16.2.

Revision: transfer function, poles and zeros

Lecture 16 Recall: a system’s transfer function is given by
Poles, zeros and Bode plots VOUT (s )
T (s ) =
1. In this lecture: Vin (s )
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Revision: transfer function, poles and zeros It is possible to identify the location of poles and zeros from a system’s
Magnitude response transfer function at physical frequencies by replacing s by jω.
Phase response
16.3 Example Impedance
16.4 Asymptotic Bode plots Circuit element s-domain Phasor domain
R Z& R = R Z& R = R
16.1. Introduction
Recall filters from last year: the gain depends heavily on the frequency of the L Z& L = sL Z& L = jωL
input voltage.
C 1 1 j
The op-amp design we are moving towards uses feedback – a very powerful Z&C = Z&C = =−
technique for improving performance. When we introduce feedback, sC jωC ωC
however, we can introduce instability into the circuit’s operation. With these expressions we can calculate the voltage transfer characteristic.
Example
In the next few lectures we will examine the criteria for stability in electronic Calculate the transfer function of the following circuit:
circuits.
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R2 R1R2C
Adc = and ωp = = C (R1 R2 )
R1 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Vin
Notes
R2 C Vout Adc is known as the d.c. gain: or low-frequency gain: it is the value of
the transfer characteristic as the Laplace variable s→0.

Voltage division gives

ωp is a pole frequency: as s approaches –ωp, the value of the transfer
function approaches infinity (on a graph this looks like a near-vertical
R 2 || Z C line, or pole). In a stable system, therefore, all the pole frequencies ωp
Vout (s ) = Vin (s ) are positive, so that a frequency of −ωp cannot physically exist.
R1 + R 2 || Z C
Some algebra gives the transfer function:

Vout (s ) 1 Adc
T (s ) = = =
Vin (s ) R + R2 s
sCR1 + 1 1+
R2 ωp
where

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To see how the circuit behaves with real frequencies, substitute jω for s in the Magnitude response
transfer characteristic, to give
So the magnitude response (or gain) of the circuit is a real function of ω that
Adc tells how the magnitude of Vout(ω) changes as ω changes.
T ( jω ) =
ω
1+ j
ωp
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 1E+08 1E+09
20

-- a complex function (with a real and imaginary part) 0

As you may know, the transfer characteristic controls not only the amplitude -20
of the output voltage, but also its phase.
-40
We can see how the amplitude of an output sine-wave changes with

Gain (dB)
frequency, by considering the magnitude of the transfer characteristic:
-60

-80
Adc Adc Adc
T ( jω ) = = = -- a real function
ω ω 2
⎛ω ⎞
-100
1+ j 1+ j
ωp ωp 1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ω ⎟
⎝ p⎠ -120
angular frequency (rad/s)

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For instance, at ω=0 the gain is a maximum, Adc, whereas at high frequencies Phase response
(→ ∞) the gain approaches zero. This circuit is therefore a low-pass filter.
Other circuits behave very differently. To find out how much Vout(ω) goes out of phase with Vin(ω), simply consider
the phase response of the circuit:
Notice from the formula that
⎛ ω ⎞⎟ ω
1 ∠T ( jω ) = ∠Adc − ∠⎜1 + j = − tan −1
|T(jω= jωp)| = , or 0.7071, or –3.010 dB. ⎜ ω p ⎟⎠ ωp
2 ⎝
For this reason, this special frequency is known as a 3dB point. For instance, in this circuit:

Notice that in the graph both axes are logarithmic: ∠T ( jω = 0) = 0°

• The x-axis has units of angular frequency, but in multiples of 10. ∠T ( jω p ) = −45°
Each multiple of 10 is called a decade. For instance, the distance
between 1 rad/s and 10 rad/s is 1 decade, the distance between ∠T ( jω → ∞) → −90°
1000 rad/s and 10000 rad/s is 1 decade.

