Rizzoni Principles 7e Ch02 ISM

G. Rizzoni and J.
Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 2
Chapter 2: Equivalent Networks – Instructor Notes

Chapter 2 introduces various techniques in the analysis of resistive (DC) circuits, with an
emphasis on the concept of an equivalent network and its application. The approach to this
concept is gradual and, at first, limited to the equivalent resistance of two or more resistors in
series and in parallel. The level of analytic sophistication is also developed gradually, with the
important concepts of voltage and current division introduced in Sections 2.1 and 2.2,
respectively.
It is possible to give an applied flavor to these first two sections by emphasizing a few
selected topics. In particular, a class could be devoted to resistance devices and the role of
voltage division in their application, as described in Focus on Measurements: Resistive Throttle
Position Sensor (pp. 84-85), Focus on Measurements: Resistance Strain Gauges (p. 86) and
Focus on Measurements: The Wheatstone Bridge and Force Measurements (pp. 87-88). The
instructor wishing to gain a more in-depth understanding of resistance strain gauges can find
detailed analyses in many common references.
Early motivation for the application of circuit analysis to problems of practical interest to
the non-electrical engineer can be found in these Focus on Measurements boxes. The
Wheatstone bridge material can also serve as an introduction to a laboratory experiment on strain
gauges and the measurement of force. Later in the chapter, Example 2.18 on the Impact of a
Practical Voltmeter (pp. 139-140) describes a simple but interesting laboratory experiment
involving parallel equivalent resistance and voltage division.
The concept of equivalent resistance is extended in Section 2.3 to that of equivalent

resistance between two nodes. The perspective emphasized in chapter 1 of a network being, first
and foremost, a collection of nodes is applied and rewarded in this section. The detailed and
careful exposition reflects the critical importance of mastering this topic.
A brief discussion of linearity and the principle of superposition in Section 2.4 precedes a
gradual but thorough discussion of equivalent networks in Sections 2.5-2.7. Again, the
presentation is rich in examples and drill exercises, because the concept of equivalent networks
is heavily exploited in the analysis of steady-state and transient circuits in later chapters. Section
2.5 introduces the source-load perspective, which is fundamental to the concept of an equivalent
network. (Load-line analysis is also introduced here but can be skipped in a survey course, and
may be picked up later, in conjunction with Chapter 8, if the instructor wishes to devote some
attention to load-line analysis of diode circuits.) Section 2.6 discusses source transformations as
an analytic tool while also providing a comfortable introduction to the challenging topics of
Thèvenin and Norton equivalent networks in Section 2.7. The Focus on Problem Solving boxes
(pp. 112, 114, 117 and 122) provide the student with step-by-step procedures for forming an
equivalent source network. Section 2.7 also includes a discussion of the experimental
determination of the Thèvenin or Norton equivalent of a known linear source network, including
how to account for the impact of the internal resistance of voltmeters and ammeters. (See Focus
on Measurements: Experimental Determination of Thèvenin Equivalent Networks on pages 130-
131.)
2.1
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G. Rizzoni and J. Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 2
Following a brief discussion of maximum power transfer in Section 2.8, the chapter
closes with discussions of practical (non-ideal) sources and measurement devices in Sections 2.9
and 2.10 and nonlinear circuit elements in Section 2.11. One or more of these latter sections can
be skipped in a survey course, especially one for non-majors.
Finally, those instructors who wish to introduce op-amps will find that sections 6.1
and 6.2 can be covered together with Chapter 2, and that a good complement of homework
problems and exercises devoted to the analysis of the op-amp as a circuit element is
provided in Chapter 6. Modularity is a recurrent feature of this book, and we shall draw
attention to it throughout these Instructor Notes.
The homework problems include a variety of practical examples, with emphasis on

instrumentation. Problems 2.61 and 2.62 involve calculations using a Wheatstone bridge;
problem 2.76 illustrates the result of placing two practically equivalent batteries in parallel;
problem 2.77 introduces the thermistor; problem 2.78 discusses circuit design involving a
moving coil meter; problem 2.79 describes a procedure for measuring the internal resistance of
an ammeter; problems 2.80-2.83 illustrate the loading effects of practical meters; and problems
2.84-2.85 involve calculations related to strain gauge bridges.
Learning Objectives for Chapter 2

Students will learn to...
1. Apply voltage and current division to calculate unknown voltages and currents in
simple series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits. Sections 2.1–2.2.
2. Correctly redraw a resistive network, as necessary, and compute the equivalent
resistance between two nodes. Section 2.3.
3. Apply the principle of superposition to linear circuits containing independent and
dependent sources. Section 2.4.
4. Apply the source-load perspective to find graphical solutions to circuit problems.
Section 2.5.
5. Apply source transformations to simplify and solve linear circuits containing inde-
pendent and dependent sources. Section 2.6.
6. Determine Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits for networks containing linear
resistors and independent and dependent sources. Section 2.7.
7. Use equivalent-circuit ideas to compute the maximum power transfer between a source
and a load. Section 2.8.
8. Understand the impact of internal resistance in practical models of voltage and current
sources as well as of voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters. Sections 2.9–2.10.
9. Use the concept of equivalent circuits to determine voltage, current, and power for
nonlinear loads by using load-line analysis and analytical methods. Section 2.11.
2.2
SECTION 2.1, 2.2: Voltage and Current Division

Problem 2.1
Apply voltage division to the circuit of the figure P2.1. Assume that vs=9V, R1=8 kΩ, R2=R3=10
kΩ, R4=12 kΩ. Find v2.
Solution:
Known quantities:
R1=8kΩ, R2=R3=10kΩ, R4=12kΩ, vs=9V and the circuit in Figure P2.1.
Find:
v2.
Analysis:
Use voltage division to find v2:
The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source is defined as the ratio of source voltage to
the source current.
vs
=R eq=R 1+ R 2+ R 3+ R 4=40 kΩ
i
Apply voltage division for resistors in series:
v 2 R2
=
v s R eq
Solve for v2:
2.3
R2
v 2= ∗v =2.25 V
R eq s
Problem 2.2
Refer to Figure P2.2, and assume that vs=12V, R1=5 kΩ, R2=3 kΩ, R3=4 kΩ, R4=5 kΩ. Apply
voltage division to each resistive branch and KVL to find the voltage vab.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Figure P2.2. R1=5Ω, R2=3Ω, R3=4Ω, R4=5Ω, vs=12V.
Find:
vab.
Analysis:
Apply voltage division to find the voltage across R1, R2, R3, and R4, respectively:
R1
v 1=v s =7.5V
R 1+ R 2
R2
v 2=v s =4.5 V
R 1+ R 2
R3 16
v 3=v s = V
R3 + R4 3
2.4
R4 20
v 4=v s = V
R3 + R 4 3
It is implied in the calculations that the polarities of v1, v2, v3 and v4 are high (+) to low (-) from
above to below each resistor in the figure.
Apply KVL to find:
13.5 20 −6.5
v ab=v 2−v 4 = − = V ≅−2.16 V
3 3 3
Problem 2.3
Apply voltage division to each circuit in Figure P2.3 to find
the value of R0.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuits of Figure P2.3.
Analysis:
(a) Apply voltage division:
20 R0
=
50 15 kΩ+ R 0
R0 =10 kΩ
(b) Apply voltage division:

2.25 R0
=
5 30 Ω+ R 0
R0 =36.67 Ω
(c) Apply voltage division:

28.3 2.7 kΩ
=
110 1 kΩ+2.7 kΩ+ R 0
R0 =6.79 kΩ
2.5
Problem 2.4
Apply the concepts of equivalent parallel resistance, voltage division and current division to
determine the current in each of the resistors R4, R5, and R6 in the circuit of Figure P2.4. VS = 10
V, R1 = 20 Ω, R2 = 40 Ω, R3 = 10 Ω, R4 = R5 = R6 = 15 Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.4 with voltage source, v S=10 V and resistors,
.
Find:
The current in the 15  resistors.
Analysis:
The equivalent resistance seen by the independent voltage source is
Req =R1 + R2 ¿∨R 3+ R 4 ¿∨R 5∨¿ R6=20 +8+5=33 Ω
Apply voltage division to find the voltage across R4 ¿∨R5∨¿ R 6.
v 456 R4 ¿∨R 5∨¿ R6 5

