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Unit No 03
Three Phase Alternator
Teaching hours: 14 Marks: 16: 02 R, 06 U, 08 A

Unit Unit Outcomes (UOs) Topics and Sub Topics

Three 3a. Explain with sketch working of given type of 3.1 Principle of working, moving and stationary armatures
Phase alternator 3.2 Constructional details: Parts and their functions, rotor
Alternator 3b. Explain with sketch construction of the given type of construction, Windings: Single and Double layer
alternator 3.3 E.M.F. equation of Alternator with numerical by considering
3c. Compare the construction of the given type of short pitch factor and distribution factor.
alternator E.M.F. equation of Alternator with numerical by considering
3d. Determine the voltage regulation at the specified short pitch factor and distribution factor
operating conditions 3.4 Alternator loading: Factors affecting the terminal voltage of
3e. Describe the procedure to maintain the given type of alternator; Armature resistance and leakage reactance drops.
three phase alternator 3.5 Armature reaction at various power factors and synchronous
impedance.
3.6 Voltage regulation: direct loading and synchronous
impedance methods.
3.7 Maintenance of alternators

Course Outcome: Use the three phase relevant Alternator for different load conditions

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS:

3.1.1 Definition of Alternator: The definition of alternator is hidden in the name of this machine
itself. An alternator is a machine which converts mechanical energy from a prime mover to AC
electric power at specific voltage and current. It is also known as synchronous generator.

CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATORS

There is chief constructional difference between D C generator and an alternator. In D C

generator armature rotates and field is stationary, whereas in case of alternator the armature is
stationary and field revolves. Therefore armature winding in case of alternator is kept on stator
and field winding on rotor.

Q) State advantages of rotating field type alternators. (Any four) W 19

Q) List four advantages of a stationary armature and rotating field of 3-phase alternator. S23

Following Advantages of stationary armature and rotating field of a 3-phase alternator:

Various advantages of rotating field can be stated as,

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a. The generation level of AC voltage may be higher as 11 KV to 33 KV. This gets induced in the
armature. For stationary armature large space can be provided to accommodate large number of
conductors and the insulations.
b. It is always better to protect high voltage winding from the centrifugal forces caused due to the
rotation. So high voltage armature is generally kept stationary. This avoids the interaction of
mechanical and electrical stresses.
c. It is easier to collect larger currents at very high voltage from a stationary member than from the
slip ring and brush assembly. The voltage required to be supplied to the field is very low (110 V
to 220 V dc) and hence can be easily supplied with the help of slip ring and brush assembly by
keeping it rotating.
d. Due to low voltage level on the field side, the insulation required is less and hence field system
has very low inertia. It is always better to rotate low inertia system than high inertia, as efforts
required to rotate low inertia system are always less.
e. Rotating field makes the overall construction very simple. With simple, robust mechanical
construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at high speeds. So greater output can be
obtained from an alternator of given size.
f. If field is rotating, to excite it be external dc supply two slip rings are enough. One each for
positive and negative terminals. As against this, in three phase rotating armature the minimum
number of slip rings required are three and cannot be easily insulated due to high voltage levels.
g. The ventilation arrangement for high voltage side can be improved if it is kept stationary.
h. Rotating field is comparatively light and can run with high speed.
OR

Advantages of stationary armature and rotating field of a 3-phase alternator:

The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and is connected to dc supply through two
slip rings. The 3-phase armature winding is placed on the stator.

This arrangement has the following advantages:

1. It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages for which the alternators are usually
designed. It is because they are not subjected to centrifugal forces and also extra space is available
due to the stationary arrangement of the armature.

Or

It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for high AC voltage, which may have as high a
value as 30KV or more.

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2. The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to load without going through large,
unreliable slip rings and brushes.

3. Only two slip rings are required for dc supply to the field winding on the rotor.

Since the exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light construction.
Or The sliding contacts i.e. slip rings are transferred to the low voltage, low power DC field
current which can, therefore be easily insulated.

4. Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor, higher speed of rotating dc field is possible.
This increases the output obtainable from a machine of given dimensions.

Q) Explain detailed construction of Alternator

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION

1. Stator frame
There is difference between the function of DC generator frame and alternator frame function. In
DC generator frame (yoke) is used to carry flux but in alternator it is not used for that purpose. In
case of alternator it is used to hold the armature stampings and windings in position.

2. Stator Core
Actually stator core means armature core in
case of alternator. This armature core is
supported by stator frame. Armature core is
built with laminations of special magnetic iron
or steel alloy. The armature core is laminated to
reduce eddy current loss. These laminations are
insulated. In some cases a space is kept between
laminations for cooling purpose.

On the inner periphery of this core slots are provided for armature conductors. The slots are of
different shapes as shown in figure.

In case of wide open slots it is easy to insert and

easy to remove the winding. But there is one
disadvantage and that is in case wide of open
slots flux is distributed into bunches. It causes
ripples in generated emf wave and the does not

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remain pure sine wave.

To overcome this problem semi-closed slots are better. But in case of semi-closed form wound
coils are not allowed. The closed slots do not disturb the flux. The advantage of closed slots is that
they tend to increase the inductance of winding. These slots are rarely used because it is difficult
to insert winding in slot, labour cost is also more, and the overall structure of winding becomes
complicated.

