controllers in the
late 1930’s.
• Controller located in control room with
pneumatic transmission from sensors to
control room and back to the valve.
• Allowed operators to address a number of
controllers from a centralized control room.
Pneumatic Controller Installation

F1 F2
T1 T2
Thermowell
3-15 psig
F
T
Air Thermocouple
millivolt signal

Tsp Pnuematic 3-15 psig Air

Transmitter
Controller
 Electronic Analog Controllers
• Became available in the late 1950’s.
• Replaced the pneumatic tubing with wires.
• Used resistors, capacitors, and transistors
based amplifiers to implement PID action.
• Out sold pneumatic controllers by 1970.
• Allowed for advanced PID control: ratio,
feedforward, etc.
Electronic Controller Installation

F1 F2
T1 T2
Thermowell
3-15 psig
F
Air I/P T
Thermocouple
4-20 mA millivolt signal

Tsp Electronic 4-20 mA

Transmitter
Controller
 Computer Control System
• Based upon a mainframe digital computer.
• Offered the ability to use data storage and
retrieval, alarm functions, and process
optimization.
• First installed on a refinery in 1959.
• Had reliability limitations.
Supervisory Control Computer
Video Display Alarming
Printer
Unit Functions

Supervisory Control Computer

Analog Data Storage

Interfacing
Control Acquisition
Hardware
Subsytem System

...
Distributed Control System- DCS
• Introduced in the late 1970’s.
• Based upon redundant microprocessors for
performing control functions for a part of
the plant. SUPERIOR RELIABILITY
• Less expensive per loop for large plants.
• Less expensive to expand.
• Facilitates the use of advanced control.
 DCS Architecture
System Host Data
PLC
Consoles Computer Storage Unit

Data Highway
(Shared Communication Facilities)

Local
Console
Local
Control
Unit
...... Local
Control
Unit
Local
Console

4-20 mA 4-20 mA

Process Transmitters and Actuators

 DCS and Troubleshooting
• The data storage and trending capability of
a DCS greatly facilitate troubleshooting
control problems. That is, the sources of
process upsets can many times be tracked
down through the process by trending a
group of process measurements until the
source of the process upset is located.
 Control Relevant Aspects of a
DCS
• The most important control aspect of a DCS
is the cycle time for controller calls. The
shortest cycles times are typically around
0.2 seconds while most loops can be
executed every 0.5 to 1.0 seconds. These
cycle times affect flow control loops and
other fast control loops.
 PLCs
• PLCs can withstand harsh industrial
enviroments.
• PLCs are used for discrete and continuous
control.
• Discrete control is used for startup and
shutdown and batch sequencing operations.
• Ladder logic is used to program PLCs.
 PLCs vs. DCSs
• Advantage of PLCs:
– Better to withstand harsh operating enviroments,
faster cycle time are possible, easier to maintain
due to modular nature and lower cost for small
and medium sized applications.
• Advantage of DCSs:
– Lower cost per loop for applications involving a
large number of control loops.
 PLC Architecture
Programming
Interface
PLC Cabinet

Power
Processor
Supply

Data Highway

I/O Modules

Input Output
Devices Devices
 Fieldbus Technology
• Based upon smart valves, smart sensors and
controllers installed in the field.
• Uses data highway to replace wires from
sensor to DCS and to the control valves.
• Less expensive installations and better
reliability.
• Can mix different sources (vendors) of
sensors, transmitters, and control valves.
• Now commercially available and should
begin to replace DCSs.
 Fieldbus Architecture
Data Storage Plant Optimization

High Speed Ethernet

PLCs

Local
Area
Network
................. Local
Area
Network

H1 Fieldbus H1 Fieldbus

Smart Smart Control Smart Smart Control

Sensors Valves and Sensors Valves and
Controllers Controllers

H1 Fieldbus Network H1 Fieldbus Network

Actuator System

• Control Valve
– Valve body
– Valve actuator
• I/P converter
• Instrument air system
Typical Globe Control Valve
Cross-section of a Globe Valve
 Types of Globe Valves
• Quick Opening- used for safety by-pass
applications where quick opening is desired
• Equal Percentage- used for about 90% of
control valve applications since it results in
the most linear installed characteristics
• Linear- used when a relatively constant
pressure drop is maintained across the valve
 Inherent Valve Characteristics

QO
f(x)

0.5 Linear

=%

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
Use of the Valve Flow Equation

Given: water as the fluid; P  16 psig; Cv  5

Determine the flow rate through this control
valve. Using Equation 2.3.3,
FV  KCv p / s.g .  (1)(5) 16 /1  20 gpm
Typical Flow System

C.W.