= =
v S R 1+ R 2 ¿∨R3 + R4 ¿∨R5∨¿ R 6 33
2.6
Thus, v 456 ≈ 1.52V and so by Ohm’s law the current through each of the 15 Ω resistors is
i 4 =i5 =i6 ≅ 0.101 A
These results could also be obtained by calculating the current through the voltage source.
v S 10 V
i= = ≈ 0.303 A
Req 33 Ω
This current would be divided equally among the three 15 Ω resistors to yield 0.101 A each.
Problem 2.5
The voltage divider network of Figure P2.5 is designed to provide Vout = Vs/2. However, in
practice, the resistors may not be perfectly matched; that is, their tolerances are such that the
resistances are unlikely to be identical. Apply voltage division to relate Vout to Vs and take the
derivative of Vout to find an expression for dVout in terms of the tolerances dR1/R1 and dR2/R2.
Assume Vs = 10V and nominal resistance values of R1 = R2 = 5 kΩ.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of voltage divider network shown of Figure P2.5.
Find:
a) If the resistors have ± 5 percent tolerance, find the expected range of possible output
voltages.
b) Find the expected output voltage range for a tolerance of ± 1 percent.
Analysis:
a) The largest range of output voltages for resistors with 5% tolerance is found by computing the
output voltage when R1 and R2 are at their extreme values while maintaining R1 + R2 = 10K. One
such case occurs when R2 = 4750 , R1 = 5250 . Apply voltage division to find
v out R2
= → v out =4.75 V
v S R1 + R2
Another case occurs when R2 = 5250 , R1 = 4750 
2.7
v out R2
= → v out =5.25 V
v S R1 + R2
Thus, the possible range is 5.0V ± 0.25V.
b) The largest range of output voltages for resistors with 1% tolerance is found by computing the
output voltage when R1 and R2 are at their extreme values while maintaining R1 + R2 = 10K. One
such case occurs when R2 = 4950 , R1 = 5050 . Apply voltage division to find
v out R2
= → v out =4.95 V
v S R1 + R2
Another case occurs when R2 = 5050 , R1 = 4950 
v out R2
= → v out =5.05 V
v S R1 + R2
Thus, the possible range is 5.0V ± 0.05V.
Problem 2.6
Apply voltage division to the circuit in Figure P2.6 to find an expression for the voltage across
the variable resistor R. Use that expression to determine and plot the power absorbed by the
variable resistor R, ranging from 0 to 30 . Plot the power absorption as a function of R.
Assume that vS = 15 V, RS = 10 .
Solution:
Known quantities:
vs=15V, RS=10 , and the circuit in Figure P2.6.
Find: R
Analysis:
Apply voltage division:
2.8
v R
=
v s Rs + R
2
R
( v s) ∗1
s+ R
2
v R R 2 R 2
P= = = v =
2 s 2
15
R R ( R s+ R ) ( 10+ R )
Plot:
Notice that the peak power absorbed by R occurs when R = RS.
Problem 2.7
Apply voltage division to the circuit shown in Figure P2.7 to determine the terminal voltage v0 of
the voltage source and the power absorbed by Ro.
2.9
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.7 with voltage source,
vS =12V, internal resistance, RS =5k, and load, Ro =7k.
Find:
The terminal voltage of the source; the power supplied to the circuit
Assumptions:
Assume that the only loss is due to the internal resistance of the source.
Analysis:
R0 7∗12
v 0= v= =7 V
R s + R 0 s 5 k +7 k
2
v0
P0= =7 mW
R0
Problem 2.8
With no load R0 attached to the terminals of the nonideal source in Figure P2.7, the voltage drop
v0 is 50.8 V. When a R0= 10W load is attached, the voltage drop is 49 V.
a. Determine vS and RS for this non-ideal source.
b. What voltage would be measured at the terminals in the presence of a 15-Ω load resistor?
c. How much current could be drawn from this non ideal source under short-circuit conditions?
2.10
Solution:
Known quantities:
Open-circuit voltage at the terminals of the power source is 50.8 V; voltage drop with a 10W load
attached is 49 V.
Analysis:
a) In the no load (open-circuit) case v S=v o=50.8 V. Apply voltage division when the load is
attached
R0 50.8
v o= v s=49 V → Rs = ( 10 )−10=0.37 Ω
R s + R0 49
b) Apply voltage division
R0 15
v= v s= 50.8=49.6 V
Rs+ R0 15+0.37
c) Set the load resistor to zero (replace it with an ideal wire)
v s 50.8
i sc = = =137.3 A
R s 0.37
Problem 2.9
Apply voltage division and KVL to determine the voltage v 0across terminals A and B in Figure
P2.9.
VS = 12 V
R1 = 11 kΩ R3 = 6.8 kΩ
R2 = 220 kΩ R4 = 0.22 MΩ
2.11
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.9 with source voltage,V s=12 V ; and resistances,
Find:
The voltage between nodes A and B.
Analysis:
Consider the node attached to the low potential side of the voltage source to be the reference
node. Also, note that R1 and R3 are in series as are R2 and R4. By voltage division and KVL:
The voltage is negative indicating that node B is at a higher potential than node A.
Problem 2.10
Refer to Figure P2.10 and assume vs = 15 V, R1 = 12 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 = 8 Ω, R4 = 2 Ω, R5 = 4 Ω,
R6 = 2Ω, and R7 = 1Ω Apply voltage division to find:
The voltages vac and vbd.
2.12
Analysis:
Find Req seen by the voltage source by adding all the resistors in series:
Req =R1 + R2 + R3 + R 4 + R5 + R6 + R7
Req =34 Ω
Use the equivalent resistance and voltage division to find vac and vbd.
R1 + R2 + R3 25 Ω
v ac= vS= ( 15 V )=11.0V
Req 34 Ω
R1 + R7 13 Ω
v bd=15 V − v S =15V − ( 15 V )=9.3 V
R eq 34 Ω
The power delivered by the voltage source is

2
v S 152
P= = =6.6 W
Req 34
Problem 2.11
The circuit of Figure P2.11 is used to measure the internal resistance rB of a battery.
a. A fresh battery is being tested, and it is found that the voltage Vout , is 2.28 V with the
switch open and 2.27 V with the switch closed. Apply voltage division to find the
internal resistance of the battery.
b. The same battery is tested one year later, and Vout is found to be 2.2 V with the
switch open but 0.31 V with the switch closed. Apply voltage division to find the
internal resistance of the battery.
2.13
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.11; voltage at terminals with switch open and closed
for fresh battery; same voltages for the same battery after 1 year.
Find:
The internal resistance of the battery in each case.
Analysis:
a) With the switch open V B=V oc =V out =2.28 V is the open-circuit voltage. Apply voltage
division to find the internal resistance.
V out =
( 10
)
V
10+r B oc
( ) ( )
V oc 2. 28
r B=10 −1 =10 −1 =0 . 044 Ω
V out 2. 27
b) Apply voltage division again using the data from 1 year later.
r B=10 ( 2.28
0.31
−1 )=63.55 Ω
Problem 2.12
For the circuit shown in Figure P2.12, assume is= 5 A, R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 7Ω, R3 = 8 Ω, R4 = 4Ω,
and R5 = 2Ω. How many nodes are in the circuit? Use series and parallel equivalent resistance
concepts to simply the network to the left of the current source into a single equivalent
resistance. Apply current division to find the magnitude of the current through the branch
containing R4 and R5.
2.14
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit of Figure P2.12.
Analysis:
Use series and parallel equivalent resistance concepts:
10∗7
R1 ¿∨R 2= ≅ 4.12Ω
10+7
R¿=R ¿∨R +R = 4.12+8=12.12Ω ¿
1 2 3
R¿ =R4 + R 5=4+2=6 Ω
Req =R 12.12∗6
¿ ¿∨R ¿= ≅ 4.01Ω ¿
12.12+6
Apply current division:

Req R¿
i ¿= ∗i = ¿
R¿ s 4.01
R¿+R ∗i s= ∗5 ≅ 3.34 A ¿
¿
6
Problem 2.13
Consider the practical ammeter, depicted in Figure P2.13, consisting of an ideal ammeter in
series with a 1kΩ resistor. (An ideal ammeter acts like a short-circuit.) The meter sees a full-
scale deflection when the current through it is 30 μA. Depending upon the setting of the rotary
switch, the ammeter will read full-scale when the current I equals 10mA, 100mA and 1A. Apply
current division to determine the appropriate values of R1, R2, and R3.
2.15
Solution:
Known quantities:
Ammeter shown in Figure P2.13; Current for full-scale deflection; desired full scale values.
Find:
Value of the resistors required for the given full scale ranges.
Analysis:
R a∗R
Req =Ra‖R =
R a+ R
I a Req R
= =
I Ra Ra + R
Solve for R when Ra =1 k Ω, I a=30 μA and I =10 , 100 ,1000 mA.
Ia 3 3∗10
−6
R1=R a =10 −2 −6
≅ 0.3 Ω
I −I a 10 −3∗10
Ia 3 3∗10
−6
R2=R a =10 −1 −6
≅ 0.03 Ω
I −I a 10 −3∗10
Ia 3 3∗10
−6
R3=R a =10 −6
≅ 0.003 Ω
I −I a 10−3∗10
Problem 2.14
2.16
How many nodes are in the circuit shown in Figure P2.14? Use series and parallel equivalent
resistance concepts to simply the network to the right of node V1 into a single equivalent
resistance. Apply current division to find the magnitude of the current through the 3Ω resistor.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.14
Find:
Current I 3 Ω.
Analysis:
The equivalent resistance to the right of the 3W resistor is
1+ [ ( 1+1 )‖2 ] =2 Ω
I 3 Ω 3‖2 1.2Ω
= = =0.4 → I 3 Ω =1.6 A
I 3Ω 3Ω
Problem 2.15
How many nodes are in the circuit shown in Figure P2.15? Use series and parallel equivalent
resistance concepts to simply the network to the right of the current source into a single
2.17
equivalent resistance. Apply current division to find the magnitude of the current through R1.
Assume R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 9Ω, R3 = 4Ω, R4 = 4Ω, IS = 2A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.15.
Find:
Current I R 1.
Analysis:
There are 3 nodes in the circuit.
R234 =9‖( 4 +4 ) ≅ 4.24 Ω