• The y-axis has units of decibels. Recall: In other words, at high frequencies Vout lags Vin by up to 90° for this low-pass
filter. The transition happens at frequencies around the 3dB frequency.
V2
g (ω ) (dB) = 20 log10
V1

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 Angular frequency (rad/s) 16.3. Example
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09 Calculate the poles and zeros of the following transfer function, and sketch
0 the phase and gain Bode plots for the frequencies 1Hz to 1 MHz. Calculate
-10 the gain and phase values at the following frequencies.
-20
Phase(degrees)
ω = 10 rad/s
-30
ω = 103 rad/s
-40 ω = 105 rad/s
-50
-60 10s
T (s) =
-70
⎛ s ⎞⎛ s ⎞
-80 ⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎜1 + 5 ⎟
-90
⎝ 10 ⎠⎝ 10 ⎠
-100

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Solution The magnitude response looks like

1. Find the zeros. Where does T(s) tend to zero? When the numerator
10 jω 10ω
equals zero, or when the denominator tends to infinity: g (ω ) = T ( s = jω ) = =
ω ω ⎛ ω ⎞
2
⎛ ω ⎞
2
sz1 = 0, so ωz1 = 0 rad/s – a zero at zero. 1+ j 2
1+ j 5 12 + ⎜ 2 ⎟ 12 + ⎜ 5 ⎟
sz2 = ∝, so ωz2 = ∝ -- a zero at very high frequencies – can be ignored. 10 10 ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
2. Find the poles. Where does T(s) tend to infinity? When the numerator and the Bode gain plot looks like (using Excel or Matlab):
tends to infinity, or when the denominator equals zero:
Angular Frequency (rad/s)
sp1 = -102, so ωp1 = -102 rad/s 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 1E+07 1E+08

sp2 = -105, so ωp2 = -105 rad/s 70

60
Some confusing terminology to be aware of:
50

• Strictly speaking, the corresponding positive frequencies +102 rad/s Gain(dB) 40

and +105 rad/s are the 3dB frequencies, but are often referred to as 30
the pole frequencies!
20

10

-10

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The phase response looks like 16.4. Asymptotic Bode plots
ω ω
p (ω ) = ∠T ( jω ) = +∠( j10ω ) − ∠(1 + j 2
) − ∠(1 + j 5
) Thankfully, if you haven’t a numerical package to hand, there is still a way to
10 10 produce approximate Bode plots that serve your purposes. Such plots are
called asymptotic Bode plots, and comprise straight lines approximating the
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ ω ⎞
= +90° − tan −1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ − tan −1 ⎜ 5 ⎟ shape of the true Bode plot.
⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎝ 10 ⎠
100
Asymptotic gain plot
80
The rules:
1. At a pole, the slope of the plot increases by 20 dB/decade.
60
2. At a zero, the slope of the plot decreases by 20 dB/decade.
40
In the present case, there is
Phase(degrees)

20
A zero (at 0 rad/s),
0 a pole at 102 rad/s and
-20 a pole at 105 rad/s.
-40
So the slope of the asymptotic gain curve is:
-60 +20 dB/decade between 0 rad/s (off the scale) and 102 rad/s;
-80 +0 dB/decade between 102 rad/s and 105 rad/s;
-100
-20 dB/decade beyond 105 rad/s
1.00E-02 1.00E+00 1.00E+02 1.00E+04 1.00E+06 1.00E+08
and the asymptotic Bode gain plot looks like
Angular Frequency (rad/s)

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Angular Frequency (rad/s) Asymptotic phase plot

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 107 108
70
The rules:
1. At a zero, the phase rises linearly by 90°: 45° in the decade before the
60
zero, 45° in the decade after.
50 2. At a zero, the phase falls linearly by 90°: 45° in the decade before the
zero, 45° in the decade after.
Gain(dB)

40

30 In the present case, there is

20 A zero (at 0 rad/s),
a pole at 102 rad/s and
10
a pole at 105 rad/s.
0
So the phase is approximately:
-10
Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 1. +90° between 0 rad/s (off the scale) and 101 rad/s;
2. Falling by 45°/dec between 101 rad/s (ωp÷10)and 103 rad/s (ωp×10)
3. 0° between 103 rad/s and 104 rad/s;
This is quite a good approximation for most purposes. 4. Falling by 45°/dec between 104 rad/s (ωp÷10)and 106 rad/s (ωp×10)
5. -90° above 106 rad/s

and the asymptotic Bode gain plot looks like

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 Region 3
Region 1 Region 2 Region 4 Region 5

100
80
60
Phase(degrees)

40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 105 106 107
Angular Frequency (rad/s)

END OF LECTURE

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