Respiration

• Process of moving air into & out of lungs.

• Mean by which animal obtain & use O2 &
eliminates CO2
• Chemical & physical process.
• Exchange of O2 & CO2 (an adult body consumes
about 250 ml O2 and produces about 200 ml
CO2/minute)
• Maintain acid- base balance, adjust pH.
Respiratory Apparatus:
1. Lungs 2. Air ways
3. Thorax & Pleural sac 4. Diaphragm
5. Muscles 6. Nerves
 Air ways: Air tube to lungs
Nostrils, Nasal cavity, Pharynx, larynx (organ of
phonation, syrinx in birds), trachea, bronchi.
Bronchi – Right bronchi & left bronchi
Bronchi → Bronchioles → Terminal bronchioles →
Respiratory bronchioles → Alveolar ducts →
Alveolar sac → Alveoli (smallest subdivision of air
passage)
Thorax: Cranially 1st pair of ribs, first thoracic
vertibra & cranial part of sternum, dorsally by ribs,
ventrally by sternum, caudal by diaphragm
Pleura: Envelope of lungs.
i. Parietal pleura- lines thorax.
ii. Visceral pleura – lines lungs.
Muscles: i. Inspiratory muscles
ii. Expiratory muscles
Inspiratory muscles:
i. Diaphragm
ii. External & internal intercostal muscles
Expiratory muscles
Abdominal muscles
a. rectus abdominus
b. External & internal oblique & transverse
abdominus
Accessory muscles of inspiration:
i. Scalenes
ii. Trapezii
 Respiration
External respiration- Air into alveoli

Internal respiration – Oxygen from blood to

tissues

Cellular respiration – Biological oxidation, actual

utilization of oxygen.
Functions of Respiratory System:
A. Primary functions:
1. The respiratory system(RS) provide oxygen
for metabolism in tissues.
2. The RS removes carbon dioxide, the waste
product of metabolism.
B. Secondary functions:
1. The RS facilitate sense of smell.
2. The RS produces speech.
3. The RS maintain acid base balance.
4. The RS maintain body water level.
5. The RS maintain heat balance.
 Air ways
a. Nostrils b. Nasal cavity
c. Pharynx d. Larynx (Phonation
Organ)
e. Trachea f. Bronchi (right bronchi &
Left bronchi)
g. Bronchioles h. Terminal bronchioles
i. Respiratory bronchioles j. Alveolar duct
k. Alveolar sac l. Alveoli (smllest sub-
division of air passage)
Lungs: Cone shaped, spongy, completely
fill the available space in thorax.
Pleura-envelope of lungs
 Right lung - 3 lobes.
Left lung - 2 lobes.
Nostrils: Paired external openings, pliable,
most pliable in horse, most rigid in pig
Dilation required when more air is
required e.g. running, situation when
respiration through mouth not possible
e.g. horse.
 Nasal cavities
• Hair, mucosal secretions-cleaning of air.
• Warming & humidification of inhaled air.
• Cooling of blood supplied to brain (temp 2-30C
lower) as brain is most heat sensitive organ,
cooling imp. during time of extreme activity.
• Olfactory epithelium (non-respiratory functions)
perception of odor by sniffing.
Respiration
a. External respiration (air into alveoli)
b. Internal -do- ( blood to tissues)
c. Cellular -do- (biological oxidation, actual