I R1 R234
= ≅ 0.30 → I R 1 ≅ 0.60 A
I s R234 + R1
2.18
Problem 2.16
How many nodes are in the circuit shown in Figure P2.16? Apply current division to find the
current through each resistive branch. Apply KVL and Ohm's law to find the magnitude of the
voltage across nodes “a” and “b”.
Assume R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 10Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 2Ω, IS = 3A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the current source, IS, and the values of the 4 resistors in Figure P2.16.
Analysis:
The circuit has 4 nodes. Apply current division to find the branch currents.
I 12 (R ¿ ¿ 3+ R4 )
= ¿
IS 7
(R ¿ ¿ 1+ R2 )+( R ¿ ¿ 3+ R 4 )= → I 12 ≅ 0.72 A ¿ ¿
29
I 34 (R ¿ ¿ 1+ R2)
= ¿
IS 22
(R ¿ ¿1+ R 2)+( R ¿ ¿ 3+ R4 )= → I 34 ≅ 2.28 A ¿ ¿
29
Req
I 34=
(R ¿ ¿1+ R 2)
(R ¿ ¿ 3+ R 4 )∗I s= ¿¿
(R ¿ ¿ 1+ R2)+(R ¿ ¿ 3+ R 4)∗I s ≅ 2.28 A ¿¿
Apply KVL and Ohm’s law to find:
v ab=v a−v b =I 12∗R 2−I 34∗R4 ≅ 2.67V
2.19
Where v a and v b are the voltages at nodes a and b relative to the bottom node.
SECTION 2.3: Equivalent Resistance between Two Nodes
Problem 2.17
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source and the currents i and i1 and v2in the
circuit of Figure P2.17. Use that result and voltage division to find v2.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Equivalent resistance and current v2
Analysis:
The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source is
72∗9
2+ =2+8=10 Ω
72+ 9
There are 3 nodes in the circuit. Apply voltage division to find
v2 8Ω
= → v 2=7.2V
9 V 10 Ω
2.20
Problem 2.18
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source and the current i in the circuit of Figure P2.18.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Equivalent resistance and current i
Analysis:
Step1: ( 4||4 ) +22=24 Ω
Step 2: 24||8=6 Ω
Step 3: ( 4 Ω+6 Ω ) ∨¿ 90 Ω=9 Ω
The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source is 9+1=10 Ω. Apply voltage division to
find the voltage across the 9 equivalent resistance.
2.21
v9 Ω 9
= → v 9 Ω=45 V
50V 9+1
Which is the voltage across the two nodes that the 90W resistor sits between. Apply Ohm’s law:
45 V
i= =0.5 A
90 Ω
Problem 2.19
In the circuit of Figure P2.19, the power absorbed by the 15Ω resistor is 15W. Find R.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Resistance R.
Analysis:
The equivalent resistance to the right of resistor R is
‖
15 {4 + [ 6+ ( 4‖4 ) ]‖24 }=6 Ω
Apply voltage division to find the voltage across the two nodes between which the 15W resistor
sits.
v 15 6
=
25V 6+ R
2.22
The power dissipated by the 15W resistor is
( )
2
6
2 25
v 15 6+ R
P15= = =15 W
15 Ω 15
Thus
( )
2 2
6 15
= 2 =0.36 → R=4 Ω
6+ R 25
Problem 2.20
Find the equivalent resistance between terminals a and b in the circuit of Figure P2.20.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Network in Figure P2.20.
Find:
Equivalent resistance.
Analysis: There are 5 nodes in the network, including nodes a and b. Mark them as shown in
the figure.
Rab =R ac + ( Rcdb‖R ceb )=3+ [ ( 6‖12 ‖4 ) + ( 4‖4 ) ]‖( 2+2 )=5 Ω
2.23
Problem 2.21
For the circuit shown in Figure P2.21, find the equivalent resistance seen by the source. How
much power is delivered by the source?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
a) Equivalent resistance
b) Power delivered.
Analysis:
(a)
2Ω+1Ω=3Ω
3Ω‖3Ω=1.5Ω
4 Ω+1.5Ω+5Ω=10.5Ω
10.5Ω‖6Ω=3.818Ω
Req =3.818Ω+7Ω=10.818Ω
(b)
( 14 V )2
P= =18.1 W
10.8 Ω
2.24
Problem 2.22
For the circuit shown in Figure P2.22, find the equivalent resistance seen by the current source.
How many nodes are in the circuit? Assume R1 = 2W, R2 = 3W, R3 = 85W, R4 = 2W and R5 = 4W.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
The equivalent resistance seen by the current source.
The number of nodes in the circuit.
Analysis:
Simplify left side:
R1∨¿ R 2+ R 3=R¿¿
R¿=86.2 Ω ¿
Simplify right side:
R4 + R 5=R¿
R¿ =6 Ω
Combine:
Req =R¿∨¿R ¿ ¿
Req =5.61 Ω
Count the nodes:
¿ of Nodes=4
2.25
Problem 2.23
Refer to Figure P2.59. Assume vS= 20 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 5 Ω, R3 = 8 Ω, R4 = 2 Ω,
R5 = 4 Ω, R6 = 2 Ω, R7 = 1 Ω, and R8 = 10 Ω. How many nodes are in the circuit?
Apply voltage division to find the voltage across R7 and R8.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit of Figure P2.23. R1=10Ω, R2=5 Ω, R3=8 Ω,
R4=2 Ω, R5=4 Ω, R6=2 Ω, R7=1 Ω, R8=10 Ω, vs=20V.
Analysis:
The circuit has 4 nodes. The various equivalent resistance calculations are
10∗5
R12=R1∨¿ R 2= ≅ 3.33 Ω
10+ 5
R546 =R5||R 4|| R6 ≅ 0.8 Ω
R12456 =R12+ R 546 ≅ 4.13Ω
R123456=R 12456∨¿ R3 ≅ 2.73 Ω
R78=R 7∨¿ R8 ≅ 0.91 Ω
The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source Vs is:

R78 + R123456=3.63 Ω
Apply voltage division to find the voltage
R78
v 78= ∗v ≅ 5.0 V
R78 + R123456 s
2.26
Problem 2.24
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source in Figure P2.24. How many nodes
are in the circuit? Assume R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 8Ω, R4 = 2Ω, R5 = 4Ω, R6 = 2Ω, R7 = 1 Ω, R8
= 10 Ω and R9 = 10 Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
R1=12 Ω , R2=5 Ω , R 3=8 Ω, R4 =2 Ω , R5 =4 Ω, R6 =2 Ω, R7 =1 Ω, R8=10 Ω, R9 =10 Ω
Find:
The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source.
Analysis: There are 6 nodes in the circuit. Mark them.
Simplify starting on the right side:
Rbd =R6‖Rbcd =R6∨¿(R ¿ ¿ 2+ R7 )=1.5 Ω¿
Rbe =Rbde‖R 5 =( Rbd + R 8 )∨¿ R5=2.97 Ω
Rbf =Rbef ‖R 4=( R be + R 9)‖R 4 =1.73 Ω
Raf =Rabf ‖R3 =( R1 + Rbf )‖R 3 =5.05 Ω
2.27
Problem 2.25
For the circuit shown in Figure P2.25, assume vS = 10V, R1 = 9Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 4Ω, R4 = 5Ω,
and R5 = 4Ω. Find the number of nodes in the circuit and the equivalent resistance seen by the
voltage source vS.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit of Figure P2.25. v S=10 V , R1=9 Ω, R2=4 Ω , R 3=4 Ω , R 4=5 Ω, R5=4 Ω.
Find:
Analysis:
There are 4 nodes in the circuit. Simplify starting on the right side:
20
R5∨¿ R 4=
9
This result is in series with R3.

20 56
+ 4= Ω
9 9
Further, this result is in parallel with R2.
( 569 ) 4 = 224 ≅ 2.43 Ω

92 92
9
Finally, this result is in series with R1. Thus:
Req =2.43+ 9=11.43 Ω

2.28
Problem 2.26
Determine the equivalent resistance of the infinite network of resistors in the circuit of Figure
P2.26.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.26.
Find:
The equivalent resistance

Req of the infinite network of resistors.
Analysis:
Consider constructing the network by adding three resistors at a time. Initially, Req 1=2 R+ R .
Add another network of three resistors in parallel with the middle resistor of the initial three
resistor network. Now Req 2=2 R+ [ R‖( 2 R+ R ) ]= (11/4 ) R . Add another three resistor network.
The result now is
{‖ }
Req 3=2 R + R [ 2 R+ ( R ‖( 2 R+ R ) ) ] = ( 41/15 ) R
It can be shown that the sequence continues as Req 4= (153 /56 ) R and Req 5=( 571/209 ) R and so
on, such that the sequence of coefficients is
3 11 41 153 571 N k 3 N k +2 Dk
, , , , ,…, , ,…
1 4 15 56 209 D k N k + Dk
This sequence converges on ( 1+ √ 3 ). This result can also be achieved by noticing that the
equivalent resistance seen to the right of any middle resistor R is the same as Req . Thus:
2
R Req 3 R R eq +2 R
Req =2 R+ ( R‖R eq ) =2 R+ =
R+ R eq R+ R eq
Notice the coefficients in the latter expression! Cross multiply to find
Req −2 R R eq−2 R =0 → R eq=R ± √ 3 R
2 2
2.29
Since the equivalent resistance cannot be negative the result is Req =( 1+ √ 3 ) R.
Problem 2.27
In the circuit of Figure P2.27, find the equivalent resistance between terminals a and b if
terminals c and d are open and again if terminals c and d are shorted together. Also, find the
equivalent resistance between terminals c and d if terminals a and b are open and if terminals a
and b are shorted together.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
The equivalent resistance at terminals a,b in the case that terminals c,d are a) open b) shorted;
the same for terminals c,d with respect to terminals a,b.
Analysis:
With terminals c-d open, Req= (360+540 )‖(180+540 )Ω=400 Ω ,
with terminals c-d shorted, Req= (360‖180)+(540‖540)Ω=390Ω ,

with terminals a-b open, Req= (540+540 )‖(360+180 )Ω=360 Ω ,
with terminals a-b shorted, Req= (360‖540)+ ( 180‖540 ) Ω=351Ω .
2.30
Problem 2.28
Refer to Figure P2.27 and determine the equivalent resistance between terminals a and b if
terminal c is wired (shorted) to terminal a and terminal d is wired (shorted) to terminal b.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
The equivalent resistance seen by terminals a and b.
Analysis:
Shorting a to c eliminates the 360Ω resistor. Shorting b to d eliminates the rightmost 540Ω
resistor. This leaves the remaining two resistors in parallel with each other.
540 Ω∨¿180 Ω=Req
Req =135 Ω
2.31
Problem 2.29
Apply the node voltage method to find the magnitude of the current through the voltage source.
Use it and the definition of equivalent resistance between two nodes to find the equivalent
resistance seen by the voltage source in Figure P2.29. How many nodes are in the circuit?
Assume R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 8Ω, R4 = 2Ω, and R5 = 4Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Analysis:
Count the nodes:
Nodes=4
Simplify R2, R3, and R5 using a wye-delta transformation:
( R2∗R3 ) + ( R2∗R 5 ) + ( R3∗R5 ) 92

