G. Rizzoni and J.

Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Chapter 8: Semiconductors and Diodes – Instructor Notes

After a brief introduction to semiconductor materials in Section 8.1, Section 8.2 introduces the pn junction, the
semiconductor diode and its i-v curves. These sections could be bypassed in favor of a more intuitive
presentation, provided in Section 8.3 with an explanation of the basic circuit behavior of the diode, beginning with
large-signal models. This explanation is supplemented by the sidebar Make the Connection: Hydraulic Check
Valves (pp. 527-528), which continues the electric-hydraulic analogy introduced in earlier chapters, and provides an
intuitive explanation of the operation of the semiconductor diodes1. The box Focus on Problem Solving:
Determining the Conduction State of Ideal Diodes (p. 529) helps the student understand how the diode state of
conduction can be determined. The large-signal circuit model material, which ends on p. 532, is probably
sufficient for the purposes of most introductory courses. Instructors who are interested in introducing the subject
of small-signal models, in preparation for the study of transistor small-signal amplifiers, may find Section 8.4,
covering small-signal diode models (pp. 532-539), of interest. The concept of operating point is introduced, with a
review of the load-line equation and the definition of the quiescent operating point of a device. The box Focus on
Problem Solving: Determining the Operating Point of a Diode (p. 534) summarizes this material. Section 2.5 can
be recalled (or introduced for the first time) at this point. The solution methods used in Examples 8.4, 8.5, 8.6
emphasize the use of linearized models for the diode, together with the use of Thèvenin equivalent circuits; this
method is quite general, and will reinforce the importance (and understanding) of the concept of equivalent circuits
in analyzing more advanced circuits.

Section 8.5 discusses various diode rectifier circuits and introduces the elements of a DC power supply; Section 8.6
introduces the Zener diode and basic voltage regulation. Two application examples are presented in the boxes
Focus on Measurements: Peak Detector Circuit for Capacitive Displacement Transducer (pp. 553-555), which is
tied to two earlier boxes on the capacitive displacement transducer (pp. 170-171 and pp. 204-206), and Focus on
Measurements: Diode Thermometer (pp. 555-556). The latter example can be tied to a laboratory experiment 2.
Finally, Section 8.7 introduces photodiodes and solar cells and includes the box Focus on Measurements: Opto-
Isolators (p. 559)

The homework problems present a graded variety of problems, mostly related to the 16 examples and applications
presented in the text. The 7th Edition of this book is reduced of 6 problems; some of the 6th Edition problems were
removed, reducing the end-of-chapter problems from 68 to 62.

Learning Objectives
Students will learn to…
1. Understand the basic principles underlying the physics of semiconductor devices in general and of the pn
junction in particular. Become familiar with the forward-bias exponential diode equation and a typical i-v
characteristic. Sections 8.1-8.2.
2. Use linear large-signal models of the semiconductor diode in simple circuits. Section 8.3.
3. Linearize the forward-bias exponential diode model in the neighborhood of an operating point to analyze the
impact of small variations in the diode voltage on the diode current. Section 8.4.
4. Study practical full-wave rectifier circuits and learn to analyze and determine the practical specifications of
a rectifier using large-signal diode models. Section 8.5.
5. Understand the basic operation of Zener diodes as voltage references and use simple circuit models to
analyze elementary voltage regulators. Section 8.6.
6. Understand the basic principle of operation of photodiodes, including solar cells, photosensors, and light-
emitting diodes. Section 8.7.
Section 8.1: Electrical
1. Understand Conduction
the basic principle in Semiconductor
of operation of photodiodes, Devices
including solar cells, photosensors and light-

Problem 8.1
1
With many thanks to Bill Ribbens, who suggested this analogy many years ago.
2
G. Rizzoni, A Practical Introduction to Electronic Instrumentation, 3rd Edition, Kendall-Hunt, 1998.
8.1
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

In a semiconductor material, the net charge is such that the density of positive charges equals
the density of negative charges. Charge carriers (free electrons and holes) and ionized dopant
atoms have a charge equal to the magnitude of one electronic charge. Therefore the charge
neutrality equation (CNE) is
−¿=0¿

po + N +¿−n
d
o−N a ¿

where
no = equilibrium negative carrier density
po = equilibrium positive carrier density
Na−= ionized acceptor density
Nd+= ionized donor density
The carrier product equation (CPE) states that as a semiconductor is doped, the product of the
charge carrier densities remains constant:
n o po =const
For intrinsic silicon at T = 300 K:
2 2
(
Const =nio pio =n io =p io = 1.5 ×10
16 1
m
3 )
=2.25× 10
32 1

m
3

The semiconductor material is n- or p-type depending on whether donor or acceptor doping is

greater. Almost all dopant atoms are ionized at room temperature. Assume intrinsic silicon is
doped such that
17 1
−¿=10 3
N D =0 ¿
m
NA≈ NA
Determine:
a. If this is an n- or p-type extrinsic semiconductor.
b. Which are the major and which the minority charge carriers.
c. The density of majority and minority carriers.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The Ionized Acceptor Density for a doped Silicon:
1
N a =N −a =1017 3 N =0
m , d

Find:
a. If this material is an N or P type extrinsic semiconductor.
b. Which are the majority and which the minority charge carriers.
c. The density of majority and minority carriers.

Analysis:
a) Each acceptor dopant atom introduces an additional positive charge carrier and a negative
atomic ion. The ion is NOT a charge carrier. The density of positive carriers [holes]
increases because of the doping so the material is extrinsic P type Silicon.
b) The majority carriers are the positive carriers or valence band holes; the minority carriers are
the negative carriers or conduction band free electrons.

8.2
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

n2io
CPE : n po=
c)
CNE: p po+0−n po−N−a =0 , p po
n2io
p po− −N −a =0 2
, po po (
p po p + p −N −a )+ (−n2io )=0
Using the quadratic equation:
1 − 1 1/2 1 17 1 32 1/2
( −2
p po=− (−N a )± (−N a ) −4 (−nio )
2 2
2
) =− (−10 )± ( (−10 ) −4 (−2 .25 10 ) ) =
2 2
17 2

1
¿ 5 10 ±5 . 22 10 =1 . 022 1017 3
16 16
m
where the negative answer is physically impossible.
Now use the CPE to obtain the minority carrier density:
n 2io 2 . 25 1032 1
n po= = =2. 202 1015 3
p po 1 . 022 10 17
m
Note that because of the doping, the hole density is now about 100 times the electron density.
The thermally produced carriers present in the intrinsic Silicon before doping has a small effect
on the carrier densities in the extrinsic Silicon. At higher doping levels, the effect becomes
negligible.
As temperature increases, the densities of the thermally produced carriers increase and their
effect on the final carrier densities increase. At very high temperatures [about 175 C for Silicon]
the thermally produced carriers primarily determine the final carrier densities and the doping has
a negligible effect [ie, the semiconductor behaves as an intrinsic material]. This is why
semiconductors cannot operate in high temperature environments.

Problem 8.2
Assume intrinsic silicon is doped such that
18 1
+ ¿=5 ×10 ¿
17 1 m
3

−¿=10 3
ND ≈ ND ¿
m
NA≈ NA
Determine:
a. If this material is an n- or p-type extrinsic semiconductor.
b. Which are the majority and which the minority charge carriers.
c. The density of majority and minority carriers.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The intrinsic Silicon is doped:
17 1 1
N a =N −
a =10 3
N d =N +d =5 1018 3
m , m

Find:
a) If the silicon is an N or P type extrinsic semiconductor.
b) Which are the majority and which the minority charge carriers.
8.3
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

c) The density of majority and minority carriers.

Analysis:
a) N Type
b) Majority = Conduction band free electrons = Negative carriers.
Minority = Valence band holes = Positive carriers.
1 1
n no≈4 . 9 1018 3 pno=4 . 59 1013 3
c) m , m

Problem 8.3
Describe the microscopic structure of semiconductor materials. What are the three most
commonly used semiconductor materials?

Answer:
Semiconductor materials are crystalline with the atoms arranged in a repeated three
dimensional array. The distance between atoms in the array is the "lattice constant".
Each atom of a semiconductor has four valence electrons. These electrons participate in
covalent bonds with the valance electrons of other atoms.
For certain materials with the properties above, quantum/wave mechanics predicts that the
valance electrons may have a total energy [kinetic plus Columbic potential energy] within certain
"allowed" bands. The two most important bands are the valence band containing the valence
electrons in covalent bonds and the conduction band containing conduction or free electrons
which have obtained enough energy to escape from its covalent bond.
Separating these two allowed bands is the "energy gap" extending over those energies which
the electrons are "forbidden" to have.
For semiconductor materials, the energy gap is on the order of 1 electron-Volt [eV].
Silicon is the most common semiconductor material and is used in a variety of applications and
devices.
Germanium is used in some optical devices and other special purpose devices.
Gallium Arsenide is a compound III-V semiconductor material. One atom has three and the
other has five valence electrons giving an average of four per atom. It is used in microwave,
optical, and very high speed digital devices.

Problem 8.4
Describe the thermal production of charge carriers in a semiconductor and how this process
limits the operation of a semiconductor device.

Answer:
At a temperature of absolute zero, ALL valence electrons in a semiconductor are contained in a
covalent bond and there are NO charge carriers.
The internal or thermal energy of a solid material is caused by the vibration of the atoms and
electrons about their equilibrium position. As the temperature of the material increases, its
thermal vibrational energy increases. Some electrons will gain sufficient energy to escape the
covalent bond in the valence band, and "jump" past the energy gap into the conduction band.
As a consequence, TWO charge carriers are generated. The conduction or free electron in the
8.4
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

conduction band is a negative charge carrier. The vacancy in the valence band covalent bond
or "hole" is a positive charge carrier.
A conduction band electron may also give up energy and recombine with a valence band hole.
The generation and recombination rates both increase with temperature. At any particular
temperature, they are equal and produce equal equilibrium densities of electrons and holes. The
equilibrium carrier densities increase with temperature. For Silicon at T = 300 K [approximately
room temperature]:
carriers carriers
nio = pio =1 .5 10 10 3
=1 .5 10 16
cm m3
[A number of carriers is a dimensionless quantity and may be omitted from the units.]
Almost all semiconductors devices are "doped" to achieve DIFFERENT densities of positive and
negative carriers. A "P-type" semiconductor has a higher density of positive carriers and an "N-
type" semiconductor has a higher density of negative carriers. However, at high temperatures
the density of thermally produced carriers becomes very large and significantly reduces or
nullifies the effects of the doping, i.e., the positive and negative carrier densities become nearly
equal. For this reason, semiconductor devices cannot be used in high temperature applications.
The limit in temperature depends on the semiconductor material.