3. Rotor
Depending up on construction there are two types of rotors:

(i) Cylindrical rotor (ii) salient pole rotor

Cylindrical rotor diameter is small but length is more. It is used for high speed operations. It is
used in turbo alternators which are coupled with steam turbine having speed up to 3000 RPM.

Whereas salient pole rotor diameter is more but length of rotor is small. It is used for low speed
operation. It is commonly used at hydro alternator in hydro power stations where speed of hydro
turbine is low approximately 750 RPM.

Q) State the necessity of AC generator. State any two parts of AC generator with material used
for them. (Winter 14)

Necessity of Alternator

 In India the transmission and distribution system of electrical energy is based on three phase &,
single phase AC voltages therefore the generation of three phase AC voltages is to be done.
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 For this purpose AC generator is required. In India, in the most of the power generating stations,
AC generator is used for generating 3-Ph voltages.
Basic parts of AC generator

1. Armature System

2. Field System

Material Used in AC generator

1. Armature: Copper / Aluminium wire for armature winding and silicon steel laminations for
armature core
2. Field : Silicon steel laminations for field pole core, copper /Aluminium wire for field winding

Working principle

As we know that, 3-phase alternator has a stationary armature and a rotating magnetic field. In the
three-phase alternator, the rotor winding (serves as field winding) is energized from a DC supply
and alternate north and south poles are developed on the rotor.

When the rotor is rotated (say in anticlockwise direction) by a prime mover (engine, turbine, etc.),
the stator winding (serves as armature winding) is cut by the magnetic flux of the rotor poles.
Hence according to Faraday’s law an emf is induced in conductors. The direction of this emf is
found out by Fleming’s right hand rule.

The basic principle of Alternator and that of DC generator is same. Both operate on fundamental
principle of electromagnetic induction. Whenever rotor rotates, the stator conductors (being
stationary) are cut by the magnetic flux.

Types of three phase alternators according to type of rotors

Q) State the classification of alternator on the basis of rotor construction

On the basis of rotor construction alternators are salient pole and cylindrical rotor alternators. The
difference of both is given below.

Q) Compare salient pole rotor with smooth cylindrical rotor of 3 phase alternator (any six
points). S23

Q) Compare salient pole and cylindrical rotor alternator (any four points) S 15

SN Points Salient pole rotor Cylindrical rotor

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Alternator Alternator
01 Operating speed Low medium High
02 Rotor construction Projected type bulky & Cylindrical poles type
heavy weight comparatively moderate weight
03 Ratio of core length to Large Small
bore diameter
04 Application In hydro-power station In thermal station
05 Axial length Short Large
06 Diameter Large Small
07 Operation Noisy Very smooth
08 Centrifugal stresses Non-uniform Uniform

Relationship between synchronous speed and frequency

Q) Derive the relationship between Ns and f of alternator. (S 15)

Let,

= total number of field poles,

= pair of field poles

= Speed of the field poles in rpm

= speed of the field poles in rps and f = frequency of the generated voltage in Hz

One complete cycle of voltage is generated in an armature coil when one pair of field poles passes
over the coil, the number of cycles generated in one revolution of the rotor will be equal to the
number of pairs of field poles;

i.e. Number of cycles per revolution =

Also, Number of revolutions per second =

Therefore f = x

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Since = Ns / 60 and =P/2

Therefore

Armature winding

Concept of short pitch winding:

Q) Define the following terms and write their mathematical expression. i) Pitch factor ii)
Distribution factor related to the winding of alternator. S 22

If the coil span of winding is 180 0 electrical, it is called as full pitched winding. For example, a 4
pole 24 slots alternator may have coil span = 24 / 4 = 6 slots / pole. For maximum voltage, the
coil should be full pitched. It means that if one coil side is in slot number 01, the other side should
be in slot number 07. The two slots 01 and 07 being one pole pitch or 180 0 electrical apart.

If the coil sides are placed in slot 1 and 6, then it is called

as short pitched or fractional pitched winding, because coil
span is equal to 5/6 of a pole pitch. It falls back by 1/6 pole
pitch or by

THE ADVANTAGES OF SHORT PITCHED COILS

Q) State advantages of short pitch winding over full pitch

winding in alternators. W 19

Advantages of Short Pitch Winding over Full Pitch Winding in Alternators:

1) Short pitching reduces the amount of copper needed for end connection when compared with
full pitched coil.

2) They improve the waveform of generated EMF i.e. generated EMF can be made approximately
to sine wave more easily and the distorting harmonics can be reduced.

3) Due to the elimination of high frequency harmonics, eddy current and hysteresis losses are
reduced, thereby increasing the efficiency.

4) The power quality of generated emf is improved.

Q) State the disadvantage of short pitched winding

The only disadvantage of using short pitch winding is that the total voltage around the coil is
reduced by certain amount. Because in short pitch case the voltage induced in two sides of short

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pitch winding is somewhat out of phase. Therefore the resultant voltage in this case is slightly less
than arithmetic sum.

Q) Define chording factor for alternator winding W 22.

The pitch factor or coil span factor or chording factor is defined as

It is always less than unity

Let be induced voltage in each side of coil. If the coil sides are full pitched i.e. if its two sides
are one pole pitch apart, then total induced emf in coil would be 2

The resultant in case of short pitch is

We know that;

Therefore; ; means that ( )

Therefore

√ becomes

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Hence, pitch factor, = 0.966.