R AC = = =11.5Ω
R3 8
( R 2∗R3 ) + ( R 2∗R5 ) + ( R3∗R5 ) 92
R AB= = =23.0 Ω
R5 4
( R 2∗R3 ) + ( R 2∗R5 ) + ( R 3∗R5 ) 92
R BC = = =18.4 Ω
R2 5
Simplify the resulting circuit:
Req =¿ ¿
Req =5.26 Ω
2.32
Problem 2.30
Refer to Figure P2.30 and assume vS = 15V, R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 8Ω, R4 = 2Ω, R5 = 4Ω, R6
= 2Ω, R7 = 1 Ω, R8 = 10 Ω and R9 = 10 Ω. Find the number of nodes in the circuit and the
equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source vS.
Solution:
Known quantities:
v S=15 V , R1=12 Ω , R 2=5 Ω , R 3=8 Ω , R 4=2 Ω, R5=4 Ω , R6=2 Ω , R7=1 Ω , R 8=10 Ω , R9=10 Ω
Find:
Analysis:
Mark the nodes one at a time to find a total of 6 nodes. R9 sees the same node at both of its
terminals. It is, so to speak, in parallel with the short-circuit wire to its right and so has no impact
on the equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source. Start at the right and work left.
R8 ∨¿( R ¿ ¿ 6 + R7 )=2.3 Ω ¿
(2.3+ R 4 )∨¿ R5=2.1 Ω
2.1 Ω+(R 3∨¿ ( R1 + R2 ) )=7.51 Ω=R eq
2.33
SECTION 2.4: The Principle of Superposition
Problem 2.31
Refer to Figure P2.31, and assume that R1=20Ω, R2=12Ω, R3=10Ω, is=3A, vs=7V. Apply the
principle of superposition to find:
a) The component of i1 due to vs.
b) The component of i2 due to is.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit of Figure P2.31. R1=20Ω, R2=12Ω, R3=10Ω,
is=3A, vs=7V.
Analysis:
Part 1) Turn off the current source and replace it with an open-circuit. The result is a single loop
identical to the left mesh. Thus, by Ohm’s law:
' vs 7
i1 = = ≅ 0.167 A
R1 + R2 + R3 42
Part 2) Turn off the voltage source and replace it with a short-circuit. The result is the current
source sees R2 in parallel with (R1 + R3). Thus, by current division:
i2 ( R1 + R3 ) ∨¿ R2 1 ( R1+ R3 ) R 2 ( R 1+ R 3 )
''
''
= = ∙ = such that i 2 ≅ 2.14 A
iS R2 R 2 ( R1 + R3 ) + R 2 ( R1 + R3 ) + R 2
2.34
SECTION 2.3 Principle of Superposition
Problem 2.32
With reference to Figure P2.32, determine the current i through R1 due to the source VS2.
VS1 = 110V, VS2 = 90V, R1 = 560Ω, R2 = 3.5 kΩ, R3 = 810Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
VS1  110 V ,
Find:
The current through R1 due to the source VS2.

Analysis:
Turn off VS1 and replace it with a short-circuit (a wire.) The result is that R1 and R2 are now in
parallel and their equivalent parallel resistance is in series with R3. Apply voltage division to
find the voltage across the two parallel resistors.
v 12 ( R 1‖R 2 ) 483
= ≅ such that v 12 ≅ 33.6 V
V S 2 ( R1‖R2 ) + R3 1293
Apply Ohm’s law to determine the current i through R1 due to the source VS2.
33.6 V
i≅ ≅ 60.0 mA
560 Ω
2.35
Problem 2.33
Refer to Figure and use the Principle of Superposition to find the voltages at nodes A, B, and C.
Assume: V1 = 12 V, V2 = 10 V, R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 12Ω, R4 = 8Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
V1 = 12 V, V2 = 10 V, R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 12Ω, R4 = 8Ω. Figure P2.33.
Find:
The three node voltages indicated in Figure using superposition method.
Analysis:
First, note that
V A =V 1=12 V ∧V C =V B +V 2=V B +10 V
These results can be used to validate the results of applying the principle of superposition.
To find the contribution to VB and VC due to V1, turn off V2 by replacing it with a short-circuit (a
' '
wire.) Nodes B and C become one node (i.e., V B=V C ) such that R1 and R2 are in parallel as
are R3 and R4. Apply voltage division to the resulting series loop to find the voltage at that
combined node.
V 'B V 'C ( R3‖R 4 ) 4.8

= = = =0.75 →V 'B=V 'C =9 V
V 1 V 1 ( R1‖R2 ) + ( R 3‖R 4 ) 1.6+ 4.8
2.36
'
Also, V A =12V . Keep in mind that this result is relative to the reference node.
To find the contribution to VB and VC due to V2, turn off V1 by replacing it with a short-circuit (a
''
wire.) The result is that the reference node and node A become one node (i.e., V A =0) such
that R1 and R3 are in parallel as are R2 and R4. Apply voltage division to the resulting series
loop to find the voltage across each parallel combination.
VC
''
( R2‖R 4 ) 4.0 ''
= ≅ =0.7 → V C =7 V
V 2 ( R 1‖ R3 ) + ( R 2‖R 4 ) 1.7+ 4.0
Likewise
VB
''
−( R1‖R3 ) 1.7 ''
= ≅− =−0.3 →V B=−3 V
V 2 ( R1‖R3 ) + ( R2‖R4 ) 1.7+4.0
Apply the principle of superposition to find

' ''
V A =V A +V A =12 V
' ''
V B=V B + V B =6 V
' ''
V C =V C +V C =16 V
Problem 2.34
Use the principle of superposition to determine the voltage v across R2 in Figure P2.34.
VS1 = VS2 = 12 V, R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 kΩ
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the voltage sources and of the resistors in the circuit of Figure P2.34:
2.37
Find:
The voltage across using superposition.

Analysis:
'
Turn off and replace it with a short-circuit. In this case, R1 and R3 are in parallel such that v
can be determined by voltage division.
Then, turn back on and turn off and replace it with a short-circuit. Redraw the circuit.
Now R2 and R3 are in parallel such that v ' ' can also be determined by voltage division.
Problem 2.35
Refer to Figure P2.35 and use the Principle of Superposition to determine the component of the
current i through R3 that is due to VS2. Assume VS1 = VS2 = 450 V, R1 = 7Ω R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 10Ω R4
= R5 = 1Ω
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the voltage sources and of the resistors in the circuit of Figure P2.35:
2.38
Find:
The component of the current through that is due to VS2, using superposition.
Analysis:
Turn off VS1 and replace it with a short-circuit. Then, and are in parallel and their
equivalent parallel resistance is in series with R3. Further, the sum of those two resistances is in
parallel with R2.
Voltage division determines the voltage drop across this resistance.
Likewise, another application of voltage division determines the voltage drop across R3.
Finally, Ohm’s law determines the current through R3 due to VS2.
2.39
Problem 2.36
Refer to Figure P2.36 and use the principle of superposition to determine the current i through
R4 due to the current source iS . Assume: R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 3Ω, vS = 3V, and iS =
2 A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the resistors, the voltage source, and the current source in the circuit of Figure
P2.36 are known.
Find:
Determine the current, i, through R4 due only to the current source.
Analysis:
Turn off the voltage source (set it to zero) and replace it with a short-circuit (an ideal wire).
Apply current division to determine the current through R2.
where
Another application of current division will determine the current, i.
2.40
Problem 2.37
Refer to Figure P2.36 and use the principle of superposition to determine the current i through
R4 due to the voltage source vS. Assume: R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 3Ω, vS = 3V, and iS =
2 A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the resistors, of the voltage source and of the current source in the circuit of
Figure P2.37.
Find:
Use superposition to determine the current through R4 due to vS.
Analysis:
Turn off the current source (set it to zero) and replace it with an open-circuit. The equivalent
resistance seen by the voltage source is
Req =¿
By Ohm’s law:
' −v s
i= ≅−0.43 A
R eq
2.41
Problem 2.38
Refer to Figure P2.38 and use the Principle of Superposition to determine the voltages V a and
Vb. Assume: R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 6Ω, R4 = 6Ω, V1 = 2V, V2 = 4V, and I = 2A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the resistors, the voltage sources and the current source in the circuit of Figure.
Find:
Determine the voltages Va and Vb.
Analysis:
First, turn off all sources except V1 and note that R3 is in parallel with
R4. Apply voltage division.
where these voltages are relative to the reference node.
2.42
Next, turn off all sources except V2. Note that R1 is in series with R2
and their equivalent resistance is in parallel with R3. Apply voltage
division twice.
where these voltages are relative to the reference node. Finally, turn off all sources except I 1.
Note that R3 is in parallel with R4 and their equivalent resistance is in series with R1. Apply
current division and then Ohm’s law.
Sum all the voltages to find
2.43
Problem 2.39
Use the principle of superposition to determine the current i through R3 in Figure P2.39. Let R1 =
10Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 2Ω, R4 = 2Ω, R5 = 2Ω, vS = 10V, IS = 2A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The voltage source, the current source, and the five resistances are known.
Find:
Using superposition, determine the current through R3.
Analysis:
Turn off IS and replace it with an open-circuit. The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage
source is
Turn off vS and replace it with a short-circuit. Apply current division.
Sum the two component currents to find
2.44
Problem 2.40
Figure P2.40 represents a temperature measurement system, where temperature T is linearly
related to the voltage source V S 2 by a transduction constant k. Use the principle of
superposition to determine the components of V ab due to V S 1 and V S 2 and then determine the
temperature.
VS2 = kT, k = 10 V/◦C, VS1 = 24V, RS= R1 = 12 kΩ, R2 = 3 kΩ, R3 = 10 kΩ, R4 = 24 kΩ, VR3 =
−2.524 V
In practice, the voltage across R3 is used as the measure of temperature, which is introduced to
the circuit through a temperature sensor modeled by the voltage source VS2 in series with RS.
Solution:
Known quantities:
VS2  kT k  10 V/C
VS1  24 V RS  R1  12 k
R2  3 k R3  10 k
Circuit in Figure P1.62: R4  24 k VR 3  2.524 V .
The given voltage across R3 indicates the temperature.

Find: 
The temperature, T, using superposition.
Analysis:
(1) Turn off voltage source . The result is a Wheatstone bridge configuration. Apply the
mesh current method. For mesh (a):
i a 24k   i b 12k   i c 12k   24
For mesh (b):

i a 12k   i b 46k   i c 10k   0

2.45
 Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
For mesh (c):

i a 12k   i b 10k   i c 25k   0
Solving,
i a  2.08 mA , i b  0.83 mA and i c  1.33 mA .

Therefore,
   .
(2) Turn off voltage source . The result is that R2 and R4 are in
parallel and the voltage across R3 can be found using equivalent
resistance and voltage division calculations. However, it is also
straightforward to apply the mesh current method again.
For mesh (a):
i a 24k   i b 12k   i c 12k   10T  0
For mesh (b):

i a 12k   i b 46k   i c 10k   10T

For mesh (c):

Solving,
, and .
Therefore,
.
Sum the component voltages.
VR 3  VR 3,S 2  VR 3,S1  5 2.671T  2.524 V
Therefore:
T  0.926 C.