utilization of O2)
 Mechanism of Respiration
Inspiration: (active process): Enlargement of thorax,
inflow of air into lungs
a. Contraction of diaphragm
b. Cranial & out ward movement of ribs
c. Reduced negative pressure in pleural cavity
Expiration: (passive process): Under normal
conditions inspiration requires greater effort
than expiration.
• Decrease in size of thorax, air out flow.
• Tendency of elastic structure to return to normal
shape & location.
• Abdominal muscles press the viscera against
diaphragm.
• Pulling of ribs caudally.
 Types of Breathing
A. Abdominal breathing: Predominate,
Characterized by visible movements of abdomen,
abdomen protrude.
B. Costal Breathing: Pronounced rib movement,
painful condition of abdomen, peritonitis.
C. Complementary Breathing: (Sigh) Deep rapid
inspiration followed by expiration of longer
duration.
Compensatory mechanism for poor ventillation.
States of Breathing
Variation in breathing frequency, breathing cycle,
depth of inspiration or both.
1. Eupnea: Normal quiet breathing, no deviation in
frequency or depth.
2. Dyspnea: Difficult breathing, effort is required to
breath, animal is aware of this condition
3. Hyperpnea: Increased depth, frequency or both,
mostly noticed during physical exertion, animal is
not conscious of this state.
4. Polypnea: Rapid shallow breathing, increased
frequency but not depth. Similar to panting.
5. Apnea: Cessation of breathing.
6. Bradypnea: Abnormal slowness of breathing.
7. Tachypnea: Excessive or rapid breathing.
 Respiratory frequency
• Different in different species
• Useful determination of health.
• Numbers of cycles or breaths /min.
• Usually increases during disease
Respiratory Pressures
1. Intra pulmonic / intra alveolar pressure:
a. Air pressure in lungs & the passage leading to them
b. During inspiration slightly –ve (sub-atmospheric, -
1mmHg)
c. During expiration slightly +ve (+1mmHg) Lungs decrease
in size (recoil) compress the air with in them.
2. Intra thoracic / intra pleural pressure/recoil pressure is the
pressure outside the lungs.
 Always less than intrapleural pressure
(-2 mmHg at the end of expiration),
(-10 mmHg at the end of inspiration)
Because 1. Close cavity, gas is absorbed
2. Elastic fiber of lungs
3. Surface tension of fluid, pulling to smallest possible
size.
Respiratory pressures: concentration Of gases expressed as
pressure.
Partial pressure of gases: Pressure exerted by a given gas
in a mixture of gases, represented by - P
PO2 = partial pressure of oxygen
PCO2= -do- CO2
PAO2= part. Pres. of O2 at alveolar level
PaO2= -do- at arterial level.
Partial pressure of respiratory gases in dogs at rest at sea level
PO2 PCO2 PN2 PH2O Total
Atmospheric air 158 0 596 6 760
Inspired air 149 0 564 47 760
Expired air 116 29 568 47 760
Alveolar air 100 40 573 47 760
Arterial blood 95 40 573 47 755
Venous blood 40 46 573 47 706
Tissues 30 or less 50 or more 573 47 700