Problem 8.5
Describe the properties of donor and acceptor dopant atoms and how they affect the densities
of charge carriers in a semiconductor material.

Answer:
An "intrinsic" semiconductor material is undoped. When dopant atoms are added the material
becomes an "extrinsic" semiconductor. Doping results in the replacement of an intrinsic atom
with a dopant atom. As few as one out of every million intrinsic atoms may be replaced.

A "donor" dopant atom has 5 valence electrons. Only 4 are required to complete the bonding
structure in the semiconductor material. The 5th electron requires very little energy to escape to
the conduction band and become a negative charge carrier. This leaves behind a donor atom
with one missing electron or a negative atomic ion. The ion is immobile and cannot move
through the material; therefore, IT IS NOT A CHARGE CARRIER.

Each donor contributes an additional negative carrier to the material. The increased density of
negative carriers results in an increased recombination rate which reduces the density of
positive carriers. [The PRODUCT of the two densities remains constant.] Materials doped with
donor atoms are N type extrinsic semiconductors. The majority carriers are conduction band
electrons, the minority carriers are valence band holes.

An "acceptor" dopant atom has 3 valence electrons; however, 4 are required to complete the
bonding structure in the semiconductor material. The "missing" 4th electron causes a vacancy
or hole in the bonding structure. Another valence electron may move to and occupy this hole
thus eliminating it and generating another hole and a negative atomic ion. The ion is immobile
and cannot move through the material; therefore, IT IS NOT A CHARGE CARRIER.

Each acceptor contributes an additional positive carrier to the material. The increased density
of positive carriers results in an increased recombination rate which reduces the density of
8.5
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

negative carriers. [The PRODUCT of the two densities remains constant.] Materials doped with
acceptor atoms are P type extrinsic semiconductors. The majority carriers are valance band
holes, the minority carriers are conduction band electrons.

Section 8.2: The pn Junction and the Semiconductor Diode

Problem 8.6
Describe the behavior of the charge carriers and ionized dopant atoms in the vicinity of a
semiconductor pn junction that causes the potential (energy) barrier that inhibits charge carriers
from crossing the junction.

Analysis:
Semiconductor atoms are not shown in the two figures. The
circles represent ionized dopant atoms and the uncircled plus
and minus signs represent charge carriers. The dotted line in
the first figure represents how far the depletion/space charge
region extends into the P and N regions.

Near the junction, the negative carriers in the N material

recombine with the positive carriers in the P material. This
forms a small region on either side of the junction which is
depleted of charge carriers; however, the ionized dopant atoms
are immobile and remain. Therefore, in the N material the region has a net positive charge and
in the P material the region has a net negative charge. This region is called either a "depletion"
region [depleted of carriers] or a "space charge" region [due to the dopant ions].

If a conduction band free electron [a majority carrier] in the N

material tries to cross into the P material, it encounters and is
repelled by the net negative charge [due to the ionized acceptor
atoms] in the depleted part of the P material.

If a valence band hole [a majority carrier] in the P material tries to

cross into the the N material, it encounters and is repelled by the
net positive charge [due to the ionized donor atoms] in the
depleted part of the N material.

The repulsion of the carriers is characterized as a Coulombic

"potential [energy] barrier". With no voltage applied across the
junction, Ohm's law requires the current to be zero. Actually, very,
very small equal but opposite currents do flow across the junction
but the net curent is zero.

The barrier can be decreased by applying a "forward bias" voltage across the junction. This
allows more carriers to cross the junction and when this voltage is greater than a certain value
[0.7 V for Silicon] a significant current [milliamps] flows.

8.6
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

The barrier can be increased by applying a "reverse bias" voltage across the junction. This
increases the barrier and fewer majority carriers have sufficient energy to cross the junction, ie,
the current essentially ceases. However, there is a VERY, VERY small "reverse saturation
current" [in the femtoamps range] due to the minority carriers. Since the minority carriers are
thermally produced, this current is dependent on temperature.

Section 8.3: Large-signal Models for the Semiconductor Diode

Problem 8.7
Consider the circuit of Figure P8.7. Determine whether the diode is conducting. Assume VA =
12V, VB = 10V, and that the diode is ideal.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.7, VA = 12V, VB = 10V, and that the diode is ideal.

Find:
Determine whether the diode is conducting or not.

Analysis:
Assuming the diode is not conducting, then the current in the loop is zero and the diode voltage
is v D =12−10=2 V . This result indicates that the diode is reverse-biased, which is consistent
with the assumption. Therefore, the diode is not conducting.
One could also have assumed that the diode is conducting and found the current to be
V −V 5
I= B i =− =−0. 133 A
5+10 12
The voltage across the diode is
V D=(−10 I +V B )−(5 I +V i )
¿−1.33+10−0.667−12
¿−3.997V
This result contradicts the assumption, since the diode cannot conduct if VD is negative. Thus,
the diode must not be conducting.

8.7
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.8
Repeat Problem 8.7 for VA = 12V, VB = 15V.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.7, VA = 12V, VB = 15V, and that the diode is ideal.

Find:
Determine the diode is conducting or not.

Analysis:
Assuming the diode is conducting, the current is found to be
V B−V i 3
I= = =0. 2 A
5+10 15
This result indicates that the diode is forward-biased, which is consistent with the assumption,
and so the diode is conducting.

Problem 8.9
Consider the circuit of Figure P8.9. Determine whether the diode is conducting. Assume VA =
12V, VB = 10V, VC = 5V and that the diode is ideal.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.9. VA = 12V, VB = 10V, VC = 5V and that the diode is ideal.

Find:
Determine whether the diode is conducting or not.

Analysis:
The Thèvenin equivalent resistance seen by the diode is
RTH =12.5 Ω. The Thèvenin (open-circuit) voltage seen by
the diode is
5Ω
V oc =12− ( 17 V )−10 V=−6.5 V
5 Ω+5 Ω
8.8
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Reform the circuit replacing the network seen by the diode with its
Thèvenin equivalent network. Clearly, the diode is not conducting,
which can be demonstrated by assuming it is not conducting and
replacing the diode with an open-circuit. The result is v D =−6.5 V ,
which indicates the diode is reverse-biased, consistent with the
assumption.
One could also assume the diode is conducting and replace it with a short-circuit. The result is
a diode current
−6.5 V
iD = =−0.52 A
12.5 Ω
This result contradicts the assumption. Thus the diode is reverse-biased (not conducting.)

Problem 8.10
Repeat Problem 8.9 for VB = 15V.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.9. VA = 12V, VB = 15V, VC = 5V and that the diode is ideal.
Find:
Determine whether the diode is conducting or not.
Analysis:
The Thèvenin equivalent resistance seen by the diode is
RTH =12.5 Ω. The Thèvenin (open-circuit) voltage seen by the
diode is
5Ω
V oc =12− ( 17 V )−15 V=−11.5 V
5 Ω+5 Ω
Reform the circuit replacing the network seen by the diode with its Thèvenin equivalent network.
Clearly, the diode is not conducting, which can be demonstrated by assuming it is not
conducting and replacing the diode with an open-circuit. The result is v D =−11.5V , which
indicates the diode is reverse-biased, consistent with the assumption.

One could also assume the diode is conducting and replace it with a short-circuit.
The result is a diode current
−11.5 V
iD = =−0.92 A
12.5 Ω
This result contradicts the assumption. Thus the diode is reverse-biased (not
conducting.)
8.9
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.11
Repeat Problem 8.9 for VC = 15V.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.9. VA = 12V, VB = 10V, VC = 15V and that the diode is ideal.

Find:
Determine whether the diode is conducting or not.

Analysis:
The Thèvenin equivalent resistance seen by the diode is
RTH =12.5 Ω. The Thèvenin (open-circuit) voltage seen by the
diode is
5Ω
V oc =12− ( 27 V )−10 V=−11.5V
5 Ω+5 Ω
Reform the circuit replacing the network seen by the diode with its Thèvenin equivalent network.
Clearly, the diode is not conducting, which can be demonstrated by assuming it is not
conducting and replacing the diode with an open-circuit. The result is v D =−11.5V , which
indicates the diode is reverse-biased, consistent with the assumption.

One could also assume the diode is conducting and replace it with a short-circuit.
The result is a diode current
−11.5V
iD = =−0.92 A
12.5 Ω
This result contradicts the assumption. Thus the diode is reverse-biased (not
conducting.)

8.10
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.12
Repeat Problem 8.9 for VB = 15V and VC = 10V.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.9. VA = 12V, VB = 15V, VC = 10V and that the diode is ideal.

Find:
Determine whether the diode is conducting or not.

Analysis:
The Thèvenin equivalent resistance seen by the diode is RTH =12.5 Ω.
The Thèvenin (open-circuit) voltage seen by the diode is
5Ω
V oc =12− ( 22 V )−15 V=−14 V
5 Ω+5 Ω
Reform the circuit replacing the network seen by the diode with its Thèvenin equivalent network.
Clearly, the diode is not conducting, which can be demonstrated by assuming it is not
conducting and replacing the diode with an open-circuit. The result is v D =−14 V , which
indicates the diode is reverse-biased, consistent with the assumption.

One could also assume the diode is conducting and replace it with a short-circuit.
The result is a diode current
−14 V
iD = =−1.12 A
12.5 Ω
This result contradicts the assumption. Thus the diode is reverse-biased (not
conducting.)

8.11
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.13
For the circuit of Figure P8.13, sketch iD(t) using:
a. The ideal diode model.
b. An ideal diode model with offset (Vγ = 0.6 V).
c. The piecewise linear approximation diode model with rD = 1 kΩ and Vγ = 0.6 V.