In general, if the coil span falls short of full-pitch by an angle α (electrical), the

This angle is known as chording angle and the winding employing short-pitched coils is called
chorded winding.

Therefore the generalized formula for is if the short pitch angle is electrical

Note. The value of α will usually be given in the question, if not, then assume kc = 1.

Q) Calculate the value of pitch factor for a 3 phase winding of a 4 pole alternator having 36 slots
and the coil is spread from 1st slot up to 7th slot. (S 16)

Answer: Given Data:

3-ph, 4 Pole, Synchronous alternator, Number of armature Slots = 36

Pole pitch = No of slots / P = 36 / 4 = 9

The coil is spread from 1 to 7 th slot. This means that coil pitch is shorter than pole pitch by 2
Number of slots

Coil span factor =

Q) State why distributed winding is preferred over concentrated winding in alternator. S 23

The distributed winding is preferred over concentrated winding in alternator due to its following
advantages:

ADVANTAGES OF DISTRIBUTED WINDING OVER CONCENTRATED WINDING

1) It reduces harmonics present in the generated emf which also improves the sine waveform.

2) It reduces armature reaction and improves cooling.

3) The coil is distributed over the slots, so the core (copper and iron) is fully used.

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4) It improves the mechanical strength of the winding.

Distribution factor or Breadth factor Kd

In practical case windings are not concentrated in one slot but in each phase windings are
distributed in a number of slots.

This distribution of winding form polar groups under each pole

The coils / phase are displaced from each other by a certain angle.

The result is that the emfs induced in coil sides constituting a polar group are not in phase with
each other but differ by an angle equal to angular displacement of the slots.

If total number of slots for a 4 pole 3 phase machine are 36, the slots / pole / phase become 3.

For example, coils 1, 2 and 3 belong to R phase. If these three coils are bunched in one slot, the
total emf induced will be arithmetic sum of three emfs i.e. 3Es.

Since the coils are distributed, the individual emfs have a phase difference of 20° with each other.
Their vector sum as seen from figure below (b) is

The distribution factor is defined as

In the present case;

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Q) Explain why armature winding of an alternator is short pitched and distributed. (S 15)

The armature of an alternator is short pitched and Distributed Because of following

Advantages:

1. The wave form of induced emf will be improved i.e. the wave form will be very close with
perfect (ideal sine wave).

2. The harmonic contents of the induced emf reduces

3. As a length required for armature winding decreases, the copper material will be saved, hence it
is economical.

4. As the high frequency harmonics are illuminated, Hysteresis & eddy current losses will be
reduced and this increases the efficiency

Q) Prove that W 19

Distribution factor is defined as;

Or

Consider the following figure,

Let be the value of the angular displacement between the slots. Its value is;

= No. of slots/pole/phase.

= Phase spread angle.

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Then the resultant voltage induced in one polar group would be m .

Where;

is the voltage induced in one coil side. The above figure illustrates the method for finding the
vector sum of voltages each of value and having a mutual phase difference of (if m is large,
then the curve ABCDE will become part of a circle of radius r).

The arithmetic sum =

The vector sum

The distribution factor is proved as,

( )

( )

Q) Calculate the distribution factor for a 36-slots, 4-pole, single-layer three-phase winding.

Data:

n = 36/4 = 9; β = 180°/9 = 20°; m = 36 / 4 / 3 = 3

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Q) A part of an alternator winding consists of six coils in series, each coil having an emf of 10 V
RMS. induced in it. The coils are placed in successive slots and between each slot and the next;
there is an electrical phase displacement of 30º. Find graphically or by calculation, the emf of the
six coils in series.

Data:

Given that ; m = 6;

Arithmetic sum of voltage induced in 6 coils = 6 × 10 = 60 V

Vector sum = × arithmetic sum = 60 × 0.6439 = 38.64V

EMF EQUATION OF ALTERNATOR

Q) Derive the emf equation of alternator (S 16)

Let,

P = No. of rotor poles.

= Flux per pole،

Z= Number of stator conductors

N = Speed in rpm

Frequency of induced emf is f = Cycles per rotation x rotation per sec

Therefore =

Therefore f = (PN / 120)

Consider one rotation of rotor then change in flux linkage is = d P

Therefore Time required for one rotation is,

By faradays law of Electromagnetic induction,

Average emf per conductor =

Substituting N = 120 f / P in above equation

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If there are Z conductors in series per phase then,

Average emf per phase = =

Therefore RMS value of Emf per phase = 4.44

Now in above equation winding is assumed concentrated in one slot instead of being distributed.
Also winding is assumed full pitched.

