24-10-2024

OMR353
SENSORS

OMR353 - SENSORS
COURSE OUTCOMES
o Upon successful completion of the course, students
should be able to:
1. Understand various sensor effects, sensor
characteristics, signal types, calibration methods
and obtain transfer function and empirical relation
of sensors. They can also analyze the sensor
response.
2. Analyze and select suitable sensor for
displacement, proximity, and range measurement.
3. Analyze and select suitable sensor for force,
magnetic field, speed, position, and direction
measurement.
4. Analyze and select suitable sensors for light
detection, pressure, and temperature measurement
and familiar with other miniaturized smart sensors.
5. Select and design suitable signal conditioning
circuit with proper compensation and linearizing
element based on sensor output signal.

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DISPLACEMENT,
PROXIMITY AND
RANGING
SENSORS
Unit - II

UNIT II DISPLACEMENT, PROXIMITY

AND RANGING SENSORS
• Displacement Sensors
• Brush Encoders - Potentiometers, Resolver, Encoders
• Optical, Magnetic, Inductive, Capacitive,
• LVDT – RVDT
• Synchro – Microsyn,
• Accelerometer – Range Sensors
• Ultrasonic Ranging - Reflective Beacons
• Laser Range Sensor (LIDAR)
• GPS - RF Beacons.

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Displacement Sensors
• A Displacement Sensor is a device that measures the
distance between the sensor and an object by detecting the
amount of displacement through a variety of elements and
converting it into a distance.
• Depending on what element is used, there are several types
of sensors, such as optical displacement sensors, linear
proximity sensors, and ultrasonic displacement sensors.
• A Displacement Sensor measures and detects changes
(displacement) in a physical quantity.
• The Sensor can measure the height, width, and thickness of
an object by determining the amount of displacement of that
object.
• A Measurement Sensor measures the position and
dimensions of an object.

Types of Displacement Sensors

• Capacitive Displacement Sensors: These sensors measure changes in capacitance caused by the displacement of an object.
o They are highly accurate and suitable for small displacement measurements 1.
• Eddy Current Displacement Sensors: These sensors use electromagnetic induction to measure displacement.
o They are ideal for measuring the displacement of conductive materials and are resistant to environmental factors like dust and oil1.
• Laser Displacement Sensors: These sensors use a laser beam to measure the distance to an object.
o They offer high precision and are commonly used in industrial applications for non-contact measurements 1.
• Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs): These are contact-type sensors that measure linear displacement.
o They are known for their robustness and high accuracy1.
• Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors: These sensors use ultrasonic waves to measure the distance to an object.
o They are useful for measuring larger distances and are often used in applications where the target is not easily accessible1.
• Optical Displacement Sensors: These sensors use light (often lasers) to measure displacement.
o They can be very precise and are used in applications requiring high accuracy

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Brush Encoders

• Rotary Encoders are sensors that detect position and speed by converting rotational
mechanical displacements into electrical signals and processing those signals.
• Sensors that detect mechanical displacement for straight lines are referred to as
Linear Encoders.
• There are two main types of rotary encoder: absolute and incremental.
• The output of an absolute encoder indicates the current shaft position, making it
an angle transducer.
• The output of an incremental encoder provides information about the motion of the
shaft, which typically is processed elsewhere into information such as position, speed
and distance.

Applications

• Brush encoders are used in a variety of applications where precise position or speed feedback is required.
• Some common applications include:
o Industrial Controls: Used in machinery and equipment to monitor and control the position and speed
of motors and other moving parts.
o Robotics: Employed in robotic arms and joints to provide accurate positioning and movement control.
o Computer Input Devices: Found in devices like computer mice and trackballs to detect movement an
d translate it into cursor movement on a screen
o Medical Equipment: Used in medical devices to ensure precise control and movement

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Potentiometers

• What is a Potentiometer?
o A potentiometer, often referred to as a “pot,” is a three-terminal variable resistor. It allows
for adjustable voltage division in an electrical circuit by varying the resistance along its
length. The main components include the resistor body, a wiper (sliding contact), and
terminals.
• How Does a Potentiometer Work?
o Potentiometers work by moving a sliding contact (wiper) across a uniform resistance
element. The input voltage is applied across the entire length of the resistive element, and
the output voltage is taken from the wiper. By adjusting the position of the wiper, you can
change the output voltage, effectively dividing the input voltage.
• Types of Potentiometers
o Rotary Potentiometers: These adjust resistance by rotating a knob. They are commonly
used in volume controls for audio equipment.
o Linear Potentiometers: These adjust resistance by sliding a wiper along a straight path.
They are often used in applications requiring precise linear motion control.
o Digital Potentiometers: These use electronic controls to vary resistance, offering higher
accuracy and reliability compared to mechanical potentiometers