Solution:
Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.13.
Find:

Sketch i D (t ) .
Analysis:
(a) The diode currenti D (t ) , is
i D =100 mA for t< 10 ms
i D =0 mA for 10< t<20 ms
i D =100 mA for 20< t<30 ms

(b) The diode current i D (t ) , is

10−0. 6
iD = =94 mA for t<10 ms
100
i D =0 mA for 10<t<20 ms
i D =94 mA for 20<t <30 ms

(c) The i D (t ) is
Vs−V γ 9.4
iD = = =8 .55 mA for t <10 ms
100+r D 1100
i D =0 mA for 10< t <20 ms
i D =8 .55 mA for 20<t <30 ms

8.12
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Problem 8.14
For the ideal diode circuit of Figure P8.14, find the range of Vin for which D1 is forward-biased.

Solution:
Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.14.
Find:

The range of V in for a forward-biased D 1 .

Analysis:
Assume diode D 1 is conducting; the diode current is
V −2
I = in ≥0
1500
Since the current is positive, the initial assumption was correct. Therefore, the range of V in is:
V in ≥2 V .

Problem 8.15
One of the more interesting applications of a diode, based on the diode equation, is an
electronic thermometer. The concept is based on the empirical observation that if the current
through a diode is nearly constant, the offset voltage is nearly a linear function of the diode
temperature, as shown in Figure P8.15(a).
a. Show that iD in the circuit of Figure P8.15(b) is nearly constant in the face of variations in
the diode voltage, vD. To do so, compute the percent change in iD for a given percent change
in vD. Assume that vD changes by 5 percent from 0.6V to 0.63V.
b. On the basis of the graph of Figure P8.15(a), write an equation for vD(T) of the form
vD = αT + β.

8.13
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of figure of P8.15.

Find:
Show i D is constant; write an equation for v D ( T ) based on figure P8.15(a).

Analysis:
(a) The current iD is
5−v D Δ iD −3 −1
iD = → =−10 Ω =−0.1 %
1k Ω Δ vD
Thus,
Δ i D − Δ v D −v D Δ v D
= =
iD 5−v D 5−v D v D
For a 5 percent change in v D the percent change in i D is
Δ i D −v D
= ( 0.05 )
i D 5−v D

For v D =0.6 V the percent change in i D is

Δ i D −0.6
= ( 0.05 ) ≅ 0.0068=0.68 %
i D 5−0.6

Thus, i D is nearly constant.

(b) The diode voltage equation is
V D (T )=−0 . 002 T +0 . 8

Problem 8.16
Find expressions for the voltage vo in Figure P8.16, where D is an ideal diode, for positive and
negative values of vS . Sketch a plot of vo versus vS.

Solution:
Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.16.

8.14
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Find:
A plot of vo versus vS.
Analysis: vo
For v S <0 , the diode is reverse biased and acts as an
open-circuit such that v o=i D R o=0.

For v S >0 , the diode is forward biased and acts as a short- 0 vS
circuit. Apply voltage division.
vo Ro‖R 1 −1 v o
= , α =tan
v S R S + Ro‖R1 vS

Problem 8.17
Repeat Problem 8.16, using the offset diode model.

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.16. Diode offset voltage V γ =0.6 V .
Find:
A plot of vo versus vS.
Analysis:
For v S <V γ , the diode is reverse biased and acts as an open-circuit
such that v o=i D R o=0.

For v S >V γ , the diode is forward biased and acts as a short-circuit in

series with a V γ battery. The Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by
the diode is
R o ( R S + R1 ) + R S R1
R th =Ro + ( R S‖R1 ) =
R S + R1
The Thevenin (open-circuit voltage) across the diode terminals is
R1
v oc=v S
R S + R1
Thus, for v S >V γ
v oc −V γ v S R1− ( R S + R1 ) V γ v S R1− ( R S + R1 ) V γ
v o=i D R o= R o= R o= R
R th ( RS + R 1 ) R th R o ( RS + R 1) + R S R1 o
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

A sketch of this function versus v S is a straight line v o=m v S + b where

R1 Ro −R o ( R S + R1 ) V γ
m= b=
Ro ( R S + R1 ) + RS R1 R o ( R S+ R1 ) + R S R 1
A sketch of this straight line is easy enough to imagine.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.18
Find the voltage VS , the power PD dissipated in diode D, and the power PR dissipated in R in
Figure P8.18. Use the exponential diode equation and assume R = 2kΩ, VS = 5V, VD = 630mV,
kT/q = 25 mV, and I0 = 24.8 fA.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.18. R = 2kΩ, VS = 5V, VD = 630mV, kT/q= 25mV, and I0 = 24.8 fA

Find:
Determine Vs according to Figure P8.18, PD, PR.

Analysis:
Apply the exponential diode equation

( )
qV D

I D =I 0 e kT
−1 ≅ 2.18 mA
The power dissipated by the diode and the power dissipated by the resistor are
P D=V D I D ≅ 1.37 mW and P R=V R I R=V R I D ≅ 9.5 mW
Apply KVL around the loop to check the results.
V S =I D R+V D= ( 2.18 mA )( 2 k Ω ) +0.63 V ≅ 5.0 V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.19
Determine the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the diode D in Figure P8.19 and use it to
determine the diode current iD. Also, solve for the currents i1 and i2. Assume R1 = 5 kΩ, R2 = 3
kΩ, Vcc = 10V, and Vdd = 15V.

Solution:

Known quantities:

R1 , R2 ,V cc ,V dd
Find:
Diode current

Analysis:
Using Thevenin theorem in the linear part of the circuit
R 2 V cc R1 V dd
E eq= − =−5. 62 V
R1 +R2 R1 +R 2
R R
Req = 1 2 =1875 Ω
R1 + R2
Eeq is negative, diode is reverse-biased and the diode current is zero. The currents in the two
resistances are equal and opposite of each other with a magnitude

V cc +V dd
I= =3 . 1 mA
R1 +R 2

Problem 8.20
In Figure P9.20, assume a sinusoidal source V S =50 V rms, R=170 Ω, and V γ =0.6 V. Use the
offset diode model for a silicon diode to determine: (a) the maximum forward current and (b) the
peak reverse voltage across the diode.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Known quantities:

V S =50 V rms, R=170 Ω, and V λ=0.6 V

Find:

(a) The maximum forward current

(b) The peak reverse voltage across the diode

Analysis:

Use the offset diode model (shown in equation 8.9) to solve this problem.

(a) Maximum forward current

The maximum forward current may be found by taking the peak input voltage, subtracting V λ,
and determining the current through the diode:

50 √ 2−0.6
I F= ¿ 0.41 A
170

Note that the input voltage is given in RMS volts. Therefore, the maximum value of V S is √ 2
multiplied by the maximum RMS value.

(b) Peak inverse voltage across the diode

When the diode is reverse-biased, the current is zero. Therefore, the peak reverse voltage is
the minimum voltage of V S :

V rev =50∗√ 2=70.71V

Final answer: (a) 0.41 A, (b) 70.71 V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.21
Determine voltages Vo assuming the diodes are ideal in each of the configurations shown in
Figure P8.21.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The configurations shown in Figure P8.21.

Find:

Determine voltages assuming the diode are ideal

Analysis:

a)
V o =+7 V
V D=(−4 )−(+7 )=−11
VD is compatible with the orientation of the diode

b)
V o=−4V
c)
V o =−4 V
V D=− [ (+7 )−(−4 ) ] >0
VD is compatible with the orientation of the diode

d)
V o =+7V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.22
In the circuit of Figure P8.22, find the range of V ¿ for which D 1 is forward-biased. Assume ideal
diodes.

Known quantities:

Those in Figure P8.22.

Find:

The range of V ¿ for which D 1 is forward-biased.

Analysis:

The diode is forward-biased values of V ¿ > 0. When the voltage across D 1 becomes greater
than 1.5 V, D 2 becomes forward-biased. However, this change induces a 1.5 V drop across D 1.
Therefore, D 1 is biased for all values of V ¿ that are greater than 0:

V ¿> 0

Final answer: V ¿ > 0

Problem 8.23
Determine which diodes are forward-biased and which are
reverse-biased in the configurations shown in Figure P8.23.
Assuming a 0.7-V drop across each forward-biased diode,
determine vout .

Solution:

Known quantities:
The configurations of Figure P8.23.
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Find:
Determine which diodes are forward-biased and which are reverse-biased. Determine the
output voltage.

Assumptions:
The drop across each forward biased diode is 0.7 V.

Analysis:
a) D 2 , D3 and D4 are forward biased; D 1 is reverse biased. v out =- 5+0 . 7 =- 4 .3 V
b) D 1 and D 2 are reverse biased; D3 is forward biased. v out =- 10+0 . 7 =- 9 . 3V
c) D 1 is reverse biased; D 2 is reverse biased.

Problem 8.24
Sketch the output waveform and the voltage transfer characteristic for the circuit of Figure
P8.24. Assume an ideal diode, Vs (t) = 8 sin (πt), V1 = 3V, R1 = 8Ω and R2 = 5Ω.

Solution:

Known quantities:
v ( t )=8 sin ( πt ) .
The circuit of Figure P8.24; S

Find:
The output waveform and the voltage transfer characteristic.

Assumptions:
The diode is ideal.

Analysis:
OFF VD < 0
Vs
V D=−V s +V 1 + R1 <0
R1 + R 2
Vs 8
V o =V s −R 1 = Vs
R1 + R 2 13
V
V D=−V s +V 1 + R1 s <0
R1 +R 2
V 5
V o =V s −R 1 s = Vs
R1 + R 2 13
ON VD > 0
V o =3V
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

For VS <7.8 V, Vo=3 V. For VS  7.8 V, Vo=5/13vS .

The voltage transfer characteristic is

output
5

4.8

4.6

4.4

4.2

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2

3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time(sec)

Problem 8.25
Repeat Problem 8.24, using the offset diode model with Vγ = 0.55V.

Solution:

Known quantities:
v ( t )=8sin ( πt ) .
The circuit of Figure P8.24: S

Find:
The output waveform and the voltage transfer characteristic.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Assumptions:

The diode has an offset

V γ =0.55 V .
Analysis:
For vS <6.37 V, vo=3-V = 2.45 V. For vS  6.37 V, vo= vS 5/13Vs
The voltage transfer characteristic is

output
5

4.5

3.5

2.5

2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time(sec)

Section 8.4: Small-signal Models for the Semiconductor Diode

Problem 8. 26
Repeat Problem 8.24 for v S ( t ) =1.5 sin (2000 πt ) , V 1=1V, and R1=R 2=1 k Ω. Use the piecewise
linear model with r D=200 Ω.