So considering the two factors that is coil span factor and distribution factor the actual emf per
phase can be calculated as

E = 4.44

Or E = 4

Remember that above voltage is phase voltage

Q) A 16 pole, 3 phase star connected alternator armature has 12 slots with 24 conductors per slot
and flux per pole is 0.1 wb sinusoidally distributed. Calculate line emf generated at 50 Hz. W 19

Data Given:

Alternator is star connected; No. of Poles P = 16; Total no. of slots = 12; Conductors per slot = 24

Flux per pole 0.1 Wb; Frequency f = 50Hz

As data of winding about short or full pitch is not given, Assuming Full pitched coils,

Pitch factor

A) Distribution-factor (Kd):

Slots / pole / phase:

Slots/pole:

Slot angle:

( )

( )

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(NOTE- As Kd has maximum value of 1, student assuming Kd = 1 to be awarded appropriate

marks)

B) Phase value of Emf (Eph):

Total no. of conductors Z = 12×24 = 288

No. of conductors/phase = 288/3 = 96

No. of turns/phase T = 96/2 = 48

The rms value of emf induced in each phase winding is given by,

= 4.44

= 4.44

Or

= 4.44

For star connected alternator;

Line voltage = √ √

Or √ √

Q) A 3 phase, 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors
per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375 rpm. Find: 1)
Frequency rpm 2) Phase Emf 3) Line emf Assume full pitched coil. W 22

Data Given:

Star connected alternator

No. of Poles P = 16; Total no. of slots = 144; Conductors per slot = 10; Flux per pole = 0.03
Wb; Speed N = 375 rpm; Full-pitched coils, therefore Pitch factor = Kp = 1

(1) Frequency

(2) Distribution-factor

Slots / pole / phase = m = 144/16 / 3 = 3

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Slots / pole = 144 / 16 = 9

Slot angle =

2) Distribution factor =

3) Phase value of Emf (Eph):

Total no. of conductors Z = 144×10 = 1440; No. of conductors/phase = 1440/3 = 480

No. of turns / phase T = 480 / 2 = 240

The rms value of emf induced in each phase winding is given by,

= 4 .44 volt

= 4 .44 (1) (0.96) (50) (0.03) (240) = 𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟒. 𝟓 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭

(4) Line value of Emf ( ):

For star connected alternator,

Line emf = √3 = √3 (1534.5) = 𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟕. 𝟖 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬

Q) Find the no-load line voltage of a star connected 3-phase, 6-pole alternator which runs at
1200 rpm, having flux per pole of 0.1 Wb sinusoidal distributed. Its stator has 54 slots having
double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns and the coil is chorded by one slot. (S 22)

Answer: Given Data:

= 0.1 wb, Pole-6 N= 1200 rpm

Since winding is chorded by one slot, it is short pitched by 1/9 or 180 0/9 = 200 =

Frequency f = PN / 120 = 6 x 1200 / 120 = 60 Hz

m = Slots / Pole / Phase

0
Therefore Pole pitch = 54 / 6 = 9, , m = 54 / (6x3) = 3

𝟐
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Z = Total number of conductors = (54 x 8 x 2) / 3 = 288

Therefore T = Z / 2 = 144

Eph = 4.44 x 0.98 x 0.96 x 60 x 0.1 x 144 = 3610 volts

Therefor EL= √3 x 3610 = 6252.7034 volts

Q) A 16 pole, 3 phase star connected alternator armature has 12 slots with 24 conductors per slot
and the flux per pole is 0.1 Weber sinusoidally distributed. Calculate the line emf generated at 50
Hz. (W 14)

Answer: 3Ph, Star connected, 16 pole, 50 Hz, alternator

E / Phase = 4.44

m= Number of slots/Pole/phase = 12 / 16 x 3 = 0.25

Where Pole pitch = Number of slots per pole = 12 / 16 = 0.75

Therefore

Considering full pitched winding we take Kc = 1

Z / phase =

Therefore Number of turns per phase = 96 / 2 = 48

E / Phase = 4.44 = 4.44 x 0.1 x 50 x 48 x 1 x 0.2165 = 230.7 Volts

Therefor E line = √ E phase = √ x 230.7 = 399.59 Volts

Q) Calculate the value of pitch factor for a 3 phase winding of a 4 pole alternator having 36 slots
and the coil is spread from 1st slot up to 7th slot. (S 16)

Answer: Given Data:

3-ph, 4 Pole, Synchronous alternator, Number of armature Slots = 36

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Pole pitch = No of slots / P = 36 / 4 = 9

The coil is spread from 1 to 7th slot. This means that coil pitch is shorter than pole pitch by 2
Number of slots

Coil span factor =

ALTERNATOR LOADING:

Q) State the factors affecting terminal voltage of an alternator and describe their effect on
terminal voltage. S 23

When alternator runs on no load, no current flows through armature winding and hence no
armature flux will be set up. The flux produced in the air gap will only be due to field winding
that is on the rotor, means due to rotor ampere turns only.

When alternator is loaded, three phase currents flow through the armature conductors. These
currents produce three phase armature flux. In this way the rotating magnetic field will not be as it
was at no load condition but it will be net of armature flux and rotor flux.

The effect of armature flux on flux produced by field ampere turns (i.e. rotor ampere turns) is
called armature reaction.

As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary as in DC
generators.

This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:

1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance Ra

2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance

3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction

(a) ARMATURE RESISTANCE

The armature resistance / phase Ra causes a voltage drop/phase of which is in phase with the
armature current I. However, this voltage drop is practically negligible.