Potentiometers
• Applications
• Potentiometers are used in various applications, including:
 Volume Controls: In audio equipment to adjust sound levels.
 Position Sensing: In joysticks and other input devices.
 Voltage Adjustment: In power supplies and other electronic
circuits.
 Comparing EMF of Battery Cells: For precise measurements
in laboratory settings23.
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages:
 Simple and easy to use.
 Cost-effective.
 Versatile in applications.
• Disadvantages:
 Mechanical wear and tear over time.
 Limited precision compared to digital alternatives

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Resolvers
• Resolvers are electromechanical devices that measure angular position
and velocity in motion control systems. They consist of two main
components - a rotor and a stator.
• The rotor is the rotating part attached to the shaft whose position needs to
be sensed. The stator is the static part wrapped around the rotor, forming
the transformer windings.
• The rotor is excited by a reference AC signal, which induces voltages in
the stator windings based on the rotational angle. The angular position
can be precisely determined by measuring these output sine and cosine
voltage signals.
• There are two common types of resolvers:
o Rotary resolvers: Used in rotary applications like motors, drives,
and rotary tables. The rotor rotates continuously with the shaft over
multiple revolutions.
o Linear resolvers: Used in linear motion systems in a limited stroke
of a few inches. The rotor moves linearly back and forth to sense
position.
• Resolvers find widespread use in motion feedback systems across
industrial machines, robot arms, antenna platforms, assembly lines, and
more. They can provide absolute position data, which is advantageous for
recovery after power loss. Their durability makes them well-suited for
harsh environments involving high temps, vibration, and contamination -
a key benefit over optical encoders.

Advantages of Using Resolvers

• Resolvers stand out for their ultra-robust construction and reliability to perform consistently
through demanding operating conditions that cripple other position sensors. Here are some of
the notable benefits:
• Durability in Harsh Environments
o With no optics or electronics, resolvers are extremely resistant to dust, dirt, and moisture
and can operate at very high temps exceeding 200°C. Their encapsulated design is also
highly tolerant to shock, vibration, radiation, EMI/RFI noise.
• High Temperature Tolerance
o The absence of heat-sensitive components allows resolvers to work reliably at
temperatures exceeding 200°C, which is usually beyond the scope of encoders. This
permits their deployment around engine compartments, turbine systems, etc.
• Absolute Position Sensing
o Resolvers directly provide absolute angular position data rather than relative, eliminating
the need to initialize or recalibrate after power loss. This aids in quick recovery and
positioning accuracy.

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Encoder
• An encoder is a sensing device that converts motion into an
electrical signal, which can be read by a control device such as a
counter or a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller). This signal can
be used to determine position, count, speed, or direction1.
• How Does an Encoder Work?
o Encoders work by detecting changes in position and
converting these changes into electrical signals. The most
common types of encoders use optical, magnetic, inductive,
or capacitive technologies to generate these signals
• Types of Encoders
o Optical Encoders: Use light to detect position changes. They
consist of a light source, a photodetector, and a code disk
with transparent and opaque segments. As the disk rotates,
the light beam is interrupted, creating a series of pulses that
correspond to position changes.
o Magnetic Encoders: Use magnetic fields to determine
position. They have a magnetized disk or ring and a sensor
that detects changes in the magnetic field as the disk
rotates. These encoders are robust and can operate in harsh
environments21.
o Inductive Encoders: Use electromagnetic induction to
measure position. They are less common but offer good
performance in specific applications, particularly where high
precision is required2.
o Capacitive Encoders: Use changes in capacitance to detect
position. They offer high resolution and are rugged, making
them suitable for industrial environments

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• The LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential

Transformer. It converts the Linear motion into an
electrical signal using an inductive transducer.
• Due to its superior sensitivity and accuracy over other
inductive transducers, the LVDT is extensively used in
many different fields.
• For measuring linear distance, the linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT) is a precise and
trustworthy tool.
• Today, LVDTs are used in computerized manufacturing,
robotics, avionics, and machine tools, combining research
facilities, high-level analysis, and analysis to detect
damage caused by massive rock deformation or other
movements in the subgrade of old buildings or structures.