Problem 8.24: Sketch the output waveform and the voltage transfer characteristic for the circuit
of Figure P8.24. Assume an ideal diode.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Known quantities:
v S ( t ) =1.5 sin (2000 πt ) , V 1=1V, R1=R 2=1 k Ω
Find:
Sketch the output waveform and the voltage transfer characteristic
Analysis:

The diode will be reverse-biased as long as v o > ( 1 V−V γ )=0.4 V . In that regime:

R2
v o= v > ( 1 V−V γ ) → v S > ( 0.4 V ) ( 2 )=0.8 V
R 1+ R 2 S
And
vS
v o=
2
When v S <0 .8 V, v o <0.4 V the diode is forward-biased such that:
vS 1 V−V λ
+
1000 rD v S +2
v o= =
1 1 1 7
+ +
1000 r D 1000
The figures below show the output waveform and the voltage transfer characteristic.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

vo

0.8

0.4

0 0.8 1.6 vS

Problem 8.27

Determine the current iD at the operating point Q:

a. Using the diode offset model.
b. By graphically solving the circuit characteristic (i.e., the DC load-line equation) and the device
characteristic (i.e., the diode equation).

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:

( )
VD
VT
I =I e −1
The circuit of Figure P8.27; the diode is fabricated from silicon and D 0 . At T =300 K ,
kT rad
I 0=250 10−12 A , V T = q ≈26 mV , v S=4 .2 V +110 cos ( ωt ) mV ,
ω=377
s , R=7 k Ω .

Find:
Determine, using superposition, the DC or Q-point current through the diode:
a) Using the DC offset model for the diode.
b) By iteratively solving the circuit characteristic and device characteristic.

Analysis:
a) For the diode offset model the diode will be forward-
biased as long as v S >V γ , which is always true because
4.2 V−110 mV> V γ =0.7 V. The DC portion of the overall
solution is
4.2−V γ 3.5 V
V D=V γ and I D= = =0.5 mA
7k Ω 7kΩ
The AC portion of the overall solution is
110 cos ( ωt ) mV
v d=0 and i d=
7k Ω
b) A simultaneous solution (the lower left Q point) of the device and
circuit characteristics is required. To do this iteratively, initially
assume a value for the diode voltage, say 0.7 V for a Silicon device.
Then:
1. Using the initial or new diode voltage and the circuit characteristic,
determine a new diode current.
2. Using this new diode current and the device characteristic,
determine a new diode voltage.
ITERATE or REPEAT until convergence is obtained.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

VD ID V S −V D
VT V D=V T ln I D=
Device: I D =I 0 e , I0 , Circuit, KVL: −V S + I D R+V D =0 , R

Voltage New Current New Voltage

--------- ---------- -----------
700 mV 0.5 ma 377.2 mV
377.2 mV 0.5461 ma 379.5 mV
379.5 mV 0.5458 ma 379.5 mV <<< Convergence

Convergence is obtained after only 3 iterations and:

I DQ =546 μA , V DQ =379 .5 mV
This is a much more accurate solution than that of Part a). The two solutions differ significantly
because the reverse saturation current given is unusually large.

Problem 8.28

Solution:

Known quantities:

( )
VD
V
I =I e T −1
The circuit of Figure P8.27; the diode is fabricated from silicon and D 0 . At T =300 K ,
kT rad
I 0=2.03 10−15 A , V T = q ≈26 mV , v S=5 .3 V +7 cos ( ωt ) mV , ω=377 s , R=4 . 6 k Ω .

Find:
Determine, using superposition and the offset voltage model for the diode, the DC or Q-point
current through the diode.

Analysis:
a) For the diode offset model the diode will be forward-biased as long as v S >V γ , which is
always true because 5.3 V−7 mV >V γ=0.7 V . The DC portion of the overall solution is
5.3−V γ 4.6 V
V D=V γ and I D= = =1.0 mA
4.6 k Ω 4.6 k Ω
The AC portion of the overall solution is
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

7 cos ( ωt ) mV
v d=0 and i d=
4.6 k Ω
The current is positive so the assumption above that the diode is on is valid.
b) A simultaneous solution (the lower left Q point) of the device and
circuit characteristics is required. To do this iteratively, initially
assume a value for the diode voltage, say 0.7 V for a silicon device.
Then:
1. Using the initial or new diode voltage and the circuit characteristic,
determine a new diode current.
2. Using this new diode current and the device characteristic,
determine a new diode voltage.
ITERATE or REPEAT until convergence is obtained.
VD ID
VT V D=V T ln
Device: I D =I 0 e , I0 , Circuit, KVL:
V S −V D
−V S + I D R+V D =0 ,
I D=
R

Problem 8.29
A diode with the i -v characteristic shown in Figure 8.8 is connected in series with a 5-V voltage
source (in the forward bias direction) and a load resistance of 200Ω. Determine:
a. The load current and voltage;
b. The power dissipated by the diode;
c. The load current and voltage if the load is changed
to 100 ohm and 500 ohm.

Solution:

Known quantities:
A diode with the i-v characteristic in Figure 8.8 in the text, connected to a 5 V source and a load
resistance of 200 .

Find:
a) The load current and voltage
b) The power dissipated by the diode.
c) The load current and voltage if the load is changed
to 100  and 500 .

Analysis:
a) The operating point can be determined by using
load-line analysis. The load line is
5−v D 5 v
iD = = − D
RL 200 200
The load voltage is
v L=5−v D ≃5−0 . 74=4 . 26 V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

The load current is obtained from the figure as

the intersection of the two characteristics and is
equal to 0.021 A.
b) The power dissipated by the diode is
P D=v D i D =0 . 74⋅0 . 021=15 mV
c) For RL=100 , we have

v D ≃0 .757 V
5−0 . 757
i D =i L = =0 .0424 A
100
v L=5−0 . 757=4 . 24 V

Similarly, for RL = 500 , we have

v D ≃0 .717 V
5−0 . 717
i D =i L = =0 .04283 A
100
v L=5−0 . 717=4 . 283 V

Problem 8.30
A diode with the i-v characteristic shown in Figure 8.28 is connected in series with a 2 V source
(in the forward-bias direction) and has a 200 Ω load resistance. Determine: (a) The load
current and voltage, (b) the power dissipated by the diode, and (c) the load current and voltage
if the load is changed to 100 Ω and 300 Ω

Known quantities:

The source voltage is 2 V and the circuit has a 200 Ω load resistance.

Find:

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

(a) The load current and voltage

(b) The power dissipated by the diode

(c) The load current and voltage if the load is changed to 100 Ω and 300 Ω

Analysis:

(a) The load current and voltage:

Determine the operating point by using load-line analysis. The load line is:

2−v D 2−v D
iD = ¿ ¿ 0.01−0.005 v D
RL 200

Drawing this line on Figure 9.28 reveals that the operating point is:

i D =6 mA v D =0.73 V

The load current is the same as the diode’s current. Use KVL to determine the load voltage:

v L =2−v D ¿ 2−0.73¿ 1.27 V

(b) The power dissipated by the diode:

The power dissipated by the diode may be determined by:

P D=v D i D¿ 0.73∗0.006¿ 4.38 mW

(c) The load current and voltage if the load is changed to 100 Ω and 300 Ω :

For the new load values (i.e., 100 Ω and 300 Ω ), use the same procedure described in part (a).

100 Ω :

Using Figure 9.28, the operating point is:

i D =11.75mA v D =0.825 V

Therefore, the load current and voltage are:

i L =11.75mA v L =1.175 V

300 Ω :

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Using Figure 9.28, the operating point at R L=300 Ω is:

i D =4.3 mA v D =0.7 V

Therefore, the load current and voltage are:

i L =4.3 mA v L =1.3 V

Final answer: (a) i L =6 mA, v L =1.27 V; (b) P D=4.38 mW; (c) i L =4.3 mA, v L =1.3 V.

Problem 8.31

Solution:

Known quantities:

(e −1)
VD
VT
I =I
The circuit of Figure P8.27; the diode is fabricated from Silicon and D 0 . At T =300 K ,
kT rad
I 0=250 10−12 A , V T = q ≈26 mV , v S=4 .2 V +110 cos ( ωt ) mV ,
ω=377
s , R=7 k Ω . The DC
operating point is: I DQ =0. 548 mA , V DQ=0 .365 V , r d =47 . 45 Ω .

Find:
Determine, using superposition the AC voltage across the diode and the AC current through it.

Analysis:
Suppress the DC component of the source voltage. Replace the diode with its AC equivalent
resistance; then:

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

rd
V d =V S
R+r d
47.45
V d =110∠0° =740 .6∠0° μV
7,000+47.45 ,
v d ( t )=740 . 6 cos ( ωt ) μV
V 740 .6 ∠ 0°
I d= d = =15 .61 ∠0 ° μA
r d 47 . 45 , id =15 . 61 cos ( ωt ) μA .
The total solution is then:
id=0.548 10−3+15.61cos ( ωt ) 10−6 A
v d ( t )=0.365+740.6cos ( ωt ) 10−6 V

Problem 8.32
The silicon diode shown in Figure P8.32 is in series with two voltage sources and a resistor,
where:

R=2.2 k ΩV S 2=3 V V r=0.7 V

Determine the minimum value of V S 1 at which the diode will be forward-biased and conduct
charge.

Known quantities:

R=2.2 k Ω, V S 2=3 V ,V r =0.7 V

Find:

The minimum value of V S 1 at which the diode will be forward-biased

Analysis:

If the diode is minimally forward-biased, diode current is zero and the voltage across the diode
must be:

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

v D =0.7V

Using KVL provides the equation:

V S 1=V D + V S 2¿ 0.7+ 3¿ 3.7 V

Problem 8.33
Find the average value of the output voltage vout shown in Figure P8.33. Assume vin = 10 sin(ωt)
V, C = 80 nF, and Vγ = 0.5V.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.33. The input voltage is sinusoidal with an amplitude of 10 V.

Find:
The average value of the output voltage.