Composition of air at sea level. ( %)

Gas N2 O2 CO2
Inspired air 79.02 20.94 0.04
Expired air 79.20 16.30 4.5
Alveolar 80.40 14.00 5.6
 Functional Segmentation
a. Conductive portion, no diffusion of gases,
nostrils to terminal bronchioles.
b. Respiratory portion, diffusion of gases,
respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs, alveoli.
Anatomical dead space:
Volume of air in conductive portion.
Dog-150 ml, cow-380 ml, giraffe-1600 ml.
• Relatively fixed volume.
• Acts as a buffer between external environment &
respiratory portion of lungs.
• Foreign material removed in this space.
• Water vapours added, air is heated.
 Physiological Dead space
Volume of gas don’t take part in gas exchange in
airways & alveoli, volume is not fixed.
Recoil tendency of lungs
1. Stretching of elastic fibers, inflation
2. Surface tension of fluid lining the alveoli.
Surfactants:
• Surface active substances for which water
molecules have lesser attraction.
• They accumulate at surface
• Reduction in surface tension
Pulmonary surfactants
Lipoproteins complex containing 30 % proteins,
70 % lipids, lipid fraction composed of
phospholipids, dipalmitoyl lecithin.
Surfactants synthesized by type II alveolar cells, so
alveolar epithelium is an active metabolic unit.
In pig & horse failure to produce surfactants leads to
respiratory distress known as BARKER
SYNDROM.
Surfactants cover the inner surface of alveoli, alter
the alveolar surface tension so that smaller alveoli
don’t collapse.
Pneumothorax: Opening of intrapleural space to
atmosphere during surgical procedures.
Diaphragmatic contractions unable to generate
vacuum in intrapleural space, lungs would not
inflate, this condition is known as pneumothorax.
Respiration is needed in such conditions to
ventilate the animal.
• Diffusion of Respiratory Gases.
• Respiratory gases diffuse readily throughout the
body tissues.
• Diffusion capacity: is defined as a gas that
diffuses through the respiratory membrane each
min for a pressure difference of 1 mm Hg.
• Pulmonary alveoli--------air
• Pulmonary capillary ……blood
• Respiratory membrane, 6 layers through which
gases have to diffuse.
• O2 diffuses from alveolar air to capillary blood
because PO2 in alveolar air is approx. 100 mm Hg,
far greater than pulmonary capillary blood, 40 mm
Hg.
• CO2 diffuses from capillary blood to alveolar air
because PCO2 in pulmonary capillary blood is 46
mm Hg as compared to PCO2 in alveolar air, 40
mm Hg.
Diffusion of Gases
• CO2 diffuses 20 times more rapidly than O2.
through membranes.
• O2 under rest 25 ml / min /mm Hg.
• Approx. 25 ml O2 diffuses per min across
respiratory membrane. During strenuous
exercise may increase up to 90 ml /
min/mmHg
• CO2 at rest - 400 – 450 ml / min/ mmHg.
• Strenuous exercise: 1200 – 1300 ml / min
/mm Hg
• Diffusion area of respiratory membrane is
70 m2 , more during exercise etc.
A- Alveolar epithelium,
B- Alveolar epithelial basement
membrane C- Interstitial space
D- Capillary endothelial
basement membrane
E – Capillary endothelium
 Transport of Gases.
• Oxygen & CO2 are transported to and from the
tissues by the circulating blood.
• Exchange of gases across the alveolar
membrane occurs because of difference In their
concentration on the two sides.
• Similarly in tissues the different conc. &
pressure gradient between blood & tissue cells
cause its diffusion in or out of the cell.
Oxygen Transport
• One of the most important functions of the
blood.
• Depends upon the presence of Hb in blood.
 O2 uptake in Lungs
• PO2 of pulmonary venous blood-40 mm Hg
• PO2 of alveolar air- 104 mm Hg
• Due to pressure gradient , O2 diffuses rapidly
from alveolar air to capillary blood, at aorta, PO2
falls to 100 mm Hg
• Solubility of oxygen in plasma is negligible, at 100
mm Hg only 0.3 ml / 100 ml blood. Major
mechanism of uptake and transport is chemical
combination with Hb, 20 ml / 100 ml blood.
• Hb has unique property of forming loose and
reversible combination with oxygen molecules.
• Hb + O2 → HbO2
• Amount of oxygen taken up by Hb depends upon
PO2 value of blood.
• At PO2 of 100 mm Hg, Hb is fully saturated (100 %)
• 1 gm Hb……1.34 ml O2
• 100 ml blood….20 ml O2
Alveolar Gas Exchange
Systemic Gas Exchange
 CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT

• 90% as carbonic acid in plasma

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  HCO3- + H+
• 5% as carbaminohemoglobin
(HbCO2)- binds to amino groups of Hb
(and plasma proteins)
• 5% as dissolved gas in plasma
Oxy-hemoglobin dissociation curve
• Loading & unloading of O2
• Sigmoid shape, steep from 0 to 40 mm Hg
• Nearly flat from 70 to 100 mm Hg (Association part)
• Saturation 97.5 %
• O2Utilization co-efficient 25 %
Factors affecting the curve:
• Not stable under all conditions, shift in the curve
occurs
• Shift to down & right – decreased O2 affinity of Hb
• -do- up & left - Increased O2 affinity
• Increased H & CO2 – Shift curve to [Link] O2 yeild
• Decreased -do- - -do- left, O2 taken up
The effect of CO2 & H ion on ability of Hb to yeild or
receive O2 is known as BOHER EFFECT.

The effect of O2 on H ion & CO2 loading &

unloading from Hb is known as HALDANE
EFFECT. It was discovered by Christiansen,
Douglas & Haldane, so also known as C-D-H Effect