Problem 2.41
2.46
In Figure P2.41, use the principle of superposition to determine the components of the current
through the voltage source vS due to vS and iS, respectively. Use those results to determine the
total current through vS and the power supplied by it. Let R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 10Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 5Ω,
VS = 10V, IS = 5A.
Note: Power is not a linear function of voltage or current and so power cannot be computed
using the component currents separately.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the voltage and current sources and the power supplied by vS.
Analysis:
First, turn off the current source to find the component of the current through the voltage source
due to itself. In this case, the equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source is
Ohm’s law determines the current.
Next, turn off the voltage source to find the component of the
current through it due to current source. Note that R2, R3, and
R4 are now in parallel. Their equivalent resistance is
Apply current division to find the current through that equivalent

resistance. The product of those values is the voltage across
the equivalent resistance and therefore also the voltage across R4.
2.47
Apply Ohm’s law to calculate the component of the current through vS due to the current
source.
It is important to note that this current is oppositely directed to that due to the voltage source
itself. Thus:
'
i vs =−i vs +i' ' vs=0.4 A
Problem 2.42
Use the principle of superposition to determine the current i0 through R1 in Figure P2.42.
Assume R1 = 8Ω, R2 = 2Ω, R3 = 3Ω R4 = 4Ω, R5 = 2Ω, V1 = 15V, I1 = 2A, I2 = 3A.
2.48
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the resistors, the voltage source and the current source.
Find:
The current through R1.
Analysis:
First, turn off both current sources. Then, the component of i0 due to the voltage source equals
the magnitude of the voltage source divided by the equivalent resistance seen by it.
Next, turn off V1 and I2. Apply current division twice to find the component of i0 due to I1.
Note that this current is negative because it is directed opposite to i0.
Finally, turn off V1 and I1. Apply current division twice to find the component of i0 due to I2.
2.49
Again, this current is negative because it is directed opposite to i0.
Finally
Section 2.6: Source Transformations
Problem 2.43
Apply two source transformations and current division in the circuit of Figure P2.43 to find I2. Let
R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 6Ω, R3 = 10Ω, V1 = 4V, V2 = 1V.
2.50
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.43 with known source voltages and resistances,
.
Find:
The current I2
Analysis:
the source V1 in series with the resistance R1 is a Thevenin source. The same thing is for the
source V2 in series the resistance R3. The two Thevenin sources can be converted in Norton
sources in which:
' V1
i 1= =0.33 A
R1
' V2
i 2= =0.1 A
R3
R12=R1∨¿ R 2=4 Ω
Req =R12∨¿ R3 =2.86 Ω

' '
i tot =i 1 +i 2=0.43 A
R eq
i 2= i =0.205 A
R2 tot
'
i vs =−i vs +i' ' vs=0.4 A
2.51
Problem 2.44
Apply source transformations to find the voltage V0 across resistor R0 for the circuit of Figure
P2.44. Assume given that R1 = 2Ω, RV = R2 = R0 = 4Ω, VS = 4 V, and IS = 0.5A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Voltage VL.
Analysis:
Apply source transformation to convert the Norton source (IS in parallel with R1) into a Thevenin
source V1 in series with R1.
V 1=R1∗I s=1 V
The resulting Thevenin source is in series with the other Thevenin source (VS in series with RV).
Combine these four elements in series (note the polarity of VS) to produce a single equivalent
Thevenin source (-VS + V1 = -3V in series with R1 + RV = 6W.) This Thevenin source can be
transformed into a Norton source (-0.5A in parallel with 6W), which will then be in parallel with
the other R1 = 2W resistor. The result is a Norton source containing a IN = -0.5A current source
in parallel with a RN =1.5W resistor. That Norton source is in parallel with the series combination
R2 + R0 = 8W. Apply current division and Ohm’s law to find the voltage across R0.
V 0=I 0 R0=
( RN
R N + R2 + R0 )
I N R 0=
1.5
9.5
(−0.5 ) ( 4 Ω ) ≅−0.32V
2.52
Problem 2.45
Apply source transformations to find the mesh current I3 for the circuit shown in Figure P2.45.
Solution:
Apply source transformation to convert the Thevenin source on the left into a Norton source
comprised of a 1A current source in parallel with a 2W resistor, which is now in parallel with the
3W resistor to its right. The result is a Norton source comprised of a 1A current source in
parallel with a 1.2W resistor.
That Norton source can be transformed into a Thevenin source such that the 1.2W resistor is in
series with the 1W resistor. Altogether, the result is a Thevenin source comprised of a 1.2V
voltage source in series with a 2.2W resistor.
This Thevenin source can be converted once again to a Norton source (0.55A current source in
parallel with a 2.2W resistor), which is in parallel with the 2A current source. Combine the two
current sources in parallel to produce a Norton source comprised of a 2.55A current source in
parallel with the 2.2W resistor.
At this point, apply current division to find I3.
2.2
I 3= ( 2.55 A ) ≅ 0.78 A
2.2+ 3+2
Problem 2.46
Apply source transformations to find to find the voltage, V, across the current source in Figure
P2.46.
2.53
Find:
Voltage across the current source.
Analysis:
Refer to the solution of Problem 2.45. Apply the same method to find the voltage across the
current source by noting that
2.54
Problem 2.47
Apply a single source transformation and then voltage division to find the magnitude of the
voltage across R1 in Figure P2.47. Let R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 5Ω, V1 = 2 V, V2 = 1V, IS = 2A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the resistors and of the voltage and current sources (see Figure P2.47).
Analysis:
Apply source transformation to convert the Norton source on the right into a Thevenin source
comprised of a VS = 10V voltage source in series with a 5W resistor, which is now in series with
the 10W resistor. The result is a single series loop (a mesh) with three voltage sources and two
resistors. (Note the polarities of the three voltage sources.) Sum the voltage sources
V s +V 2−V 1=9 V , which is divided across the two resistors.
R1
V R 1= ∗( 9 V )=6 V
R 1+ R 2
2.55
Problem 2.48
Transform each of the three Thevenin sources to Norton sources and apply current division to
find the current through R1 in Figure P2.48. Let R1 = 6Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 3Ω, V1 = 4V, V2 = 1V, V3
= 2V.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the resistors and the voltage source in Figure P2.48.
Analysis:
Apply source transformations to create three Norton sources that are in parallel, sitting between
the upper middle node and the bottom node. (Note the polarities of the current sources.) The
total current into the upper middle node is
V 1 V 2 V 3 4 V 1V 2 V 1
+ − = + − = A=I eq
R1 R3 R2 6 Ω 3 Ω 3 Ω 3
The parallel equivalent resistance of the three resistors is
Req =R1||R2|| R3 =1.2 Ω

i R 1 R eq 1
= → i R 1= A ≅ 0.067 A
I eq R1 15
2.56
Problem 2.49
Simplify the circuit in Figure 2.49 by applying source transformations to the right half of the
circuit. Solve for the node voltage v1. (Note: Dependent sources can also be part of a source
transformations as long as its reference variable is not obscured by the transformation.)
Analysis:
Apply a source transformation to both Thevenin sources. The dependent voltage source in
series with the 4W resistor can be transformed to a dependent current source with a value of
2 v 1 /4 Ω=0.5 v 1 directed downward in parallel with the same 4W resistor. That resistor is then in
parallel with another 4W resistor resulting in a Norton source comprised of a 0.5 v 1 dependent
current source in parallel with a 2W resistor. That Norton source can be transformed to a
Thevenin source comprised of a ( 0.5 v 1 ) ( 2 Ω ) =v 1 dependent voltage source in series with the
same 2W resistor, which is now in series with the lone remaining 4W resistor. Combine the two
resistors in series to create a Thevenin source on the right side of the circuit comprised of a v 1
dependent voltage source in series with a 6W resistor. Finally, this Thevenin source can be
transformed into a Norton source comprised of a v 1 /6 Ω current source (directed downward) in
parallel with a 6W resistor. This Norton source is in parallel with the 2W resistor.
Likewise, the Thevenin source on the left side of the circuit can be transformed into a Norton
source comprised of a v S /1 Ω current source in parallel with a 1W resistor. This Norton source
is also in parallel with the 2W resistor. Therefore, both Norton sources can be summed to
create a single Norton source comprised of a ( v s−v 1 /6 ) dependent current source in parallel
with a ( 1 Ω ‖6 Ω ) =( 6/7 ) Ω resistor. This single combined Norton source is in parallel with the 2W
resistor.
Apply current division to express the current through the 2W resistor.
i2 Ω 6/7 6
= = =0.3→ i 2 Ω=( 0.3 ) ( v s −v 1 /6 )
v s −v 1 /6 2+6 /7 20
Finally, apply Ohm’s law to express the voltage across the 2W resistor.
2.57
v 1=i2 Ω ( 2 Ω )= ( 0.3 ) ( v s −v 1 /6 ) ( 2 Ω )=0.6 v S−0.1 v 1
Gather coefficients of v 1 to find v 1=( 6/11 ) v S.
Problem 2.50
The circuit shown in Figure P2.50 is a simplified DC version of an AC three-phase wye-wye (Y-
Y) electrical distribution system commonly used to supply industrial loads, particularly rotating
machines.
VS1 = VS2 = VS3 = 170 V
Rw1 = Rw2 = Rw3 = 0.7Ω
R1 = 1.9Ω, R2 = 2.3Ω
R3 = 11Ω
a. Determine the number of non-reference nodes.
b. Determine the number of unknown node voltages.
c. Apply source transformations to find v_n^'.
Notice that once v’n is known the other unknown node voltages can be computed directly by
voltage division.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the voltage sources, VS1  VS2  VS3  170 V , and the values of the 6 resistors in the
circuit of Figure P2.50:
 2.58
RW 1  RW 2  RW 3  0.7 
R1  1.9 R2  2.3  R3  11 
Find:
a. The number of unknown node voltages and mesh currents.

b. Unknown node voltages.
c. Apply source transformations to find v_n^'.
Analysis:
If the node common to the three sources is chosen as the reference, and the series resistances
are simplified into single equivalent resistances, there is only one unknown node voltage, v′n. On
the other hand, there are two unknown mesh currents. Node analysis would appear to be
simpler. Define:
Apply KCL:
Apply KVL:
Apply voltage division to find