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(b) ARMATURE LEAKAGE REACTANCE

i) When current flows through the armature conductors, fluxes are set up which do not cross the
air-gap, but take different paths. Such fluxes are known as leakage fluxes.

ii) The leakage flux is as shown in figure. It is practically independent of saturation, but is
dependent on current and its phase angle with terminal voltage V.

iii) This leakage flux sets up an emf of self-inductance which is known as reactance emf and
which is ahead of current by 90°.

iv) Hence armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance (also known as Poitier
reactance ) such that voltage drop due to this equals

v) A part of the generated emf is used up in overcoming this reactance emf. E = V + I (R + j )

This fact is illustrated in the vector diagram as above;

(c) ARMATURE REACTION

i) As in DC generators, armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. In
case of alternator also, the effect of armature flux on flux produced by field ampere turns (i.e.
rotor ampere turns) is called armature reaction.

ii) Two points are notable in case of armature reaction in alternator. First the armature flux and
the flux produced by rotor ampere turns rotate at the same speed (synchronous speed) in the same
direction, and therefore the two fluxes are fixed in space relative to each other.

iii) Secondly, the modification of flux in air gap due to armature flux depends on the power factor
of the load.

iv) Power factor of load has a considerable effect on the armature reaction. It is the power factor
which determines whether the armature flux distorts, opposes or helps the flux produced by rotor
ampere turns.

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ARMATURE REACTION AT VARIOUS POWER FACTORS AND SYNCHRONOUS

IMPEDANCE

We will consider three cases: (i) when load of pf is unity (ii) when pf is zero lagging and (iii)
when pf is zero leading.

In a 3-phase machine the combined ampere-turn wave (or mmf wave) is sinusoidal which moves
synchronously. This amp-turn or mmf wave is fixed relative to the poles, its amplitude is
proportional to the load current, but its position depends on the pf of the load.

Q) Explain the effect of armature Reaction on main field flux of alternator with load of – (i) unity
pf (ii) Zero pf leading W 22

Q) Explain the effect of armature reaction at various power factors of load on alternator. Draw
suitable wave forms showing the effect. S 22

ARMATURE REACTION:

The effect of armature flux on main flux is called as armature reaction. When the armature
conductors of alternator carry current, they produce their own flux, called armature flux. This flux
affects the main pole flux and resultant flux in the air-gap is modified.

This affects the terminal voltage of alternator. The power factor of the load has a considerable
effect on the armature reaction.

We will consider three cases: (i) when load of pf is unity (ii) when pf is zero lagging and (iii)
when pf is zero leading.

I) ARMATURE REACTION WHEN THE LOAD IS PURELY RESISTIVE (UNITY PF):

i) Consider a 2 pole, 3-phase simple alternator supplying purely resistive load. Referring to figure
(a), for shown pole positions, the phase-a conductors lie exactly under the poles. So phase -‘a’
generated emf is maximum and will be out of phase with main flux.

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Figure (a) Figure (b)

ii) Since load is purely resistive, this emf will produce the in phase currents in all phases as shown
in the figure below.

iii) These currents produce their own magnetic field , whose direction can be obtained using
grip-rule. It is seen that the armature flux appears to be crossing the main flux. Therefore, the
armature reaction is termed as cross magnetizing.

iv) With reference to the rotation, we can say that the armature flux is lagging the main flux by
. Since the magnetic flux lines never cross each other, the net effect of cross magnetization is
to disturb the main flux, resulting reduction in the terminal voltage to some extent. The flux
distribution waveform is also shown in the figure below.

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II) ARMATURE REACTION WHEN THE LOAD IS PURELY INDUCTIVE (ZERO PF

LAGGING):

i) When a purely inductive load (zero power factor lagging) is connected across the terminals of
the alternator, current lags behind the voltage by 90°. This means that current will be maximum at
zero emf and vice-versa.

ii) The armature flux (whose wave has moved backward by 90°) is in direct opposition to the
main flux. Hence, the main flux is decreased.

iii) Therefore, it is found that armature reaction, in this case, is wholly demagnetising, with the
result, that due to weakening of the main flux, less emf is generated.

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iv) To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be increased to
compensate for this weakening.

III) ARMATURE REACTION WHEN THE LOAD IS PURELY CAPACITIVE (ZERO PF

LEADING):

i) Referring to figure (c), for shown pole positions, let the phase-a conductors lie exactly on
magnetic neutral axis, so phase-a emf is zero.

ii) Since load is purely capacitive, the current leads the voltage by , resulting the current in
phase-a as positive maximum with zero voltage induced in it. Thus the current pattern in all
phases remains same as shown in the figure.

iii) In this case, shown in figure armature flux wave has moved forward by 90° so that it is in
phase with the main flux wave. In this case armature flux is added to main flux. Therefore, the
armature reaction is wholly magnetizing, resulting greater induced emf.

iv) Therefore, the net effect of magnetization is to increase the main flux, resulting rise in the
terminal voltage. The flux distribution waveform is also shown in the figure.

SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE

Q) Define (1) Synchronous Reactance (2) Synchronous Impedance W 22

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From previous topic we learnt that the terminal voltage from no load to full load decreases due to;

1. Drop due to armature resistance, I

2. Drop due to leakage reactance

3. Drop due to armature reaction.

The drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by assuming the presence of a
fictitious reactance in the armature winding. The value of is such that I represents the
voltage drop due to armature reaction.

The leakage reactance and the armature reactance may be combined to give synchronous
reactance .