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Types of LVDT
• Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) can be of many types based on their
construction, size, and specific applications. Here are some common types:-
• AC LVDT: The AC LVDT is the most common and most used type of LVDT which
operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction (EMI) with AC as an input. AC
LVDTs are widely used for displacement measurement in various industrial applications.
• DC LVDT: This type of LVDT operates with a DC (direct current) input. These types of
LVDTs are used in limited applications where a DC power source is more convenient.
• Miniature LVDT: This type of LVDT is small in size as the name suggests miniature and
its stroke length is small but highly precise. There is Subminiature LVDTs also even
smaller in size and best for limited-space applications.
• There can be many more LVDTs based on the requirement of the application like High-
Temperature LVDTs, Digital LVDTs, or Heavy-Duty High-Frequency Response LVDTs.

Construction of LVDT
• The transformer and LVDT share a similar construction. It
consists of one primary winding(P) and two secondary
windings (S1 & S2).
• The primary and secondary windings are bounded by a hollow
cylinder, known as the former.
• The primary winding is at the center and the secondary
windings are present on both sides of the primary winding at
an equal distance from the center.
• Both the secondary windings have an equal no. of terms and
they are linked with each other in series opposition, i.e. they
are wounded in opposite directions, but are connected in
series with each other.
• The entire coil assembly remains stationary during distance
measurement. The moving part of the LVDT is an arm made of
magnetic material.

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Working Principle of LVDT

• The working of LVDT is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which
states that “the electrical power in the network induction circuit is proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit.”
• As the primary winding of LVDT is connected to the AC power supply, The
alternating magnetic field is produced in the primary winding, which results in the
induced EMF of secondary windings.
• Let’s assume that the induced voltages in the secondary windings S1 & S2 are E1 &
E2 respectively.
• Now according tousing the rate of change of magnetic flux i.e. dΦ/dt is directly
proportional to the magnitude of induced EMF i.e E1 and E2.
• The total output voltage Eo in the circuit is given by Eo = E1-E2

Characteristics of LVDT

• Display the displacement versus output voltage

graph for both left and right movement and how
the output voltage varies with linear
displacement.
• The LVDT is an electromechanical device that
generates an AC voltage output in direct
proportion to the ferromagnetic core and relative
displacement of the transformer.
• The ability of LVDT sensors to function in harsh
environments with high levels of vibration and
shock is a crucial feature.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT

• Advantages of LVDT
o High output: For minute variations in the magnetic core position, LVDTs provide a
high output.
o Low hysteresis: LVDTs are highly repeatable due to their extremely low hysteresis.
o Low electrical noise: Because LVDTs have sensing coils with low impedance, they can
produce extremely low electrical noise levels.
o Less power Consumption: LVDT’s consume less power as compared to other
Transducer’s
• Disadvantages of LVDT
o Since LVDT is an inductive transducer it is sensitive to the stray magnetic field, hence
an extra setup is required to protect from stray magnetic field.
o As LVDT is an electromagnetic device, it is also affected by vibrations and temperature.

RVDT – Rotary Variable Differential

Transformer
• The RVDT stands for Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer.
• It is one kind of
electromechanical transducer used to give the
linear o/p which is proportional to the i/p angular
displacement.
• The main function of RVDT is to detect the
angular displacement and converts it into an
electrical signal.
• The both the RVDT and LVDT workings are
similar, but LVDT employs the flexible iron core
for displacement measurement whereas in RVDT
employs a cam type core.
• This core will turn among the two windings of the
transformer using the shaft.

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RVDT Construction and Its Working

• RVDT transducer has two windings similar to a
normal transformer such as primary winding and two
secondary windings shown in the following RVDT
diagram.
• The two windings of the transformer wounded, where
the two secondary windings have an equivalent
number of windings. These are located on both sides
of the primary winding of the transformer.
• A cam formed a magnetic core which is made with a
soft iron is coupled to a shaft. Thus, this core can be
twisted among the windings.
• The construction of both the RVDT and LVDT are
similar but the main difference is the shape of the
core in transformer windings. This core will turn
between the two windings of the transformer due to
the shaft.