R1 R w2
∗( V 1 −V n) ≅ 129.5V , V 2= ∗( V n −V 2 ) ≅ 38.0 V
' ' '
V ' 1=
Rw 1 + R1 R w 2+ R2
and
R w3
∗( V n −V 3 ) =9.74 V
' '
V 3=
Rw 3 + R3
2.59
Problem 2.51
Apply source transformations to simplify the circuit in Figure P2.21. Solve for the magnitude of
the current through the 1W resistor.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Figure P2.21.
Find:
The magnitude of the current through the 1W resistor.
Analysis:
Apply a source transformation to the Thevenin source. The voltage source in series with the 7W
resistor can be transformed to a 14 V /7 Ω=2 A current source directed upward in parallel with
the same 7W resistor. That resistor is then in parallel with the 6W resistor resulting in a Norton
source comprised of a 2 A current source in parallel with a 3.23W resistor. That Norton source
can be transformed to a Thevenin source comprised of a ( 2 A ) ( 3.23 Ω )=6.46 V voltage source
in series with the same 3.23W resistor, which is now in series with the 4W and 5W resistors.
Combine the three resistors in series to create a Thevenin source comprised of a 6.46 V voltage
source in series with a 12.23W resistor.
Once again, this Thevenin source can be transformed into a Norton source comprised of a
6.46 /12.23 Ω=0.53 A current source (directed upward) in parallel with the 12.23W resistor,
which is now in parallel with the 3W resistor. The parallel equivalent resistance of these two
resistors is 2.41W.
Apply current division to find the current through the 1W resistor.
i1 Ω 2.41 Ω
= ≅ 0.445 i 1 Ω ≅ 0.24 A
0.53 A 2.41 Ω+ ( 2+1 ) Ω
2.60
Problem 2.52
Apply source transformations to reduce the one-port network on the left side of Figure P2.82 to
a Thevenin source. Apply voltage division to solve for the magnitude of the measured voltage
when the voltmeter is attached to the one-port network for each of the following four cases:
a) R4 =100 Ω , b) R4 =1 k Ω , c) R4 =10 k Ω and d) R4 =100 k Ω .
Solution:
Known quantities:
R1=8 k Ω , R2 =22 k Ω, R3=50 k Ω , R S=125 k Ω, i S=120 mA in Figure P2.82:
Find:
The magnitude of the measured voltage across the 120kW resistor for each of the following four
cases: a) R4 =100 Ω , b) R4 =1 k Ω , c) R4 =10 k Ω and d) R4 =100 k Ω .
Analysis:
The procedure is to transform the Norton source on the left to a Thevenin source. Sum R 1 in
series with RS. Convert the new Thevenin source to a Norton source. Combine (R1 + RS) in
parallel with R2. Convert the new Norton source to a Thevenin source. Sum (R1 + RS)|| R2 in
series with R3. Calculate the parallel equivalent resistance (R4)|| (120kW). Apply voltage
division to find v4.
The associated calculations are

( 120 mA ) ( 125 k Ω )=15 kV
125 k Ω+8 kΩ=133 kΩ
15 kV
≅ 112.8 mA
133 k Ω
133 k Ω‖22 k Ω ≅ 18.9 kΩ
2.61
( 112.8mA )( 18.9 k Ω ) ≅ 2.13 kV

18.9 k Ω+50 kΩ=68.9 kΩ
( R 4‖120 k Ω )
v4 ≅ ( 2.13 kV )
68.9 k Ω+ ( R4‖120 k Ω )
For R4 =100 Ω :
( 100 Ω‖120 k Ω )
v4 ≅ ( 2.13 kV ) ≅ 3.08V
68.9 k Ω+ ( 100 Ω‖120 k Ω )
For R4 =1 k Ω :
( 1 k Ω‖120 k Ω )
v4 ≅ ( 2.13 kV ) ≅ 30.2 V
68.9 k Ω+ ( 1 k Ω‖120 k Ω )
For R4 =10 k Ω :
( 10 k Ω‖120 k Ω )
v4 ≅ ( 2.13 kV ) ≅ 252V
68.9 k Ω+ ( 10 k Ω‖120 k Ω )
For R4 =100 k Ω :
( 100 k Ω‖120 k Ω )
v4 ≅ ( 2.13 kV ) ≅ 941V
68.9 k Ω+ ( 100 k Ω‖120 k Ω )
2.62
Section 2.7: Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Networks
Problem 2.53
Find the Thévenin equivalent of the network seen by the 3Ω resistor in Figure P2.53
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by the 3Ω resistor.
Analysis:
The Thevenin (open-circuit) voltage is found by voltage division.
2.63
Problem 2.54
Find the Thévenin equivalent of the network seen by the 3Ω resistor in Figure P2.54. Use it and
voltage division to find the voltage v across the 3Ω resistor.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
The Thevenin equivalent network seen by the 3 resistor. The voltage across the 3 resistor.
Analysis:
Turn off (set to zero) the two independent sources to find the Thevenin equivalent resistance
seen by the 3 resistor. Note that for this calculation the two 2 resistors are in series but they
make no contribution to the Thevenin equivalent resistance because nodes 2 and 3 are one
node when the independent voltage source is set to zero. Thus:
The Thevenin (open-circuit) voltage can be easily calculated using mesh analysis, nodal
analysis, or the Principle of Superposition. The latter is applied below.
First, turn off (set to zero) the current source and replace it with an open-circuit. Then the lower
end of the 4 resistor sees open-circuits on its left and right. Thus, the current through the 4
resistor is zero and the contribution of the 3V source to the Thevenin voltage is 3V.
Second, turn off (set to zero) the voltage source and replace it with a short-circuit. The voltage
across the 4 resistor is (2A)(4)=8V but with a polarity opposite that of the voltage across the
3 resistor. Since the voltage source is replaced by a short-circuit the contribution of the
current source to the Thevenin voltage is that same voltage across the 4 resistor. Thus:
2.64
The Thevenin equivalent network seen by the 3 resistor is used in conjunction with voltage
division to yield the voltage across the 3 resistor.
Problem 2.55
Find the Norton equivalent of the network seen by R2 in Figure P2.55. Use it and current division
to compute the current i through R2. Assume I1 = 10 A, I2 = 2A, V1 = 6V, R1 = 3Ω, and R2 = 4Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.55, two resistances, and the voltage and current sources.
Find:
The current i.
Analysis:
The Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by R2 is R1. The solution for the short-circuit current
through R2 is easily found by applying the Principle of Superposition. Turn off the voltage
source. Then:
Turn off the current sources with the voltage source on. Then, by Ohm’s law:
Thus:
After attaching the load R2 to the Norton source, apply current division to find the current
through R2.
2.65
Problem 2.56
Find the Norton equivalent of the network between nodes a and b.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Norton equivalent network.
Analysis:
Turn off the 8V source and replace it with a short circuit to

calculate the Norton equivalent resistance seen by terminals a
and b. Then:
To find the short-circuit current set the bottom node as reference. The only unknown node is the
center node. Apply KCL.
Apply KCL at upper left junction:
2.66
Problem 2.57
Find the Thévenin equivalent network seen by R in Figure P2.57 and use the result to compute
the current iR. Assume Vo = 10V, Io = 5A, R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 2Ω, R3 = 4Ω and R = 3Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.57, .

Find:
Thevenin equivalent circuit and .

Analysis:
The Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by R is

The Thevenin (open-circuit) voltage from a to b can be computed using the principle of
superposition. The contribution due to the voltage source is
The contribution due to the current source is
(node b is 20V higher than the bottom reference node)
Thus:
Finally:
Thus, for R = 3W
−15V
iR = =1.875 A
8Ω
2.67
Problem 2.58
Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by the load R0 in Figure P2.58.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Thevenin equivalent resistance RT seen by R0.
Analysis:
To find RT, remove R0 and turn off (set to zero) the independent sources; that is, replace the
current source with an open circuit and each voltage source with a short-circuit.
The result is a network with three nodes. Thus:
2.68
Problem 2.59
Find the Thévenin equivalent of the network seen by the load R0 in Figure P2.59.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Thevenin equivalent network seen by R0.
Analysis:
To find the Thevenin equivalent resistance RT seen by R0, remove R0 and turn off (set to zero)
the independent voltage source; that is, replace it with a short-circuit. Then:
Apply nodal analysis to find the Thevenin (open-circuit) voltage vOC seen by R0. Note that the
8 resistor has no effect on vOC because the current through that resistor must be zero.
or
Multiply equation (2) by two and add it to equation (1). The result is
2.69
Problem 2.60
Find the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the load R0 in Figure P2.60.
Assume R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 20Ω, Rg = 0.1Ω, and Rp = 1Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Thevenin equivalent network seen by the load R0.
Analysis:
To find the Thevenin equivalent resistance RT seen by R0, remove R0 and turn off (set to zero)
the independent voltage source; that is, replace it with a short-circuit. Then:
Finally:
.
Apply mesh analysis to find voc .
Plug in values.
Multiply (2) by 11.1/10 and add the result to (1) to solve for i2 since the open-circuit voltage
equals i2R2. The result is
2.70
Problem 2.61
A Wheatstone bridge such as that shown in Figure P2.61 is used in numerous practical
applications. One use is in determining the value of an unknown resistor RX. Find the Thevenin
equivalent network seen by terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ in in terms of R, Rx, and VS. Use it to find the
value of Rx when R = 1 kΩ, VS = 12 V and Vab = 12mV.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
Value of resistance
Analysis:
To find the Thevenin equivalent resistance, turn off the voltage source (set to zero and replace
with a short-circuit). In that way:
( R+ R )∗(R+ R x ) 2000∗(1000+ R x )
Req = =
( R + R ) +(R + R x ) 3000+ R x
2.71
Consider the node attached to the low potential side of the voltage source to be the reference
node. Also, note that R and R are in series as are R and Rx.
By voltage division and KVL:
V s∗R V s
V a= =
R +R 2
V s∗R x
V b=
Rx + R
V s R x −R
V 0=V a−V b = ( )
2 R x+ R
When R = 1 kΩ, VS = 12 V and Vab = 12mV:
R x =996 Ω
2.72
Problem 2.62
Thévenin’s theorem can be useful when dealing with a Wheatstone bridge. For the circuit of
Figure P2.62:
a. Express the Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by the load resistor R0 in terms of R1,
R2, R3, and RX.
b. Determine the Thévenin equivalent network seen by R0. Apply voltage division and use
the result to compute the power dissipated by R0. Assume R0 = 500Ω, VS = 12 V, R1 = R2
= R3 = 1 kΩ, and RX = 996Ω.
c. When R0 is replaced by an open-circuit the Thevenin equivalent network supplies no
power. What is the net power supplied by the entire Wheatstone bridge circuit when R 0
is replaced by an open-circuit? Are the results the same? What do you conclude?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Analysis:
a) To find RT, turn off (set to zero) the battery and replace it with a short-circuit.
b) Remove Ro and apply voltage division twice to find the Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage from
node a to node b.
The power dissipated by the Thévenin equivalent resistance is