Assumptions:
V γ =0.5 V .
Analysis:
The capacitor will charge to 10 V −0 . 5 V =9 .5 V and, therefore, the input sine wave will be
shifted up V to produce the output. As a result, after the cycle (the capacitor builds up its stored
charge during the third quarter cycle), the average value of the output will be 9.5 V.

Problem 8.34
The circuit of Figure P8.34 is driven by a sinusoidal source VS(t) = 6 sin(314t)V. Determine the
average and peak diode currents, using:
a. the ideal diode model;
b. the offset diode model;
c. the piecewise linear model with resistance rD. Assume Ro = 200Ω, rD = 25Ω, and Vγ = 0.8V.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:

The circuit of Figure P8.34:

R L ,R D ,V ON ,V P ,ω
Find:
Determine the average and peak diode currents in the three cases.

Analysis:
Case 1

V (t )<0⇒V o=V s , diode is in conduction

VS(t) > 0 s

{V o(t )=V s (t ) ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
VP
I Dpk = =30 mA
RL
T π
1 1 I Dpk
I D = ∫ i D (τ )dτ = ∫ I Dpk sin(θ)dθ = =9 .55 mA
AVG T 0 2π 0 π

Case 2
V D=V S if diode is OFF
(V S (t )<V ON )
In conduction state:
where

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

( )
V ON
V P sin θ1 =V ON ⇒θ1 =arcsin =0. 134 rad
VP
V P−V ON
I Dpk = =26 mA
RL
T π −θ 1
1 V P sin(θ )−V ON
I Davg =
T
∫ i D ( τ ) dτ=12 π ∫ RL
dθ=7 . 63 mA
0 θ1

Case 3
V P −V ON
I Dpk = =23. 1 mA
RL+ RD
T
1
I Davg =
T
∫ i D ( τ ) dτ=6 . 79 mA
0

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Section 8.5: Rectifier Circuits

Problem 8.35
A half-wave rectifier produces an average voltage of 50 V at its output.
a. Draw a schematic diagram of the circuit;
b. Sketch the output voltage waveform;
c. Determine the peak value of the output voltage;
d. Sketch the input voltage waveform;
e. What is the rms voltage at the input?

Solution:

Known quantities:
A half-wave rectifier is to provide an average voltage of 50 V at its output.

Find:
a) Draw a schematic diagram of the circuit.
b) Sketch the output voltage waveshape.
c) Determine the peak value of the input voltage.
d) Sketch the input voltage waveshape.
e) The rms voltage at the input.

Analysis:
a)

b)

c)
v ave=0 . 318 v peak =50⇒ v peak =157 .2 V
d)

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

e)
157 . 2
V in = =111 .2 V
rms
√2

Problem 8.36
A half-wave rectifier is used to provide a DC supply to an 80 Ω load. If the AC source voltage is
32 V rms, find the peak and average current in the load. Assume an ideal diode.

Known quantities:
~
R=80 Ω , V =32V rms

Find:

The peak current, I peak , and the average current, I avg, in the load.

Analysis:

Peak:

A half-wave rectifier only allows positive voltage to pass through the circuit. That is, it eliminates
the negative portion of the AC voltage source. The amplitude of the voltage source is the rms
value multiplied by √ 2:
~
V peak =V ∗√ 2¿ 32∗√ 2¿ 45.25 V

Because the diode is ideal, V peak is the voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore, the peak
current in can be calculated using Ohm’s law:

V peak 45.25
I peak = ¿ ¿ 0.57 A
R 80

Average:

For half-wave rectifier, average current is calculated as

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Final answer: I peak =0.57 A, I avg=0.181

Problem 8.37
The bridge rectifier in Figure P.8.37 is driven by a sinusoidal voltage source VS(t) = 6 sin(314t)
V. Redraw this figure to show that it is functionally identical to Figure 8.38. Determine the
average and peak forward current in each diode and in Ro = 200Ω. Assume ideal diodes.

Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit to Figure P8.37: RL, VP, ω .
Find:
The peak and average current in the load in each diode and in RL.
Assumptions:
Ideal diodes.
Analysis:
The four diodes form Graetz Bridge => the current in RL is positive

V s ( t )>0 ⇒ D 1 , D 4 ON , D2 , D 3 OFF
V s ( t )<0 ⇒ D 2 , D 3 ON , D1 , D 4 OFF
In conduction state, each diode is a short circuit:

{V o(t )=|V s (t )|¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

{iD1 (t)=iD 4 (t)=
In each diode
V s (t)
RL
2kπ≤ωt≤( 2k+1 ) π k=0,1,2...¿ ¿¿¿

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

VP
I Dpk = =30 mA
RL
T π
1 1
I DAVG = ∫ i D ( τ ) dτ= ∫ I Dpk sin(θ )dθ=9. 55 mA
T 0 2π 0
I R , AVG =2 I Davg
L

Problem 8.38
In the full-wave power supply shown in Figure P8.38 the silicon diodes are 1N4001 with a rated
peak reverse voltage of 25 V.
n = 0.05883
C = 80 μF Ro = 1 kΩ
Vline = 170 cos(377t)V
a. Determine the actual peak reverse voltage across each diode.
b. Explain why these diodes are or are not suitable for the specifications given.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave power supply of Figure P8.38. The diodes are 1N461 with a rated peak reverse
voltage equal to 25 V and are fabricated from silicon. n =0 . 05883 , C=80 mF , V line =170 cos ( 377 t ) V .

Find:
a) The actual peak reverse voltage across each diode.
b) The reasons for which these diodes are or are not suitable for the specification given.

Analysis:
a) At -t = 0, D1 is on. At +t = 0, D1 is off and the reverse voltage across it is maximum.
V so =V io n=170 0. 05883=10 V
KVL : −v s1 ( t ) +v D 1 + v L ( t )=0
At -t = 0, −V so +V D−on +V m=0 ⇒ V m=V so−V D−on=10−0 . 7=9. 3 V
At +t = 0, −(−V so ) +V D 1 +V m=0 ⇒ V D 1 =−V so −V m=−10−9 . 3=−19 . 3 V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

b) The actual peak reverse voltage (19.3 V) is less than the rated peak reverse voltage (25 V)
by a barely adequate margin of safety. Therefore, the diodes are suitable for the specifications
given.

Problem 8.39

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave power supply of Figure P8.38; n=0 .05883 , C=80 mF , V line =170 cos ( 377 t ) V .
The diodes are 1N4727 switching diodes fabricated from Silicon and with the following rated
mW
3 T =25÷125 °C
performances: Pmax =500 mW at T =25 °C ; derated °C and
mW
4 T =125÷175 °C
°C ; V pk−rev =30 V .

Find:
a) The actual peak reverse voltage across each diode.
b) The reasons for which these diodes are or are not suitable for the specification given.

Analysis:
a) At -t = 0, D1 is on. At +t = 0, D1 is off and the reverse voltage across it is maximum.
V so=V io n=170 0. 1=17 V KVL : −v s1 ( t ) +v D 1 + v L ( t )=0
At -t = 0, −V so+V D−on +V m=0 ⇒ V m=V so−V D−on=17−0 . 7=16. 3 V
At +t = 0, −(−V so ) +V D 1 +V m=0 ⇒ V D 1 =−V so −V m=−17−16 . 3=−33 . 3 V
b) The actual peak reverse voltage (33.3 V) is greater than the rated peak reverse voltage (30
V). Therefore, the diodes are not suitable for the specifications given.
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.40
Refer to problem 8.38 and assume a load voltage waveform as shown in Figure P8.40. Assume:
Io = 60mA Vo = 5V Vripple = 5% Vline = 170 cos(ωt)V ω = 377 rad/s
Determine:
a. The turns ratio n;
b. The capacitor C.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave DC power supply of Figure P8.38; the load voltage of Figure P8.40; I L =60 mA ,
rad
ω=377
V L=5 V , V r =5 % , v line=170 cos ( ωt ) V , s .

Find:
a) The turns ratio.
b) The capacitor C.

Analysis:
1
V m=V L + V r =5+0 .125=5. 125 V
a) 2 ,
1
V L−min=V L− V r =5−0 .125=4. 875 V
2 ,
V s1 =V s 2=V s 0 cos ( ωt ) .
KVL : −v s1 ( t ) +v D 1 + v L ( t )=0
At t = 0, −V so +V D−on +V L=0 ⇒ V s0 =V D−on +V m=0 . 7+5 .125=5 . 825 V
V so
n= =0. 0343
V io

b) KVL : v s 2 ( t ) + v D 2 +v L ( t ) =0 .

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

( )
1 V +V
t 2= cos−1 − D 2−on L−min =7 .533 ms
ω V so
At t =t 2 , V so cos ( ωt 2 ) =−V D 2−on−V L−min . .
The exponential discharge of the capacitor can be expressed:
t IL t
t − −
− R LC V C
TC
v L ( t )=v L ( ∞ ) + ( v L ( 0 )−v L ( ∞ ) ) e =0+ ( V m−0 ) e =V m e L

IL t2
C =- =1812 mF

( )
I Lt 2 V L−min
−
VLC V L ln
v L ( t 2 ) =V L−min =V m e
, m V
Note: An approximate but conservative value of C can be obtained by using the approximation:
I L ( wt 2 )
C »- =2000 mF

( )
V L−min
wV L ln
ωt 2 ≈π . Then Vm
.
This value is conservative because it gives a smaller ripple voltage than that specified.

Problem 8.41
Refer to problem 8.38. Assume:
Io = 600mA Vo = 50V
Vr = 8% = 4V
Vline = 170 cos(ωt)V ω = 377 rad/s
Determine:
a. The turns ratio n;
b. The capacitor C.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave DC power supply of Figure P8.38; I L =600 mA , V L=50 V , V r =8 % ,
rad
ω=377
v line=170 cos ( ωt ) V , s .

Find:
a) The turns ratio.
b) The capacitor C.

Analysis:
1 1
V m=V L + V r =50+2=52 V V L−min=V L− V r =50−2=48 V
a) 2 , 2 ,
V s1 =V s 2=V s 0 cos ( ωt ) .
KVL : −v s1 ( t ) +v D 1 + v L ( t )=0
At t = 0, −V so +V D−on +V L=0 ⇒ V s0 =V D−on +V m=0 . 7+52=52 . 7 V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

V so
n= =0. 31
V io

b) KVL : v s 2 ( t ) + v D 2 +v L ( t ) =0 .
At t =t 2 ,
V so cos ( ωt 2 ) =−V D 2−on −V L−min
.