RVDT Working
• Based on the movement of the shaft in the transformer, the three conditions will be produced such as
o When the Core is at Null Position
o When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
o When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
• When the Core is at Null Position
o In the first condition, when the shaft is placed at the null position then the induced e.m.f in the
secondary windings are similar although reverse in phase. Thus, the differential o/p potential will be
zero, and the condition will be E1 = E2, where E0 = E1-E2 =0
• When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction
o In the second condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of clockwise; more section of the core
will enter across the primary winding. Therefore, the induced e.m.f across the primary winding is
higher than secondary winding. Hence, the differential o/p potential is positive, and the condition will
be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = positive.
• When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction
o In the third condition, when the shaft rotates in the direction of anticlockwise, more section of the
core will be entered across the secondary winding. Thus, the induced e.m.f across the secondary coil
is higher than the primary coil. Hence, the differential o/p potential is negative that means 1800
phase shift, and the condition will be E1 < E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.

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RVDT Advantages and Disadvantages

• The advantages of RVDT include the following.
o The consistency of RVDT is high
o The exactness of RVDT is high
o The lifespan is long
o The performance is repeatable
o The construction is compact and strong
o Durability
o Low cost
o Easy to handle electronic components
o Resolution is infinite
o Linearity is Excellent
o A wide range of dimension ranges
• The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following
o The contact among the measuring exterior as well as the nozzle is not possible
for all time.
o The output of the RVDT is linear (about +40 or -40 degrees), so it restricts the
usability.

RVDT Applications
• The applications of RVDT include the following.
o Fuel Valves as well as Hydraulic
o Modern machine tools
o Controls Cockpit
o Controls Fuel
o Brake with cable systems
o Engines bleed air-systems
o Robotics
o Aircraft and Avionics
o Process Control industry
o Weapon and Torpedo Systems
o Engine fuel control
o Nose wheel steering systems
o Fly by wire systems
o Push reverser
o Actuators for controlling Flight as well as Engine
o Ecological control systems

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LVDT Vs RVDT
Aspect LVDT RVDT
Type of Motion Linear Rotary

Output Signal Linear voltage proportional to Angular voltage proportional to

displacement rotation
Utilizes a movable core in a linear Utilizes a movable core in a rotary
Construction configuration configuration

Application Position sensing in linear systems Position sensing in rotary systems

(e.g., actuators, aerospace) (e.g., motors, robotics)
Output Range Typically ±10V or similar Typically ±10V or similar
High sensitivity to small
Sensitivity displacements High sensitivity to small rotations

Response Time Fast response time Fast response time

Temperature Range Can operate in wide temperature Can operate in wide temperature
ranges ranges
Slightly more complex mechanical
Mechanical Complexity Simpler mechanical design design
Cost Generally lower cost Generally higher cost

Synchro
• The Synchro is a type of transducer which transforms the angular position of
the shaft into an electric signal. It is used as an error detector and as
a rotary position sensor. The error occurs in the system because of the
misalignment of the shaft.
• Synchros System Types
o The synchro system is of two types. They are
 Control Type Synchro.
 Torque Transmission Type Synchro.
• Torque Transmission Type Synchros
o This type of synchros has small output torque, and hence they are used for
running the very light load like a pointer. The control type Synchro is used
for driving the large loads.
• Control Type Synchros System
o The controls synchros is used for error detection in positional control
systems. Their systems consist two units. They are
 Synchro Transmitter
 Synchro receiver

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Synchros Transmitter
• Their construction is similar to the three phase alternator.
• The stator of the synchros is made of steel for reducing the iron losses. The stator is slotted for
housing the three phase windings.
• The axis of the stator winding is kept 120º apart from each other
• The AC voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter.
• The coils of the stator windings are connected in star.
• The rotor of the synchros is a dumbbell in shape, and a concentric coil is wound on it.
• The AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of slip rings.
• Consider the voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter.
• The voltage applied to the rotor induces the magnetizing current and an alternating flux along its
axis. The voltage is induced in the stator winding because of the mutual induction between the
rotor and stator flux.
• The flux linked in the stator winding is equal to the cosine of the angle between the rotor and
stator. The voltage is induced in the stator winding.