FT
 Pressure Drop vs. Flow Rate
25
Pressure Drop (psi)

Pump Head
20
15 Valve  P

10
5 Line Losses

0
0 50 100 150 200
Flow Rate (GPM)
 Installed Flow Characteristic

200 Linear Valve

Installed Flow Rate

150
(GPM)

100 =% Valve

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
 Slope of Installed Characteristic
7
Slope of the Installed
Flow Characteristic

6 Linear
5 Valve
4
=% Valve
3
2
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
 Effect of Linearity in the
Installed Valve Characteristics

• Highly nonlinear installed characteristics

can lead to unstable flow control or a
sluggish performance for the flow
controller.
Flow System with Relatively
Constant Valve Pressure Drop

FT 30 ft
 Pressure Drop vs. Flow Rate
15 Hydrostatic Head
Pressure Drop (psi)

10 Valve  P

5
Line Losses
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Flow Rate (GPM)
 Installed Valve Characteristics
600
Installed Flow Rate

500
400
Linear Valve
(GPM)

300
200
100 =% Valve
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Stem Position (% Open)
 Analysis of These Examples
• Note the linear installed valve
characteristics over a wide range of stem
positions.
• If the ratio of pressure drop across the
control valve for the lowest flow rate to the
value for the highest flow rate is greater
than 5, an equal percentage control valve is
recommended.
Control Valve Design Procedure
• Evaluate Cv at the maximum and minimum flow
rate using the flow equation for a valve (Eq 2.3.3).
• Determine which valves can effectively provide
the max and min flow rate remembering that, in
general, the valve position should be greater than
about 15% open for the minimum flow rate and
less than 85% open for the maximum flow rate.
• Choose the smallest valve that meets the above
criterion for the minimum capital investment or
choose the largest valve to allow for future
throughput expansion.
Additional Information Required
to Size a Control Valve
• CV versus % open for different valve sizes.
• Available pressure drop across the valve
versus flow rate for each valve. Note that
the effect of flow on the upstream and
downstream pressure must be known.
 Valve Sizing Example
• Size a control valve for max 150 GPM of
water and min of 50 GPM.
Determine CV at Max and Min FV
• Use the valve flow equation (Equation 2.3.3) to
calculate Cv
• For P, use pressure drop versus flow rate
(e.g., Table on page 82)

Fm
Cv ( x) 
K P / 
150 50
Cmax
v   28.9; Cv 
min
 9.1
27 /1 30 /1
Valve Position for Max and Min
Flows for Different Sized Valves

Max flow Min flow

1-inch valve not large enough 75%
1.5-inch valve not large enough 68%
2-inch valve 67% 45%
3-inch valve 55% 30%
4-inch valve 47% 22%
 Analysis of Results
• 2-inch valve appears to be best overall
choice: least expensive capital and it can
provide up to a 50% increase in throughput.
• 3-inch and 4-inch valve will work, but not
recommended because they will cost more
to purchase. The 2-inch valve will provide
more than enough extra capacity (i.e.,
something else will limit capacity for it)
 Valve Deadband
• It is the maximum change in instrument air
pressure to a valve that does not cause a
change in the flow rate through the valve.
• Deadband determines the degree of precision
that a control valve or flow controller can
provide.
• Deadband is primarily affected by the friction
between the valve stem and the packing.
For Large Diameter Lines (>6”),
Use a Butterfly Valve
 Valve Actuator Selection
• Choose an air-to-open for applications for
which it is desired to have the valve fail
closed.
• Choose an air-to-close for applications for
which it is desired to have the valve fail
open.
Cross-section of a Globe Valve
 Optional Equipment
• Valve positioner- a controller that adjusts the
instrument air in order to maintain the stem
position at the specified position. Greatly reduces
the deadband of the valve. Positioners are almost
always used on valves serviced by a DCS.
• Booster relay- provides high capacity air flow to
the actuator of a valve. Can significantly increase
the speed of large valves.
Photo of a Valve Positioner
 Adjustable Speed Pumps
• Used extensively in the bio-processing
industries (better to maintain sterile
conditions and relatively low flow rates).
• Fast and precise.
• Do not require an instrument air system (i.e.,
4-20 mA signal goes directly to pump).
• Much higher capital costs than control valves
for large flow rate applications.
 Control Relevant Aspects of
Actuator Systems
• The key factors are the deadband of the
actuator and the dynamic response as
indicated by the time constant of the valve.
• Control valve by itself- deadband 10-25%
and a time constant of 3-15 seconds.
• Control valve with a valve positioner or in a
flow control loop- deadband 0.1-0.5% and a
time constant of 0.5-2 seconds.