( )
1 V +V
t 2= cos−1 − D 2−on L−min =7 .29 ms
ω V so
.
The exponential discharge of the capacitor can be expressed:
t IL t
t − −
− R LC V C
TC
v L ( t )=v L ( ∞ ) + ( v L ( 0 )−v L ( ∞ ) ) e =0+ ( V m−0 ) e =V m e L

IL t2
C =- =1093 mF

( )
I Lt 2 V L−min
−
VLC V L ln
v L ( t 2 ) =V L−min =V m e ,
Vm

Problem 8.42
Repeat Problem 8.37, using the diode offset model with Vγ = 0.8V.

Solution:

Known quantities:

Circuit to Figure P8.37: RL, VP,

ω ,V ON .
Find:
The peak and average current in the load in each diode and in RL.

Assumptions:
Ideal diodes.

Analysis:

Hp
D1 , D4 ¿ ¿

{iD1 (t)=iD 4 (t)=io (t)=

V s (t)−2V ON
RL
¿¿¿¿

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

i =i >0⇒V s (t )>2V ON
Imposing D 1 D4
⇒
Imposing
V D2 =V D 3 <V ON ⇒V s (t )>0

⇒ D1 , D4 are ON in2 kπ +θ 1≤ωt≤( 2 k +1 ) π −θ1 k =0 , 1 ,2 ..

( )
2 V ON
V P sin (θ 1 )=2V ON ⇒θ 1=arcsin =0. 27 rad
VP
where
D2 , D3 are ON in(2 k +1) π +θ1≤ωt≤ (2 k + 2 ) π−θ 1 k =0 ,1 , 2 ..

V P −2 V ON
I Dpk = =22 mA
RL
T π −θ
1
1
V P sin(θ )−2 V ON
I DAVG =
T
∫ i D ( τ ) dτ=12 π ∫ RL
dθ=5. 89 mA
0 θ1
I R L , AVG =2 I Davg

Problem 8.43
You have been asked to design a full-wave bridge rectifier for a power supply. A step-down
transformer has already been chosen. It will supply 12 V rms to your rectifier. The full-wave
rectifier is shown in the circuit of Figure P8.43.

a. If the diodes have an offset voltage of 0.6 V, sketch the input source voltage vS(t) and
the output voltage vo(t), and state which diodes are on and which are off in the
appropriate cycles of vS(t). The frequency of the source is 60 Hz. Ohm
b. If Ro = 1,000Ω and a filtering capacitor has a value of 8 μF, sketch the output voltage
vo(t).
c. Repeat part (b), with the capacitance equal to 100 μF.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave rectifier of Figure P8.43, with a 12 V rms supply.

Find:
a) Sketch the input source voltage v S ( t ) , and the output voltage v L ( t ) , and state which diodes
are on and which are off if the diodes have an offset voltage of 0.6 V and the frequency of
the source is 60 Hz.
b) Sketch the output voltage if R L=1 , 000 Ω and a v
R
capacitor, placed across L to provide some
(V)
vS vL
filtering, has a value of 8 μF.
c) As part b, with the capacitance equal to 100 16.97
μF. 15.77

Analysis:
a) The input source voltage is shown on the right, D1D4 D2D3 D1D4 t
on on on
together with the rectified load voltage. (12 Vrms
= 16.97 Vpeak)

b) The time constant, τ = CR, is: CR = 1000810-6= 8 ms.

The period of the input sinusoid is: v
1 1
T = = =16 . 7 ms (V) vS
f 60 . vL
Since the capacitor initial voltage is: 16.97
v C ( 0 ) =16 .97−1 .2=15 .77 V , and the final value is 15.77
v C ( ∞ ) =0 V
1.96
v C ( t ) is given by: v C ( t )=15.77 e−t /τ . 0 D1 D4 D 2D3 D1 D4
t
on on on
Therefore, at t = T, we have
v C ( T )=15.77 e−T /τ =1.96 V .
The output waveform is shown on the right:

(c) The time constant is CR = 100010010-6= 100 v

ms. (V)
vS
Note that CR >> T; v C ( 0 ) =16 .97−1 .2=15 .77 V , and vL

the final value is v C ∞ =0 V ;

( ) vC ( t ) is given by:
16.97
15.77
13.34
v C ( t )=15.77 e−t /τ and therefore
−T /τ
v C ( T )=15.77 e =13.34 V . D1 D4 D2D3 D1 D4
on on on t
The output waveform is shown on the right.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.44
In the bridge rectifier of the power supply shown in Figure P8.44, the silicon diodes are 1N4001
with a rated peak reverse voltage of 50 V. Assume: v line=170 cos (377 t ) V, n=0.2941,
C=700 μF, and Ro =2.5 k Ω . Find: (a) the actual peak reverse voltage across each diode; (b)
are these diodes suitable for the specifications given? Explain.

Known quantities:

v line=170 cos (377 t ) V, n=0.2941, C=700 μF, Ro =2.5 k Ω

Find:

(a) The actual peak reverse voltage across each diode

(b) Are these diodes suitable for the specifications given? Explain.

Analysis:

(a) The actual peak reverse voltage across each diode:

The line voltage is:

v line=n v line =50 cos ( 377 t )

Therefore, the maximum voltage is:

V so =50V At ωt=0 (i.e., maximum voltage) the source voltage has the polarity shown; therefore,
D1 and D3 are conducting, while D2 and D4 are reverse-biased. At ωt=π (i.e., minimum
voltage), D 1 and D 3 are reverse-biased, and the voltage across them is the peak reverse
voltage. Using KVL provides the equation:

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

−v S ( t ) + v D + v L ( t ) + v D =0
1 3

At ωt=0:

v L ( 0 )=V max =V so−V D −V D ¿ 50−0.7−0.7¿ 48.6 V

1 3

At ωt=π :

1
V rev ,min =v D ( π )+ v D ( π )¿ V so cos ( π )−v L ( π )¿−V so−V m¿ (−50−48.6 ) ¿−49.3 V
1 3
2

(b) Are these diodes suitable for the specifications given? Explain.

The diodes are unsuitable because the rated and actual peak reverse voltages are
approximately identical.

Final answer: (a) V rev ,min =−49.3 V; (b) No (see part (b))

Problem 8.45
Refer to problem 8.44. Assume the diodes have a rated peak reverse voltage of 10 V and:
Vline = 156 cos(377t) V
n = 0.04231 Vr = 0.2V
Io = 2.5mA Vo = 5.1V
a. Determine the actual peak reverse voltage across the diodes.
b. Explain why these diodes are or are not suitable for the specifications given.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave bridge power supply of Figure P8.44; the diodes are T151 with a rated peak
reverse voltage 10 V and are fabricated from Silicon. n=0.0423 , V L=5 . 1 V , V r =0. 2 V ,
rad
ω=377
I L =2. 5 mA , v line=156 cos ( ωt ) V , s .
Find:
a) The actual peak reverse voltage across the diodes.
b) Explain why these diodes are or are not suitable for the specifications given.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Analysis:
1
m L V =V + V =5 . 2 V
a) V so =nV io =6 . 6 V , v s ( t )=6 . 6 cos ( ωt ) V . 2 r
At -t = 0, the source voltage has the polarity shown; therefore, D1 and D3 are conducting, and D2
and D4 are off.
KVL : −v s ( t )−v D 4 −v L ( t )−v D 2=0
1
V D2 ,4 = (−6.6−5.2 )=−5.9 V
At +t = 0: v D 2 ( 0 ) +v D 4 ( 0 )=−v L ( 0 )−V so cos ( 0 )=−V m−V so V D 2 =V D 4 , 2
b) The diodes are suitable because the actual PRV (5.9 V) is significantly less than the rated
PRV (10 V).

Problem 8.46
Refer to problem 8.44. Assume:
Io = 650mA Vo = 10V
Vr = 1V ω = 377 rad/s
Vline = 170 cos(ωt)V φ = 23.66◦
Determine the value of the average and peak current through each diode.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave bridge power supply of Figure P8.44; the diodes are fabricated from Silicon.
rad
ω=377
φ=23 .66 deg , V L=10 V , V r =1 V , I L =650 mA , v line=170 cos ( ωt ) V , s .

Find:
The value of the average and the peak current through each diode.

Analysis:
Diodes D1 and D3 will conduct half of the load current and Diodes D2 and D4 will conduct the
1
I D −ave= I L =325 mA
other half. Therefore: 2
The waveforms of the diode currents are complex but can be roughly approximated as
triangular (recall area of triangle = bh/2):
I L =( I D 1 , 3 + I D 2, 4 ) ave=
1 2p
2 p 0 ( D 1, 3 ( fI pk fI D− pk
∫ I ( wt ) + I D 2 , 4 ( wt ) ) d ( wt )= 21p D−
2
+
2 )
2 pI L 2 pI L
I D − pk = = =1. 28 A
1 1 f
f+ f
2 2

Problem 8.47
Repeat Problem 8.37, using the piecewise linear diode model with Vγ = 0.8V and resistance RD
= 25Ω.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:
Known quantities:

Circuit to Figure P8.37: RL, RD, VP,

ω ,V ON .
Find:
The peak and average current in the load in each diode and in RL.
Assumptions:
Ideal diodes.
Analysis:

Hp
D1 , D4 ¿ ¿

{
iD1 (t)=iD 4 (t)=io (t)=
V s (t)−2V ON
R L +2R D
¿ ¿¿¿

i =i >0⇒V s (t )>2V ON
Imposing D 1 D4
⇒
Imposing
V D2 =V D 3 <V ON ⇒V s (t )>R D iD1 >0

⇒ D1 , D4 are ON in2 kπ +θ 1≤ωt≤( 2 k +1 ) π −θ1 k =0 , 1 ,2 ..