Microsyn

• This is a variable-reluctance transducer used to detect small

motions, giving output signals as low as 0.01° of changes in
angles.
• In the Microsyn transducer above, the coils are connected in
such a way that at the null position of the rotary element, the
voltages in coils 1 and 3 are balanced by voltages induced in
coils 2 and 4.

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Microsyn

• The motion of the rotor in the clockwise direction increases the reluctance of coils 1 and 3 while decreasing the reluctance of coils
2 and 4, thus giving a net output voltage vo.
• The movement in the counterclockwise direction causes a similar effect in coils 2 and 4 with a 180° phase shift.
• A direction sensitive output can be obtained by using phase-sensitive demodulators
• The sensitivity of the device can be made as high as 5 V per degree of rotation.
• The nonlinearity may vary from 0.5% to 1.0% full scale.
• The key benefits of these transducers are that the rotor does not have windings and slip-rings and the magnetic reaction torque is
also negligible.
• Application
o Microsyn transducers are expansively used in applications involving gyroscopes.

Accelerometer
• An accelerometer is a device that measures
acceleration forces, such as gravity and motion, by
converting them into electrical signals.
• These devices are used in various technologies,
including smartphones for orientation detection
and vehicles for stability control.
• Their ability to detect and measure changes in
speed, direction, and tilt makes them essential in
numerous applications.
• In this article, we will learn about the
accelerometer, its working principle, types and
applications.

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Components of Accelerometer
• There are following components of an accelerometer:
• Mass: Accelerometers usually contain a small mass that experiences
in response to changes in acceleration. The mass is often attached to
a spring or other mechanism that allows it to move freely on
experiencing external forces
• Sensing Element: The movement of the mass is detected by a
sensing element, which is a component that converts mechanical
motion into an electrical signal. Common sensing elements are
piezoelectric crystals, capacitive plates, and microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS). The sensing element detects changes in
acceleration and generates a corresponding electrical signal.
• Signal Processing Circuit: The electrical signal from the sensing
element is processed by circuit within the accelerometer. This circuitry
may include amplifiers, filters, and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs)
to condition the signal and make it suitable for further analysis.

How Does an Accelerometer Work?

• Accelerometers are devices designed to measure
acceleration forces, which can be static, like the pull
of gravity, or dynamic, as seen in movement or
vibrations.
• The core component of an accelerometer is a
seismic mass, also known as a proof mass,
attached to a mechanical suspension system within
a rigid frame.
• When the device accelerates, the mass displaces
relative to its frame due to inertia.
• This displacement is detected and measured by
various means, depending on the type of
accelerometer, leading to the detection of
acceleration.

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Types of Accelerometer
• Piezoresistive Accelerometers
o A piezoresistive accelerometer measures acceleration by detecting changes in electrical
resistance in materials under stress. Integrated into a microelectromechanical system
(MEMS), these changes are converted into electrical signals. This technology is essential in
applications ranging from automotive safety to consumer electronics.
• Piezoelectric Accelerometers
o Piezoelectric accelerometers measure acceleration by utilizing the piezoelectric effect, where
certain materials generate an electrical charge in response to mechanical stress. This charge
is proportional to the acceleration experienced by the sensor. They are widely used for precise
vibration, shock, and dynamic motion monitoring in various industries.
• Capacitive Accelerometers
o Capacitive accelerometers measure acceleration based on changes in capacitance within a
microelectromechanical system (MEMS). As the internal structure of the accelerometer moves
under acceleration, the capacitance between microstructures changes, producing an electrical
signal. These devices are commonly used in consumer electronics, automotive systems, and
industrial applications for motion sensing and vibration analysis.
• Triaxial Accelerometers
o Triaxial accelerometers are sensors capable of measuring acceleration simultaneously along
three orthogonal axes (X, Y, and Z). This capability allows for comprehensive motion detection
and analysis in three-dimensional space. They are extensively used in applications ranging
from structural health monitoring to human motion analysis.