Hence, Synchronous reactance

Therefore, total voltage drop in an alternator under load is = IRa + jI = I (Ra + j )= I

Where; is known as synchronous impedance of the armature,

VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF A LOADED ALTERNATOR

Q) Draw vector diagrams of alternator at unity, lagging and leading power factor.

Q) Draw the phasor diagram of loaded alternator when load is capacitive and also write the
equation of no load, induced emf. (W 15)

Before discussing the diagrams, following symbols should be clearly kept in mind.

= No-load emf; this is the voltage induced in armature in the absence of three factors discussed
in above topic. Hence, it represents the maximum value of the induced emf

E = Load induced emf; It is the induced emf after allowing for armature reaction. E is vectorially
less than by . Sometimes, it is written as .

V = Terminal voltage, It is vectorially less than by

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Where;

I = armature current / phase and = load power factor angle.

In figure (a) is shown the case for unity pf, in figure (b) for lagging pf and in figure (c) for leading
pf. All these diagrams apply to one phase of a 3-phase machine.

Q) A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10 MW at pf 0.85 lagging and at 11 kV

(terminal voltage). Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous reactance 0.66 ohm per
phase. Calculate the line value of emf generated.

Solution: FL output current =

√

drop = 618 × 0.1 = 61.8 V; drop = 618 × 0.66 = 408 V

Terminal voltage/phase = 11,000 / √ = 6,350 V

As seen from the vector diagram of figure as shown, where I

instead of V has been taken along reference vector,

Line Emf = √

VOLTAGE REGULATION

Q) Define voltage regulation of alternator? On what factors regulation depends? Explain in brief
(W 14)

It is defined as the rise in voltage when full load is removed, keeping excitation & speed of
alternator constant, expressed as percentage of rated terminal voltage is called “Voltage
regulation”

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OR

It is defined as the ratio of sudden rise or fall in voltage when the load is removed suddenly to the
rated terminal voltage, keeping speed & excitation of alternator constant.

Following factors on which voltage regulation depends:

1. Armature resistance per phase:

As armature resistance increases IaRa drop increases, which make voltage regulation poor.

2. Armature Leakage flux:

If leakage flux is more, the leakage reactance XL increases which increases Ia XL drop. Hence
regulation becomes poor.

3. Magnitude of load current:

If load current increases IaRa and Ia XL drop increases and armature reaction effect also
increases. Therefore terminals voltage drops which makes regulation poor.

3. Load Power factor:

i) For lagging power factor the effect of

armature reaction is demagnetizing and therefore
the main flux reduces, considerably which causes
poor regulation.

ii) For unity P.f, the effect of armature

reaction is cross magnetizing, therefore distortion
in main flux will be resulted & hence regulation
is comparatively less.

iii) For leading Pf, the effect of armature reaction is strong magnetizing therefore main flux will
be more stronger and so terminal voltage actually increases which gives negative regulation.

Q) Describe the factors affecting the regulation of three phase alternator and draw the phasor
diagrams of loaded alternator when operating power factor is lagging and leading. (S 16)

Answer: Factors affecting the regulation:

1. It depends on armature resistance (Ra)

2. It depends on leakage reactance (XL)

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3. Magnitude of load current

4. Magnitude of Power factor of load

5. Type of load Power factor (Lagging, leading, Unity)

6. Effect of armature reaction (Xa)

Vector diagrams are as shown in above figure. They are not drawn here to avoid repetition.

DETERMINATION OF VOLTAGE REGULATION

Q) State different method of finding regulation of alternator

Broadly speaking there are two methods of finding regulation of alternator, one is direct method
and other is indirect method.

DIRECT LOADING METHOD: In case direct method regulation is found out by directly
loading the alternator up to its rated loading. Then the complete load is thrown and at this time
reading of no load voltage is taken as Eo. In complete process the field excitation and speed of
alternator is kept constant.

But this method is limited to small capacity alternators only. Technically as well as economically
this method is prohibitive for large capacity machines. Therefore for large capacity machines
some indirect methods are recommended.

These indirect methods are;

a. Synchronous Impedance Method or (EMF method)

b. Ampere turn Method or (MMF method)

c. Zero Power factor method or Poitier method

Q) State the basic requirements of indirect methods

The basic requirements of indirect methods are

a. Armature resistance Ra: Value of Ra per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter
ammeter method or by using Wheatstone method. This value is DC value of resistance. To
consider AC value skin effect is considered and the value is increased approximately by 60%.

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b. Open Circuit Characteristics OCC: It is just like a BH curve, plotted between induced voltage
and field excitation

Short Circuit Characteristics SCC: it is obtained by short circuiting the armature winding through
an ammeter.

SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

Q) Define the voltage regulation of an alternator. Explain synchronous impedance method for
finding regulation of alternator. W 19

The procedural steps for synchronous impedance method are as follows:

1) The Open Circuit Characteristics OCC is plotted from open circuit test

2) Short Circuit characteristics is plotted from short circuit test:

Short circuit characteristics are straight line through origin. Both characteristics plotted for
common field current base. Consider field current If and the corresponding OC voltage E 1.During
short circuit, at the same field current, the whole E 1 is being used to circulate the short circuit
current ( ) in armature.