( )
2 V ON
V P sin (θ 1 )=2V ON ⇒θ 1=arcsin =0. 27 rad
VP
where
D2 , D3 are ON in(2 k +1) π +θ1≤ωt≤ (2 k + 2 ) π−θ 1 k =0 ,1 , 2 ..
V P −2 V ON
I Dpk = =17 . 6 mA
R L +2 R D
T π −θ
1
1
V P sin(θ )−2 V ON
I DAVG =
T
∫ i D ( τ ) dτ=12 π ∫ R L+ 2 R D
dθ=4 . 71 mA
0 θ1
I R L , AVG =2 I Davg

Problem 8.48
Refer to problem 8.44. Assume:
Io = 250mA Vo = 10V
Vr = 2.4V ω = 377 rad/s
Vline = 156 cos(ωt)V
Determine:
a. The turns ratio n;
b. The capacitor C.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:
The full-wave bridge power supply of Figure P8.44; the diodes are fabricated from Silicon.
rad
ω=377
V L=10 V , V r =2 . 4 V , I L =250 mA , v line=156 cos ( ωt ) V , s .

Find:
a) The turns ratio n.
b) The capacitor C.

Analysis:
a) First determine the maximum and minimum voltage across the load resistance and
capacitor:
1 1
V m=V L + V r =10+1. 2=11. 2 V V L−min=V L− V r =10−1.2=8. 8 V
2 , 2 .
The amplitude of the supply voltage can now be determined.
KVL : −V so cos ( ωt ) + v D 1 +v D 3 + v L (t )=0
At t = 0, −V so +V D−on +V D−on +V L=0 ⇒ V s 0 =2 V D −on+V m=0 .7 +0 .7+ 11.2=12. 6 V
V so
n= =0. 08077
V io
b) KVL : v s ( t ) +v D 2 + v D 4 +v L ( t )=0 .

( )
2 V D 2−on +V L−min
ωt 2 =cos−1 − =1. 505 rad
V so
At t =t 2 , V so cos ( wt 2 ) =- V D −on−V D−on−V L−min . .
The exponential discharge of the capacitor can be expressed:
t I L wt
t − −
− R LC wV C
TC
v L ( t )=v L ( ¥ )+ ( v L ( 0 )−v L ( ¥ ) ) e =0+ ( V m−0 ) e =V m e L

−
I L ωt 2 I L ωt 2
ωV L C C=− =691 . 3 μF
v L ( t 2 ) =V L−min =V m e , ωV L ln ( V L−min /V m )

Section 8.6: Zener Diodes and Voltage Regulation

Problem 8.49
The diode shown in Figure P8.49 has a piecewise linear characteristic that passes through the
points (-10 V, -5 μA), (0, 0), (0.5 V, 5 mA), and (1 V, 50 mA). Determine the piecewise linear
model and, using that model, solve for i and v .

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Known quantities:

R=100 Ω ,V =2V, and the piecewise linear characteristic.

Find:

The piecewise linear model, i , and v

Analysis:

Piecewise linear model:

First, determine the Q point of the diode using equation 8.12:

−1 VS
iD = v D+
RS RS

V S and R S can be determined from Figure P8.49:

V S =2 V R S=100 Ω

Next, plot the load-line equation (8.12) on the same graph as the piecewise linear characteristic,
note the intersection of these lines (Q point, (0.06 V, 0.014 A)), and draw a tangent line. Using
the graph (shown in Figure 8.49.1), determine the values for the piecewise linear model:

V λ=0.45 V r D=10.53 Ω

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Linear Piecewise Model

0.05
Linear characteristic
0.045 Load-line
1/rD
0.04

0.035

0.03
iD (A)

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
vD (V)

Figure 9.49.1: Graphical analysis to determine the piecewise linear model for the given diode.

Current and voltage:

The current and voltage of the diode are determined by the Q point, which has already been
found. Therefore, solution is:

i=0.014 A v=0.6 V

Final answer: Figure 9.49.1, i=0.014 A, v=0.6 V

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.50
In the circuit shown in Figure P8.50, R must maintain the Zener diode within its specified limits.
If Vbatt = 15V ± 3V, Ro = 1000Ω, Vz = 5V, Iz = 4mA < IZ < 18 mA determine the minimum and
maximum values of R that can be used.

Solution:

Known quantities:
Figure P8.50. : E, Ro, VZ, IZ

Find:
Determine the minimum and the maximum value of R.

Analysis:
The current through RL
VZ 5
I L= = =5 mA
RL 1000

The mesh equation is:

E=RI R + V Z

The current limits are:

I R min=I Z min + I L=4+ 5=9 mA

I R max =I Z max + I L=18+5=23 mA
Writing the mesh equation for two extreme situations:
E min−V Z
R max I R min =Emin −V Z ⇒ Rmax = =888 . 9 Ω
I R min
E −V Z
R min I R max =Emax −V Z ⇒ R min= max =521. 7 Ω
I R max ⇒521 . 7 Ω≤R≤888 . 9Ω

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.51
Determine the minimum value and the maximum value that the series resistor may have in a
regulator circuit whose output voltage is to be 25 V, whose input voltage varies from 35 to 40 V,
and whose maximum load current is 75 mA. The Zener diode used in this circuit has a
maximum current rating of 250 mA.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The output voltage 25 V. The input voltage that varies from 35 to 40 V. The maximum load
current is 75 mA. The maximum current, 250 mA, for the Zener diode used.

Find:
Determine the minimum and the maximum value for the series resistance.

Analysis:

40−25 35−25
iS = iS =
RS RS
, i L =75 mA
max min iZ =0 iZ =−250 mA
min , max, min , max

15 10
iS =250+75=325 mA ⇒ R Smin = −3
=46 .2 Ω i S =0+75=75 mA ⇒ R Smax = −3
=133 . 3Ω
max
325 ´ 10 ,
min
75 ´ 10

Problem 8.52
The i-v characteristic of a semiconductor diode designed to operate in the Zener breakdown
region is shown in Figure P8.52. The Zener or breakdown region extends from the “knee” of the
curve, located here at v D =−3 V and i D =−10 mA , to a maximum rated current equal to -80 mA.
The test point is v D =−5 V and i D =−32 mA . Determine the Zener resistance and the Zener
voltage of the diode.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Known quantities:

The i-v characteristic shown in Figure P8.52

Find:

The Zener resistance and the Zener voltage of the diode

Analysis:

Zener voltage:

The Zener voltage is evaluated at the middle of the rated region of operation (i.e., midway
between the “knee” of the curve and maximum rated current), which means:

VZ ≈5V

Zener resistance:

The Zener resistance is determined from the slope of the i-v characteristic over the rated region
of operation:

1 1 Δv v D −v D2 2
r Z= = = D= = 1
=6.25 Ω
Slope Δ i D Δ i D i D −i D 32∗10−3
1 2

Δ vD

where v D1 and v D2 are the voltages at the maximum and minimum voltages over the rated
region of operation, respectively; and i D and i D are the currents at the maximum and minimum
1 2

currents in the rated region of operation, respectively.

Final answer: V Z =5 V, R Z =6.25 Ω

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.53
The Zener diode in the simple voltage regulator shown in Figure P8.53 is a 1N5231B. The
source voltage is obtained from a DC power supply. It has DC and ripple components:
v S=V S +v r , where: V S = 20 V, |v r|=250 mV, R=220 Ω, |i O|avg=65 mA, |v o|avg =5.1 V, V Z =5.1 V,
r Z =17 Ω , Prated =0.5 W, and |i Z|min=10 mA. Determine the maximum rated current the diode
can handle without exceeding its power limitation.

Known quantities:

v S=V S +v r ,V S = 20 V, |v r|=250 mV, R=220 Ω, |i O|avg=65 mA, |v o|avg =5.1 V, V Z =5.1 V,

r Z =17 Ω , Prated =0.5 W, |i Z|min=10 mA

Find:

The maximum rated current that the diode can handle without exceeding its power limitation

Analysis:

Use the DC model of the Zener diode, as described in Figure 8.48. The Zener resistance and
source both use power. Therefore, the total power dissipation of the Zener diode can be
written:
2
PZ =I Z r Z + I Z V z

Using given information, this equation may be written:

2
17 I z +5.1 I z −0.5=0

which can be solved using the quadratic equation:

−5.1 ± √ 5.12−( 4∗17∗−0.5 )

I Z= ¿−0.15 ± 0.228¿ 77.84 mA
2∗17

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Final answer: I Z ,max =77.84 mA

Problem 8.54
Repeat problem 8.53 for the following specifications: V Z =12 V, r Z =11.5Ω , Prated =400 mW. At
the knee of the reverse-biased Zener diode curve: I Zk =12 mA, r Zk=700 Ω . Determine the
maximum rated current the diode can handle without exceeding its power limitation.

Known quantities:

V Z =12 V, r Z =11.5Ω , Prated =400 mW. At the knee of the curve: I Zk =12 mA, r Zk=700 Ω .

Find:

The maximum rated current the diode can handle without exceeding its power limitation.

Analysis:

Use the DC model of the Zener diode described in Figure 8.48 and note that both the Zener
resistance and source use power. The power dissipated by the Zener diode can be written:
2
PZ =I Z r Z + I Z V Z

which, with given information, is written:

2
11.5 I Z +12 I Z −0.4=0

This equation can be solved using the quadratic formula:

−12 ± √ 122−( 4∗11.5∗−0.4 )

I Z= ¿−0.52 ±0.55¿ 30 mA
2∗11.5

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Final answer: I Z ,max =30 mA

Problem 8.55
In the simple voltage regulator shown in Figure P8.53, R must maintain the Zener diode current
within its specified limits for all values of the source voltage, load current, and Zener diode
voltage. Determine the minimum and maximum values of R that can be used. V Z =5V ± 10 %,
r Z =15 Ω , |i z|min =3.5 mA, |i Z|max=65 mA, |v S|=12± 3 V, |i O|=70 ±20 mA.

Known quantities:

V Z =5V ± 10 %, r Z =15 Ω, |i z|min =3.5 mA, |i Z|max=65 mA, |v S|=12± 3 V, |i O|=70 ±20 mA

Find:

The minimum and maximum values of R that can be used

Analysis:

Use the DC equivalent model of the Zener diode found in Figure 8.48. To solve for the
minimum and maximum values of R , two different circuit conditions must be evaluated:
maximum Zener current and minimum Zener current.