Applications of Accelerometer
• Accelerometers are versatile sensors used across various fields due to their ability to measure
acceleration and orientation. These are some key applications:
o Consumer Electronics: Integrated into smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices for
screen orientation, step tracking, and game control.
o Automotive: Employed in vehicle dynamic control systems, airbag deployment systems,
and as part of anti-theft technologies.
o Aerospace and Aviation: Crucial for navigation systems, flight testing, and monitoring
aircraft performance.
o Industrial: Used in machinery for vibration analysis to predict maintenance needs and
prevent failures.
o Healthcare: Helps in patient monitoring systems and rehabilitation devices to assess
body movement and gait.
o Building and Structural Monitoring: Monitors the integrity of structures and detects
vibrations or movements that may indicate instability or seismic activity.

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• Ranging sensors include sensors that require no physical contact with the object being detected.

Ranging • They allow a robot to see an obstacle without actually having to come into contact with it.
• This can prevent possible entanglement, allow for better obstacle avoidance (over touch feedback methods), and

sensors
possibly allow software to distinguish between obstacles of different shapes and sizes.
• There are several methods used to allow a sensor to detect obstacles from a distance.
• Light-based ranging sensors use multiple methods for detecting obstacles and determining range.
• The simplest method uses the intensity of the reflected light from an obstacle to estimate distance.
• However, this can be significantly affected by the color/reflectivity of the obstacle and external light sources.
• A more common method is to use a beam of light projected at an angle and a strip of detectors spaced away from the
emitter as in the animation to the right. The pictured Sharp sensor uses this method. This method is less affected by the
color/reflectivity of the object and ambient light.
• LIDAR, a more advanced method of range detection, uses a laser that is swept across the sensor's field of view. The
reflected laser light is usually analyzed one of two ways.
• Units with longer ranges sometimes actually determine distance by measuring the time it takes for the laser pulse to
return to the sensor. This requires extremely fast timing circuitry.
• Another method uses phase shift detection to determine range by analyzing the incoming light and comparing it to a
reference signal.

Ultrasonic Ranging
• Ultrasonic sensors are electronic devices that calculate the target’s
distance by emission of ultrasonic sound waves and convert those waves
into electrical signals. The speed of emitted ultrasonic waves traveling
speed is faster than the audible sound.
• There are mainly two essential elements which are the transmitter and
receiver. Using the piezoelectric crystals, the transmitter generates sound,
and from there it travels to the target and gets back to the receiver
component.
• To know the distance between the target and the sensor, the sensor
calculates the amount of time required for sound emission to travel from
transmitter to receiver. The calculation is done as follows:
• Formula: Distance = Speed * Time
o Distance = Speed of Sound in Air * (Time Taken / 2)
o Note: Speed of sound in air = 344 m/s.

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Working
• Ultrasonic sensor working principle is either similar to sonar or radar which evaluates the target/object attributes by
understanding the received echoes from sound/radio waves correspondingly.
• These sensors produce high-frequency sound waves and analyze the echo which is received from the sensor. The sensors
measure the time interval between transmitted and received echoes so that the distance to the target is known.
• These sections are closely placed so that the sound travel in a straight line from the transmitter to the target and travels back to
the receiver.
• Making sure to have minimal distance between transmitter and receiver section delivers minimal errors while calculations.
• These devices are also termed ultrasonic transceivers because both the transmitter and receiver sections are combined in a
single unit which considerably minimizes the PCB footprint.
• Here, the sensor operates as a burst signal and it is transmitted for some period.
• Later the transmission, there exists a silent period and this period is termed response time. The response time indicates that it
is waiting for the reflected waves.
• The shape of the acoustic waves that leave the transmitter section resembles the same shape of the light emitted from a laser so
beam angle and spread have to be measured.
• When the sound waves move away from the transmitter, the detection area increases vertically and sideways too.
• Because of the varying detection area, the coverage specification is considered either as beam angle/beamwidth other than the
standard area of detection.

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Ultrasonic Sensor
• In most of the domains, ultrasonic sensors are widely employed because of their advantages which are as follows:
• Advantages
o These devices are not impacted by the target’s color.
o The device shows flexibility in its distance measurement range where it holds the capability of measuring in the range of a
few centimeters to five meters.
o It provides consistent outcomes and shows high reliability.
o High precision device.
o The measurements can be made every second thus showing rapid refresh rates.
• Disadvantages
• Even though ultrasonic sensors employ versatile technology, there are a few limitations to be considered and those are:
o As sound speed is based on humidity and temperature, environmental circumstances might show an impact on the
accuracy while measuring the distance.
o For minimal and embedded projects, ultrasonic sensors seem to be a not good option because these devices are large to
integrate with small projects.
o These sensors will not function in a vacuum.
o The sensors will get dirt, wet and frozen which results in errors while measuring or the functionality gets impacted.