2.73
c) Power dissipated by the bridge with no load resistor,
Can this last result be correct? With no load there is no current through Thévenin equivalent
network such that the power dissipated by the bridge for the open-circuit load should be zero,
right? Wrong! Remember that the Thévenin equivalent network is equivalent to the bridge
network only so far as both have the same impact on the load. However, the Thévenin
equivalent network is clearly NOT identical to the bridge; they are equivalent from the
perspective of the load, but in no other way.
2.74
Problem 2.63
The circuit shown in Figure P2.63 is one form of a differential amplifier. Find an expression for
the voltage drop vba from terminal b to terminal a in terms of v1 and v2 using Thévenin’s or
Norton’s theorem. Notice that the figure implies zero current through sources v1 and v2.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Find:
vo
as an expression of v1 and v2 .
Analysis:
Apply KCL at node a and at node b to find
Thus:
vba  vb  va  4i2  4i1  4i1  i2 
Apply KCL at the top center node to realize that the current through the 5Ω resistor is i1 + i2.
Apply KVL around the left and right sides, respectively, of the circuit to find
2.75
Thus:
Thus:
An interesting aspect of this model circuit is that the currents through the voltage sources are
zero. However, one should not conclude that the voltage sources are unimportant. Clearly, the
result depends upon their values!
Problem 2.64
Use source transformations to find the Thévenin equivalent network seen by resistor R3 in the
circuit of Figure P2.38. Assume R1 = 10Ω, R_2 = 4Ω, R3 = R4 = 6Ω, V1 = 2V, V2 = 4V and I1 =
2A.
Analysis:
Consider the resistor R2 as the load. Remove it from the circuit and find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance seen by it and the open-circuit voltage across its terminals.
First, apply a source transformation to the current source in parallel with R2. The transformed
voltage source V3 is
V 3=I 1∗R 2=8 V
2.76
The result is a series loop. The sum of the voltage sources in the series loop is 14V. Apply
voltage division to find the voltage across R4. Then, the open-circuit voltage across R3 is
R4
V oc =V R 4 −V 2= ( 14 V )−4 V =0.2 V
R 1+ R 2+ R 4
To find the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by R3 turn off the independent sources (set
them to zero and replace with open- and short-circuits).
RTH =(R ¿ ¿1+ R 2)∨¿ R 4=4.2 Ω¿
The voltage across R3 is
R3
V R 3=( V oc ) ≅ 0.12 V
R TH + R 3
Problem 2.65
Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by resistor R4 in the circuit of Figure P2.33.
Assume R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 12Ω, R4 = 8Ω, V1 = 12V and V2 = 10V.
Analysis:
To find the Thevenin equivalent resistance, turn to zero the voltage source (replace with a short
circuit). In that way:
Req =(R ¿ ¿ 1∨¿ R2 )∨¿ R3=1.41 Ω ¿

Apply KVL to find the mesh currents
12 V =( I 1−I 2 )∗2+12 I 1
2.77
−10 V =( I 2−I 1 )∗2+ 8 I 2
So I 1=0.74 A and I 2=−0.85 A
And
V R 4=V R 3 +V 2=R 3∗I 1+ 10=18.82 V
Problem 2.66
Find the Thévenin equivalent network seen from node a to b in Figure P2.66.
Let R1 = 10Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 4Ω, R5 = 1Ω, vS = 10 V, IS = 2A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The voltage and current sources, and the resistances in Figure P2.66.
Find:
Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit seen by terminals a and b.
Analysis:
Turn off the independent sources to find the Thevenin equivalent resistance between terminals
a and b.
To find the Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage first note that the current through R5 is zero such that
Vab equals the voltage across R3. Also note that the current source is in parallel with R4 such
that they form a Norton source, which can be replaced by an equivalent Thévenin source.
The result of this source transformation is a series loop containing both voltage sources and all
of the resistors except for R5. Thus, the voltage across R3 can be computed by voltage division.
2.78
Problem 2.67
Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by R3 in Figure 2.40. Compute the Thevenin
(open-circuit) voltage VT in terms of the temperature T. Use that result to determine the
temperature when R3 is attached to that network.
VS2 = kT, k = 10 V/◦C
VS1 = 24V, RS = R1 = 12 kΩ
R2 = 3 kΩ, R3 = 10 kΩ
R4 = 24 kΩ, Vab = −2.524V
Solution:
Find:
The Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by resistor R3, the Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage and
the temperature when R3 is attached.
Assumptions:
None.
Analysis:
(1) Remove the load and turn off (set to zero) the independent
voltage sources by replacing them with short-circuits.
2.79
(2) With the voltage sources turned on the Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage can be computed by
applying voltage division twice.
12 k Ω kT
v 1=kT + ( 24−kT )=12+
12 k Ω+12 k Ω 2
Thus:
kT 64 kT 28
v oc=v 1−v 2=12+ − = − V
2 3 2 3
Apply voltage division to express v ab in terms of v oc and RT .
( )
R3 10 K 10 T 28
v ab= v = − =−2.524 V
R 3+ R T oc 26 2 3
10 K +
3
Solve for temperature T:
T ≅ 0.92° C
Problem 2.68
Find the Norton equivalent of the network seen by R5 in Figure P2.68. Use it and current division
to compute the current through R5. Assume R1 = 15Ω, R2 = 8Ω, R3 = 4Ω, R4 = 4Ω, R5 = 2Ω, I1 =
2A, and I2 = 3A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
All parameter values.
Find:
Determine the current through R5 using Thèvenin’s theorem.
2.80
Analysis:
Consider R5 to be the load. The Thévenin/Norton equivalent resistance seen by R5 is
The Norton (short-circuit) current is easily calculated. With the load replaced by a short-circuit
the two current sources are in parallel and can be combined to form a single 5A current source.
Also, since R3 and R4 are in parallel and have the same resistance the currents through R3 and
R4 are the same. Thus, by current division:
The short-circuit current ISC is then found by applying KCL, where ISC is directed the same as i5.
Form the Norton equivalent network, reattach R5, and apply current division to find i5.
Problem 2.69
Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by R in Figure P2.69. Compute the Thévenin
(open-circuit) voltage, and the Norton (short-circuit) current, when R is the load.
Assume: IB = 12A RB = 1Ω, VG = 12 V RG = 0.3Ω, and R = 0.23Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
All parameter values.
Find:
The Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by resistor R, the Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage, and
the Norton (short-circuit) current, when R is the load.
Analysis:
(1) Remove the load and turn off (set to zero) the independent sources.
2.81
(2) With the independent sources turned on the Thévenin (open-circuit) voltage can be
computed easily by applying the Principle of Superposition.
(3) With the independent sources turned on the Norton

(short-circuit) current can be computed easily by applying the Principle of Superposition.
Problem 2.70
Find the Norton equivalent network between terminals a and b in Figure P2.70.
Let R1 = 6Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 2Ω, R4 = 2Ω, vS = 10V, IS = 3A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The resistances and the voltage and current source values.
Find:
Find the Norton equivalent circuit between terminals a and b.
Analysis:
(1) Turn off (set to zero) the independent sources. The
Thévenin/Norton equivalent resistance seen by terminals a
and b is
2.82
(2) The Norton (short-circuit) current from terminal a to terminal

b can be calculated easily using the Principle of Superposition.
2.83
Problem 2.71
Find the Norton equivalent of the network seen by R4 in Figure P2.71. Use it to determine the
current through R4. Assume R1 = 8Ω, R2 = 5Ω, R3 = 4Ω, R4 = 3Ω, V0 = 10 V, and I0 = 2A.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The resistances and the voltage, current source values.
Find:
Use Norton’s theorem to determine the current through R4.
Analysis:
(1) Turn off (set to zero) the independent sources. The
Thévenin/Norton equivalent resistance seen by terminals a and
b is
(2) The Norton (short-circuit) current from terminal a to terminal

b can be calculated easily using the Principle of Superposition.
When the voltage source is turned off and replaced with a short-circuit all three resistors are in
parallel. Notice that the contribution to the short-circuit current due the current source is the sum
of the currents through R1 and R2. Thus:
When the voltage source is turned on and the current

source is turned off the contribution to the short-circuit
current due the voltage source is the current through R3.
It is important to note that this component is negative because it is directed from b to a.
(3) Attach R4 to the Norton equivalent network and apply current division to determine the
current through R4.
2.84
Section 2.8: Maximum Power Transfer