Before the evaluation, determine an equation that represents R . To accomplish this task, use
KCL and KVL on the DC model of the Zener diode. Using KVL provides:

−V Z −i Z r Z +v o=0

KCL yields:

v o −v S
+i Z +i o=0
R

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

There exists no given information on the nature of Ro or v o. Therefore, this variable must be
eliminated. KVL yields the result:

v o=V Z +i Z r Z

Substitute this result into the KCL equation:

V Z +i Z r Z −v S
+i Z +i o=0
R

Solve for R :

v S−i Z r Z −V Z
R=
i Z +i O

Minimum value of R :

To solve for the minimum value of R , evaluated the circuit under the following conditions: R, i o
,and V Z , are at a minimum; and v S and i Z are at a maximum. The previously derived equation
becomes:

v S ,max −i z , max r z−V Z ,min 15−0.065∗15−4.5

Rmin = ¿ ¿ 82.83 Ω
i Z , max +i o , min 0.065+ 0.050

Maximum value of R :

To solve for the maximum value of R , evaluate the circuit under the following conditions: R , i o,
and V Z are at a maximum; and v S and i Z are at a minimum. The previously derived equation
becomes:

v S ,min −i z , min r z−V Z ,max 9−0.0035∗15−5.5

Rmax = ¿ ¿ 36.87 Ω
i Z , min +i o , max 0.0035+0.090

Note that Rmin exceeds Rmax . Therefore, no value of R can guarantee that all the specifications
are met.

Final answer: Rmin =82.83 Ω; Rmax =36.87 Ω

A value of R can be chosen but conditions may occur where the Zener current exceeds its
maximum value or falls below its minimum value.
This problem can be solved by:

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

1. Choosing another Zener diode with different minimum and maximum currents.
2. Relaxing the specifications on source voltage and load current.

Note that the relationships between minimum and maximum values ALWAYS STARTS WITH
THE QUESTION OF WHAT WILL CAUSE A MINIMUM OR MAXIMUM ZENER CURRENT !!! If
the Zener current exceeds its maximum rated value, it will burn up; if it falls below its minimum
value, the diode will leave the Zener region and cease to regulate the voltage. These represent
WORST CASE conditions, a procedure frequently used in design.

Note that a Zener diode acts like an electrical "surge tank" for current; however, the analogy is
not exact.

A liquid surge tank regulates, ie, maintains constant, pressure and fluid flow rates. It does this
by temporarily storing excess fluid when flow rates increase or supplying extra fluid when flow
rates decrease.

The Zener "surge tank" primarily regulates load voltage as the load resistance [and therefore
the load current] or source voltage [and therefore the current supplied by the source] changes. It
temporarily "stores" excess current when load current decreases or source voltage increases
and "supplies" extra current when load current increases or source voltage decreases.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.56
Repeat problem 8.55 for the following specifications: V Z =12V ± 10 %, r Z =9 Ω , |i z|min =3.25 mA,
|i Z|max=80 mA, v S=25 ± 1.5 V, |iO|=31.5 ±21.5 mA.
Problem 8.55: Determine the minimum and maximum values of R that can be used.

Known quantities:

V Z =12V ± 10 %, r Z =9 Ω , |i z|min =3.25 mA, |i Z|max=80 mA, v S=25 ± 1.5 V, |i O|=31.5 ±21.5 mA

Find:

The minimum and maximum values of R that can be used

Analysis:

Use the DC equivalent model of the Zener diode found in Figure 8.48. To solve for the
minimum and maximum values of R , two different circuit conditions must be evaluated:
maximum Zener current and minimum Zener current.

Before the evaluation, determine an equation that represents R . To accomplish this task, use
KCL and KVL on the DC model of the Zener diode. Using KVL provides:

−V Z −i Z r Z +v o=0

KCL yields:

v o −v S
+i Z +i o=0
R

There exists no given information on the nature of Ro or v o. Therefore, this variable must be
eliminated. KVL yields the result:

v o=V Z +i Z r Z

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Substitute this result into the KCL equation:

V Z +i Z r Z −v S
+i Z +i o=0
R

Solve for R :

v S−i Z r Z −V Z
R=
i Z +i O

Minimum value of R :

To solve for the minimum value of R , evaluated the circuit under the following conditions: R, i o
,and V Z , are at a minimum; and v S and i Z are at a maximum. The previously derived equation
becomes:

v S ,max −i z , max r z−V Z ,min 26.5−0.080∗9−10.8

Rmin = ¿ ¿ 166.4 Ω
i Z , max +i o , min 0.080+0.010

Maximum value of R :

To solve for the maximum value of R , evaluate the circuit under the following conditions: R , i o,
and V Z are at a maximum; and v S and i Z are at a minimum. The previously derived equation
becomes:

v S ,min −i z , min r z−V Z ,max 23.5−0.00325∗9−13.2

Rmax = ¿ ¿ 182.59 Ω
i Z , min +i o , max 0.00325+0.053

Final answer: Rmin =166.4 Ω; Rmax =182.59 Ω

Problem 8.57
In the circuit shown in Figure P8.57, compute the diode currents. Let Vcc = 24V, io = 5mA, R1 =
1kΩ, Vdd = 6V, Vz1 = Vz2 = 5V, R2 = 3kΩ

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:

V cc , I2 ,R1 ,V dd ,V z 1 ,R 2
Find:
The currents through two Zener diode.

Analysis:
Assume that the diode D2 is biased to operate as a zener. Compute the voltage in P

V P=R2 I 2 +(−V dd )=9V ⇒ V z 2 =V P =9V

The voltage across R1 is

V R1
V R 1=V cc −V z1 −V z 2=10 V ⇒ I 1= =10 mA
R1
I z 1 =I 1
I z 2 =I z 1−I 2 =5 mA
Assumption is confirmed.

Problem 8.58
In the circuit shown in Figure P8.58, compute the currents I 1 and I 2. Let V cc =18 V, V dd =24 V,
V Z 1=7.5 V, V Z 2=5 V, R1=5 k Ω, R2=2 k Ω.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Known quantities:

V cc =18 V, V dd =24 V, V Z 1=7.5 V, V Z 2=5 V, R1=5 k Ω, R2=2 k Ω

Find:

I 1 and I 2

Analysis:

Assume that D 1 is biased to operate as a Zener and the diode D 2 works like a normal diode.

The current through R2 is:

V dd−V Z 2 24−5
I 2= ¿ ¿ 9.5 mA
R2 2000

The current through R1 is:

V cc −V Z 1 +V dd 18−7.5+24
I 1= ¿ ¿ 6.9 mA
R1 5000

Final answer: I 1=6.9 mA; I 2=9.5 mA

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.59
The Zener regulator shown in Figure P8.59 holds the load voltage at Vo = 14V. Find the range of
load resistance Ro for which regulation can be obtained if the Zener diode is rated at 14 V, 5 W.

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.59; the desired load voltage is 14V; The Zener diode is rated at 14V,
5W.

Find:
The range of load resistance for regulation.

Analysis:
V S =50 V , Zener is rated V Z=14 V, 5 W

The minimum load resistance can be calculated by assuming that all the source current goes to
the load, and that the load voltage is regulated at the nominal value:
VZ VZ 14
RL = = = =11 . 7 Ω
min i S (V S −V Z )/30 36 /30
The maximum current through the Zener diode that does not exceed the diode power rating is
PZ 5
iZ = = =0 . 357 A
max V Z 14
The source current is
V −V Z 50−14
iS= S = =1 . 2 A
30 30
So the maximum load resistance is
VZ 14
RL = = =16 . 6 Ω
max i S max −i Z max 0. 843
Thus, the range of allowable load resistance:
11. 7 Ω ≤ R L <16 . 6 Ω

Problem 8.60
A Zener diode ideal i -v characteristic is shown in Figure P8.60(a). Given a Zener voltage, VZ of
7.7 V, find the output voltage Vout for the circuit of Figure P8.60(b) if VS is:
a. 12 V
b. 20 V
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Solution:

Known quantities:
The circuit of Figure P8.60(b); Zener diode i-v character; VZ=; 7.7V

Find:
The output voltage Vout.

Analysis:
(a) The voltage across the diode is
50+50
V Z=V S =6<7 . 7 V
100+50+50
Therefore, the Zener diode is off. Thus, the output voltage is
50
V out =6 =3 V
100
(b) The voltage across the diode is
VZ = 20(100/200) = 10V > 7.7 V
In this case, the Zener diode is on and the output voltage is
50
V out =7 . 7 =3 . 85 V
100

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Section 8.7 Photodiode

Problem 8.61
For the LED circuit of Example 8.13, determine the LED power consumption if the LED
consumes 20 mA at the same voltage. How much power is required of the source? Assume
V S =5 V , V LED=1.7 V , and I LED=20 mA .

Solution:

Known quantities:
The LED circuit of Example 8.13. V S =5 V , V LED=1.5 V , and I LED =30 mA .

Find:
The power supplied by the source and power consumed by the LED.

Analysis:

Apply KVL to determine the voltage across R S .

V R =V S−V LED =3.3 V
S

Therefore, the resistor needed to limit the diode current is

3.3 V
R S= =165 Ω
20 mA
The power supplied by the source is
PS =V S I LED =100 mW
The power consumed by the resistor is
P R =I 2LED R S =66 mW
S

The power consumed by the LED is

PLED =V LED I LED=34 mW

The total power supplied equals the total power consumed.

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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 8

Problem 8.62
For the LED circuit of Example 8.13, determine the LED power consumption if the LED
consumes 30 mA and the diode voltage is 1.5V. How much power is required of the source?
Assume V S =5 V , V LED =1.5 V , and I LED=30 mA .

Solution:

Known quantities:
The LED circuit of Example 8.13. V S =5 V , V LED=1.5 V , and I LED =30 mA .

Find:
The power supplied by the source and power consumed by the LED.

Analysis:

Apply KVL to determine the voltage across R S .

V R =V S−V LED =3.5 V
S

Therefore, the resistor needed to limit the diode current is

3.5 V
R S= =116.7Ω
30 mA
The power supplied by the source is
PS =V S I LED =150 mW
The power consumed by the resistor is
P R =I 2LED R S =105 mW
S

The power consumed by the LED is

PLED =V LED I LED=45 mW

The total power supplied equals the total power consumed.

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