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Applications
• The applications of ultrasonic sensors are:
o Used in robotic sensing for positioning of robotic arms.
o Employed in washdown design for constantly noticing the filling level of
objects on a conveyor belt.
o Used to detect objects.
o The diameter of the coil/roll can be known by ultrasonic sensors.
o Used to avoid a collision.
o Proximity detection.

• Laser Range
Sensor (LIDAR)
• LiDAR is an acronym for Light Detection and
Ranging. In LiDAR, laser light is sent from a
source (transmitter) and reflected from objects
in the scene.
• The reflected light is detected by the system
receiver and the time of flight (TOF) is used to
develop a distance map of the objects in the
scene.

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How Does LiDAR Work

• Essentially, LiDAR is a ranging device, which

measures the distance to a target.
• The distance is measured by sending a short laser
pulse and recording the time lapse between outgoing
light pulse and the detection of the reflected (back-
scattered) light pulse.
• A LiDAR system may use a scan mirror, multiple laser
beams, or other means to "scan" the object space.
With the ability to provide accurate measurement of
distances

What are the Challenges with LiDAR?

• There are some well-known challenges with operational LiDAR systems. These challenges depend on the type of LiDAR system.
Here are some examples:
• The isolation and rejection of signal from the emitted beam - The radiance of the probing beam is generally much greater
than that of the return beam. Care must be taken to make sure the probing beam is not reflected or scattered by the system back
into the receiver such that the detector is saturated and unable to detect external targets.
• Spurious returns from debris in the atmosphere between the transmitter and the intended targets - The debris can cause
such a strong spurious return that the return from the intended targets is not reliably detected.
• Limitations on available optical power -A system with more power in the beam provides higher accuracy but is more
expensive to operate.
• Scanning speed-Safety can be an issue when the laser source is operating at a frequency dangerous to human eyes. This
issue is being mitigated by other approaches such as flash LiDAR which illuminate a large area all at once and by operating at
eye-safe wavelengths.
• Device crosstalk-signals from nearby LiDAR devices might interfere with the signal of interest. The challenge faced now
is how to differentiate signals emitted by other LiDAR devices nearby. Various approaches with signal chirping and isolation are
under development.
• Cost and maintenance of LiDAR systems – These systems are more expensive than some alternative types of sensors
however there is active development to overcome the high cost and produce systems at lower prices for wider use. Rejection of
returns from unintended objects- This is similar to the rejection of atmospheric spurious signal as mentioned previously.
However, it can also happen in clear air scenarios. Addressing this challenge generally involves minimizing the size of the beam
at various target distances as well as over the field-of-view received back at the LiDAR receiver.

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• Autonomous Vehicles
o LiDAR technology serves as the vigilant eyes of autonomous vehicles, playing a pivotal
role in enabling safe and efficient navigation.

• Collision Avoidance
o LiDAR is the watchful eye that spots potential collisions before they happen

• Autonomous Cruise Control (ACC)

Applications
o Ever been annoyed by a car tailgating you or wished the car in front would speed up?
LiDAR is the technology turning that wish into reality

• Obstacle Detection

of LiDAR
o LiDAR turns an autonomous vehicle into a keen observer of its environment

• Aerial Inspection
o LiDAR technology transforms aerial inspections by mounting it on drones.

• Bridge Inspections
o Consider bridge inspections, where LiDAR-equipped drones swiftly and precisely evaluate
conditions.

• Precision Agriculture
o LiDAR data proves invaluable in forecasting crop yields and monitoring crop conditions
throughout the growing season.

• Robotics
o LiDAR technology is a game-changer for robotics, bringing precision and adaptability to
various crucial functions:

GPS Sensor

• As we know GPS stands for Global Positioning

System. The system contains satellites and
ground based control installations.
• GPS sensor consists of surface mount chip
which processes signals from GPS satellites
using a small rectangular antenna, often
mounted on the top of the GPS chip.
o GPS module is usually small board on
which GPS sensor is mounted with
additional components.
o GPS receiver is a device which includes
data display and other components such as
memory for data storage in addition to GPS
module.