3) The synchronous impedance can be calculated as,

4) By performing resistance test, Effective armature resistance, Ra can be calculated

Synchronous reactance can be calculated as =√

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5) The regulation of the alternator at a particular load condition can be calculated as, the
generated EMF; E0 can be calculated as,

Here; √

No load Emf =√

Percentage regulation =

Value of regulation for unity power factor or leading power factor can also be found out in similar
way.

Q) State disadvantages of Synchronous Impedance method for finding regulation.

a. This method is not very accurate method, because the value of found in this method is
more than the actual value under normal voltage and saturation conditions. Hence the value of
regulation found by this method is always more than the actual regulation. Therefore this
method is called as pessimistic method.

b. Remember that the value of is not constant for all saturation conditions, but it varies
according to the condition of saturation. At low saturation condition the value of is higher
because the effect of armature ampere turn is much more than at high saturation.

c. Under short circuit conditions the saturation is very low, because the armature mmf is directly
demagnetizing. In graph is also plotted for different values of field current.

d. In this method value of is always found from full load current in short circuit test.

e. In this method armature reactance is not treated separately but it is taken along with
leakage reactance .

Q) Find and of an alternator in which given field current produces an armature current of 200A
on short circuit and a generated emf of 50V on open circuit. Ra is 0.1 ohm. To what induced voltage
must the alternator be excited if it is to deliver a load of 100A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging with a
terminal voltage of 200 V.

Solution

It is assumed that alternator is single phase alternator. Now

for same field current

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Therefore = 100 x 0.1 = 10 Volts and I = 100 x 0.23 = 23 volts

Cos = 0.8 therefore Sin = 0.6

As seen from phasor diagram we can find out

√ = 222 Volts

Q) A certain 3-ph alternator is rated at 5 kVA, 110 V, 26.3 A, 50 Hz and 1200 rpm. The stator
resistance between terminals as measured with DC is 0.2 ohm. With no load and rated speed, the
stator line voltage is 160V for a field current of 4A. At rated speed, the short circuit stator current per
terminal is 60A for a field current of 4A.

Calculate: i) Synchronous impedance per phase ii) The voltage regulation of alternator at 0.8 p.f.
lagging. The alternator is star connected. (S 16)

Answer: Given Data:

3-Ph, 5 KVA, 110 KV star connected alternator, Ra = 0.2 ohm (DC) 26.3 A; 50 Hz and 1200 rpm

O.C. Voltage = 160 V (Line) S.C Current = 60A for If = 4 A

1. line Voltage = 160 Volts

phase voltage = 160 / √ = 92.38 volts

2) The Synchronous impedance per Phase:

per phase = (O C Voltage / S C current per phase) for the same If

= 92.38 / 60 = 1.54 Ohms

3) Armature resistance per Phase:

Given Ra = 0.2 ohms between the terminals (dc value)

Therefore Ra / phase = 0.2 / 2 = 0.1 ohm (dc value)

Therefore considering the skin effect, the AC value of Ra / ph is given by 1.5 x 0.1 = 0.15 ohm

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4) Synchronous Reactance per phase:

/ phase = √ =√ = 1.5327 ohms

V line Voltage = 110V

V phase Voltage = 110V / √ = 63.51 volts

Therefore Cos , Sin 0.6 and Ia = 26.3 A Assuming full load condition

Now, % Regulation at full load for 0.8 Lagging P.f :

No load Emf =√

No load Emf =√

= 95.63 volts

50.57 %

Q) A 3phase, 50Hz, star connected 200 KVA, 2300V alternator gives S.C. current of 60A for certain
field excitation on. With same excitation O.C. voltage/ph is 900 V. The armature resistance is 1.2
ohms / ph, find F.L. regulation at i) Unity power factor ii) 0.8 pf lagging S 23

Data Given: Power rating S = 200 kVA; = Rated line voltage = 2300V,

Rated phase voltage V = √ = 1327.9 V (Star-connected alternator)

Full-load current (As alternator is star connected

√

Armature resistance per phase R = 1.2 Ω,

S C phase current = 60A for certain field excitation

O C phase voltage = 900V for same field excitation

Synchronous impedance = 900/60 = 15 Ω,

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Expression for no load emf or induced emf ‘E’ for any load current ‘I’ is

No load Emf =√

i) At UPF:

E=√ ]

= √[1926932.66+563235.24] = 1578.03 V

% Regulation = [(1578.03 – 1327.9)/ 1327.9] x 100 = 0.1884

OR 18.84%

ii) At 0.8 pf lag:

Cos Ø = 0.8 and Sin Ø = 0.6 and + ve sign to be taken in expression.

E=√ ]

= √ [1260140.954 + 2393920.673] = 1911.56 V.

% Regulation = [(1911.56 – 1327.9)/1327.9] x 100 = 43.95%

Q) Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which a given field current
produces an armature current of 200 A on short-circuit and a generated e.m.f. of 50 V on open-
circuit. The armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. To what induced voltage must the alternator be excited if
it is to deliver a load of 100 A at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, with a terminal voltage of 200V.

Solution: It will be assumed that alternator is a single phase one. Now, for same field current,

Synchronous impedance Ω,

Now, = 100 × 0.1 = 10 V, IXS = 100 × 0.23 = 23 V;

Cos φ = 0.8, sin φ = 0.6. As seen from figure.

No load Emf =√

=√

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Q) From the following test results, determine the Voltage Regulation of a 2000V, 1-Phase alternator,
delivering a current of 100A at – 1) Unity pf 2) 0.8 leading pf

Test Results:

Full load current of 100A is produced on short circuit by a field excitation of 2.5 A.

An emf of 500V is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8
ohms. W 22

Solution:

V = Rated voltage = 2000V, Synchronous impedance = 500 / 100 = 5 Ω, Armature resistance R =

0.8 Ω,

Synchronous reactance √

Expression for no load emf or induced emf ‘E’ for any load current ‘I’ is

No load Emf =√

i) At UPF:

i) At 0.8 PF lead:

Q) A 400 V, 125 kVA, 3-phase, star connected alternator has open-circuit characteristics as under:

Field Current (A) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Open Circuit emf ('V) 0 140 250 340 400 460 520

Short circuit characteristics of the alternator is a straight line passing through origin and it is found
that the S.C. current is equal to the full load current when I f is 20 A.

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Determine full load regulation of the alternator by Z, method at the following power factors (i) 0.8
lagging and (ii) 0.8 leading. Assume Ra is 0.15 O. (S 13 W 15)

Answer:

Given Data: 3-Ph, 400V, Q = 125 KVA, Ra = 0.15 ohm

Field current If (A) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

O C Emf (V) 0 140 250 340 400 460 520
O C voltage / Phase (V) 80.8 144.3 196.3 230.9 256.6 300
Note: In Graph Scale may be different

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Phase Resistance, Ra = 0.15 ohm

Phase Voltage V = 400 / √ = 230.90 Volts

Full load Line current I = Ia = 125 x 10 3 / √ x 440 = 180.42 A

From OCC and SCC:

Synchronous reactance per phase = Xs = √

=√ = 0.7858 ohm

i) 0.8 Lagging Power Factor;

No load Emf Eo = √

Percentage regulation =

ii) 0.8 leading Power Factor;

No load Emf Eo = √

Eo = 211.81 Volts

Percentage regulation =

Q) The following data were obtained in the open circuit and short circuit tests on a 25 KVA, 440V,
50Hz, three phase, star connected alternator.

Field current If 2 4 6 7 8 10 12 14

Terminal voltage V 156 288 396 440 474 530 568 592

S C Current A 11 22 34 40 46 57 69 80

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Effective resistance between terminals is 0.32 ohm. Calculate the full load regulation by synchronous
impedance method at 0.8 lag, 0.8 lead and unity p.f. (S 14)

Solution:

Phase Resistance, Ra = 0.32 ohm, Phase voltage = 440 / √ = 254 Volts

Full load line current I = Ia =

√

Field current If 2 4 6 7 8 10 12 14

Terminal voltage V 156 288 396 440 474 530 568 592

Terminal voltage / phase 90.07 166.3 228.6 254 273.7 306 328 341.8

S C Current A 11 22 34 40 46 57 69 80

From OCC and SCC as drawn in graph below:

Effective Resistance between terminals = 0.32 ohm

Synchronous reactance per phase = Xs = √ =√ = 6.74 ohm

i) 0.8 Lagging Power Factor: Cos 0.8, sin 0.6

E / phase

Percentage regulation =

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Q) O.C. and S.C. test were performed on a 3 phase 0.5 MVA, 3.6 kV, star connected alternator. The
results are given below:

O.C.: If= 10 A, Vsc = 3000 volt, S.C.: If = 10 A, Isc = 150 A, Ra/ph = 1 ohm,

Calculate the percentage, regulation for full load condition at 0.8 p.f. lagging. (W 14)

Answer: Given Data: 3Ph, 0.5 MVA, 3.6 KV star connected alternator,

VT Line 3.6 KV (VT/ph = 2078.46)

Ia line current = =
√ √

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Zs per phase = (O C Voltage / S C current per phase) at If = 10 A

Zs / phase = (3000 / √ ) / 150 = 11.547 ohms

Xs / phase = √

Xs / phase = √ = 11.504 Ohms

Now,

% Regulation at full load for 0.8 Lagging P.f :

No load Emf Eo / phase = √

Eo / phase= 2782.96 Volts

Q) A certain 3-ph, star connected, 100 kVA, 11000 V alternator has rated current of 52.5 A. The a.c.
resistance of the winding per phase is 0.45 ohm. The test results are given below: O.C. Test — Field
current = 12.5 A; Voltage between lines = 422 V

S.C. Test — Field current = 12.5 A, line current is equal to 52.5 A.

Determine the full load voltage regulation of the alternator at p.f. 0.8 lagging and 0.8 p.f. leading. (S
16)

Answer: Given Data:

3-Ph, 100 KVA, 11 KV star connected alternator,

VT Line 11000 KV (VT/ph= 6350.85)

√ √

Zs per phase = (O C Voltage / S C current per phase) at If = 10 A

Zs / phase = (422 / √ ) / 52.5 = 4.64 ohms

Xs / phase = √

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Xs / phase = √ = 4.62 Ohms

Now,

i. % Regulation at full load for 0.8 Lagging P.f :

No load Emf Eo = √

No load Emf Eo = √

= 6367.32 Volts

ii. % Regulation at full load for 0.8 Leading P.f;

No load Emf Eo = √

No load Emf Eo / phase = √

Eo / phase = 6338.21 Volts

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