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GPS working
• GPS(Global Positioning System) is a satellite-based navigation system. It provides time
and location-based information to a GPS receiver, located anywhere on or near the
earth surface.
• GPS works in all weather conditions, provided there is an unobstructed line of sight
communication with 4 or more GPS satellites. GPS is managed by the US Air Force.
• A GPS operates independently of the user’s internet connection or telephone signal.
However, their presence increases the effectiveness of GPS positioning.
• GPS was initially developed by the US government for military purpose, but currently,
anyone with a GPS receiver can receive radio signals from GPS satellites.

• Initially when GPS was developed for military use, there were 24 GPS satellites orbiting
the earth every 12 hours at a height of 20, 180 km.
• 4 GPS satellites were located in each of the 6 orbits with 60 degree orientation between
each other. These orbital planes do not rotate with respect to any star.
• Later, the number of satellites were increased to 32, to improve location accuracy.
• Localization of any GPS receiver is done through time of flight measurement.
• The greater the number of satellite in line of sight to a GPS receiver, the greater is the
accuracy in determining the position of the receiver.

What is
trilateration
• Trilateration is the process of determining your position
based on the intersection of spheres.
• When a receiver receives a signal from one of the satellite,
it calculates its distance from the satellite considering a 3-
D sphere with the satellite located at the center of the
sphere.
• Once the receiver does the same with 3 other GPS
satellites, the receiver then proceeds to find the
intersection point of the 3 spheres to calculate it’s location.
• Once the position of a receiver is calculated, the GPS
device can then easily calculate:
o Time of sunrise and sunset
o Speed
o Track
o distance to destination
• of the GPS receiver.

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RF Beacons
• An RF beacon is a small, electronic device that transmits a radio frequency
(RF) signal at a specific frequency and power level.
• This signal can be used for various purposes, including:
o Location tracking: Beacons can be used to determine the location of a
device or person within a specific area.
o Proximity detection: Beacons can be used to detect when a device or
person is within a certain distance of another.
o Asset tracking: Beacons can be attached to valuable assets to track
their location and prevent theft.
o Indoor navigation: Beacons can be used to provide indoor navigation
guidance, particularly in large buildings or complexes.

Components of an RF Beacon
• A typical RF beacon consists of the following components:
o Microcontroller: This is the brain of the beacon, responsible for controlling the transmission of the RF signal
and other functions.
o RF transmitter: This component generates and transmits the RF signal at the desired frequency and power
level.
o Antenna: This component radiates the RF signal into the surrounding environment.
o Power source: This can be a battery, solar panel, or other power source.

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Types of RF Beacons
• There are several types of RF beacons, each with its own unique characteristics:
o Active beacons: These beacons continuously transmit a signal, regardless of whether there are any devices
within range.
o Passive beacons: These beacons only transmit a signal when triggered by an external event, such as the
presence of a device within range.
o Bluetooth beacons: These beacons use Bluetooth technology to transmit a signal.
o Ultra-wideband (UWB) beacons: These beacons use UWB technology to transmit a signal, which allows for
very precise location tracking.
o Near-field communication (NFC) beacons: These beacons use NFC technology to transmit a signal over
short distances.

Applications of
RF Beacons
• RF beacons have a wide range of applications, including:
• Retail: Beacons can be used to provide targeted advertising and
promotions to customers based on their location within a store.
• Healthcare: Beacons can be used to track the location of medical
equipment and patients within a hospital.
• Manufacturing: Beacons can be used to track the location of
products and equipment within a factory.
• Security: Beacons can be used to detect intruders and monitor the
perimeter of a property.
• Gaming: Beacons can be used to create interactive gaming
experiences.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of RF Beacons

• Advantages:
o Low cost: RF beacons are relatively inexpensive to produce and deploy.
o Long range: RF beacons can transmit signals over long distances, making them suitable for a variety of applications.
o Versatility: RF beacons can be used for a wide range of purposes.
o Battery-powered: Many RF beacons are battery-powered, making them easy to deploy in remote locations.
• Disadvantages:
o Interference: RF signals can be subject to interference from other sources, which can affect their performance.
o Security concerns: RF beacons can be used for malicious purposes, such as tracking people without their consent.
o Limited accuracy: The accuracy of location tracking using RF beacons can vary depending on factors such as the environment and the
number of beacons deployed.

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