Problem 2.72
The Thévenin equivalent network seen by a load R0 is depicted in Figure P2.72. Assume VT =
10 V, RT = 2Ω, and that the value of R0 is such that maximum power is transferred to it.
Determine:
a. The value of R0.
b. The power P0 dissipated by R0.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the voltage and of the resistor in the equivalent circuit of Figure P2.72:
Assumptions:
None.
Find:
a. The value of R0.
Analysis:
a. For maximum power transfer:

b. Apply voltage division to determine the voltage across R0.
The power dissipated by R0 is then simply
2.85
Problem 2.73
The Thévenin equivalent network seen by a load R0 is depicted in Figure P2.72. Assume VT =
25V, RT = 100Ω, and that the value of R0 is such that maximum power is transferred to it.
Determine:
a. The value of R0.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The values of the voltage and of the resistor in the equivalent circuit of Figure P2.72:
Assumptions:
Assume the conditions for maximum power transfer exist.
Find:
a. The value of R0.
Analysis:
a. For maximum power transfer:

b. Apply voltage division to determine the voltage across R0.
The power dissipated by R0 is then simply
2.86
Section 2.9: Practical Voltage and Current Sources
Problem 2.74
A real voltage source is modeled in Figure P2.74 as an ideal source VS in series with a
resistance RS. This model accounts for internal power losses found in a real voltage source. The
following data characterizes the real (non-ideal) source:
When R → ∞, VR = 20 V
When R = 2.7 kΩ, VR = 18 V
Determine the internal resistance RS and the ideal voltage VS.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The circuit shown in Figure P2.74, the values of VR (20V and 18V, respectively) with and without
the load attached, and the value of the load resistor R.
Find:
The internal resistance RS and the ideal source voltage VS.
Analysis:
The case is the open-circuit case. Since the current in the loop is zero the voltage drop
across RS is zero. Thus, by KVL:
When R = 2.7 kΩ the loop current is
Apply KVL to find
Note that RS is an equivalent resistance that represents the various internal losses of the source
rather than a distinct physical resistor. VS, which is the voltage generated by some internal
2.87
process, can be measured by setting the source current to zero (i.e., the no-load or open-circuit
condition.) The source resistance cannot be measured directly; however, it can be inferred by
measuring the voltage across a variety of external loads.
Problem 2.75
A real voltage source is modeled in Figure P2.74 as an ideal source VS in series with a
resistance RS. This model accounts for internal power losses found in a real voltage source. A
load R is connected across the terminals of the model. Assume: VS = 12 V RS = 0.3Ω. Plot the
power dissipated in the load as a function of the load resistance. What can you conclude?
Solution:
Known quantities: The values of the voltage source, , and of the resistance
representing the internal losses of the source, R S  0.3  , in the circuit of Figure P2.74.
Find:
Plot the power dissipated by the load as

a function
Power dissipated in the load
of the load resistance. What can you conclude? 120
Analysis: 100
The power dissipated by the load is simply

80
Power [W]
60
R [] I [A] PR [W] 40
0 40 0.0 20
0.1 30 90.0
0.3 20 120.0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0.9 10 90.0 Load Resistance [Ohm]
2.1 5 52.5
The power dissipated reaches a maximum when R = RS.
2.88
Problem 2.76
Consider NiMH hobbyist batteries shown in the circuit of Figure P2.76.

a. If V1 = 12.0 V, R1 = 0.15 Ω and R0 = 2.55Ω find the load current Io and the power
dissipated by the load.
b. If we connect a second battery in parallel with battery 1 that has voltage V 2 = 12 V and
R2 = 0.28 Ω, will the load current Io increase or decrease? Will the power dissipated by
the load increase or decrease? By how much?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit in Figure P2.76.
Find:
a) If , the load current and the power dissipated by

the load
b) If a second battery is connected in parallel with battery 1 with ,

determine the variations in the load current and in the power dissipated by the load due
to the parallel connection with a second battery.
2.89
Analysis:
a) = 4.44 A
= 50.4 W.
b) Apply KVL twice using mesh currents to obtain 2 equations in 2 unknowns:

Solving the above equations gives us:
A, A  A  W
This is a 3.8% increase in power dissipated.
2.90
Section 2.10: Measurement Devices
Problem 2.77
A thermistor is a nonlinear device that changes its terminal resistance value as its surrounding
temperature changes. The resistance and temperature generally have a relation in the form of
Rth(T ) = R0e−β(T−To), where Rth = resistance at temperature T, (Ω), R0 = resistance at temperature
T0 = 298 K, (Ω), β = material constant, (K−1), T, T0 = absolute temperature, (K).
a. If R0 = 300Ω and β = −0.01 K−1, plot Rth as a function of the surrounding temperature T for 350
≤ T ≤ 750.
b. If the thermistor is in parallel with a 250-Ω resistor, find the expression for the equivalent
resistance and plot Rth(T ) on the same graph for part a.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Parameters  (resistance at temperature

T 0 = 298 K), and β =- 0 .01 K-1 , value of the
second resistor.
Find:
a) Plot Rth (T ) versus T in the range 350≤T ≤750 [K]
b) The equivalent resistance of the parallel connection with the 250- resistor; plot Req ( T )
versus T in the range 350≤T ≤750 [K] for this case on the same plot as part a.
Assumptions:
−β ( T−T 0 )
Rth (T )=R0 e .
Analysis:
−0. 01⋅(T −298 )
a) Rth (T )=300 e
1500 e−0. 01 (T −298 )
Req (T )=Rth (T )||250 Ω=
b) 5+6 e−0 .01 ( T−298 )
The two plots are shown below.
In the above plot, the solid line is for the thermistor alone; the dashed line is for the thermistor-
resistor combination.
2.91
Problem 2.78
A moving-coil meter movement has a meter resistance rM= 200 Ω, and full-scale deflection is
caused by a meter current Im= 10 μA. The meter is to be used to display pressure, as measured
by a sensor, up to a maximum of 100 kPa. Models of the meter and pressure sensor are shown
in Figure P2.78 along with the relationship between measured pressure and the sensor output
vT.
a. Devise a circuit that will produce the desired behavior of the meter, showing all
appropriate connections between the terminals of the sensor and the meter.
b. Determine the value of each component in the circuit.
c. What is the linear range, that is, the minimum and maximum pressure that can
accurately be measured?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Meter resistance of the coil; meter current for full scale deflection; max measurable pressure.
Find:
a) The circuit required to indicate the pressure measured by a sensor
b) The value of each component of the circuit; the linear range
c) The maximum pressure that can accurately be measured.
Assumptions:
Sensor characteristics follow what is shown in Figure P2.78
2.92
Analysis:
a) A full-scale deflection should occur at a pressure of 100kPa. Thus, at this pressure, the
meter current should be 10 μA . Since the meter coil resistance is 200W the voltage
across the coil should be ( 10 μA ) ( 200 Ω )=2mV .
Assume that the sensor data was measured under open-circuit conditions such that
v S=v o=10 mV at 100kPa. Therefore, when the sensor and meter are connected the
voltage across and current through R S should be 8 mV and 10 μA , respectively.
b) Consequently:
8 mV
R S= =800 Ω
10 μA .
And
vS
i m=
800 Ω+200 Ω
c) By observation, i m ∝ v S so the deflection of the meter will be linear with pressure as long
as v S is linear with pressure. From the graph of v S versus pressure that range appears
to be roughly 25kPa to 100kPa.
Problem 2.79
A circuit that measures the internal resistance of a practical ammeter is shown in Figure P2.79,
where RS = 50,000 Ω, vS = 12 V, and Rp is a variable resistor that can be adjusted at will.
a. Assume that ra << 50,000 Ω. Estimate the current i.
b. If the meter displays a current of 150 μA when Rp = 15 Ω, find the internal resistance of the
meter ra.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.79; for part b: value of and current displayed on
the ammeter.
2.93
Find:
The current i; the internal resistance of the meter.
Assumptions:
r a <<50 k Ω
Analysis:
a) Assuming that
i = 240 A
b) With the same assumption as in part a)
Rp
i meter i
= 150(10)-6 = r a +R p
or:
150(10)-6= .
r
Therefore, a = 9 .
Problem 2.80
A practical voltmeter has an internal resistance rm. What is the value of rm if the meter reads
11.81V when connected as shown in Figure P2.80?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Voltage read at the meter; schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.80 with source voltage,
and source resistance, .

Find:
The internal resistance of the voltmeter.
2.94
Analysis:
Apply voltage division to find:
V = 11.81 =
r
Therefore, m = 1.55 M.
Problem 2.81
Using the circuit of Figure P2.80, find the voltage that the meter reads if V S = 24 V and RS has
the following values: RS = 0.2rm, 0.4rm, 0.6rm, 1.2rm, 4rm, 6rm, and 10rm. How large (or small)
should the internal resistance of the meter be relative to RS?
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.80 with source voltage, ; and ratios between
Rs r
and m .
Find:
The meter reads in the various cases.
2.95
Analysis:
By voltage division:
V=
Rs V
0.2 20 V
rm
0.4 17.14 V
rm
0.6 15 V
rm
1.2 10.91 V
rm
r
4 m
4.8 V
r
6 m
3.43 V
10 2.18 V
rm
r Rs
For a voltmeter, it is desired that m >> .
2.96
Problem 2.82
A voltmeter is used to determine the voltage across a resistive element in the circuit of Figure
P2.82. The instrument is modeled by an ideal voltmeter in parallel with a 120kΩ resistor, as
shown. The meter is placed to measure the voltage across R4. Assume R1 = 8 kΩ, R2 = 22 kΩ,
R3 = 50 kΩ, RS = 125 kΩ, and IS = 120 mA. Find the voltage across R4 with and without the
voltmeter in the circuit for the following values:
a. R4 = 100 Ω
b. R4 = 1 kΩ
c. R4 = 10 kΩ
d. R4 = 100 kΩ
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.82, values of the components.
Find:
The voltage across R 4 with and without the voltmeter for the following values:
a) R 4 =100Ω
b) R 4 =1 k Ω
c) R 4 =10 k Ω
d) R 4 =100 k Ω .
Assumptions:
The voltmeter behavior is modeled as that of an ideal voltmeter in parallel with a 120- k
resistor.
Analysis:
in terms of R 4 . Next, using current division:

VR
We develop first an expression for 4
2.97
  RS 
 I R1  I S  
  RS  R1  R2 || R3  R4  

 I  I  R2 

 R4 R1 
  R2  R3  R4 
Therefore,
 RS   R2 
I R4  I S     
 RS  R1  R2 || R3  R4    R2  R3  R4 
VR4  I R4 R4
 R S R4   R2 
 I S     
R
 S  R 1  R 2 || R3  R 
4   2 R  R3  R 4 
66000  R4

R4  2.1352 10 6
Without the voltmeter:
VR
a) 4 = 3.09 V
VR
b) 4 = 30.47 V
VR
c) 4 = 269.9 V
VR
d) 4 = 1260 V
To find the voltage drop across R4 with a 120-k resistor across R4 simply replace R4 above
with R4||120K.
( )( )
RS R2
I R =I S
4
‖
RS + R 1+ R 2 [ R3 + ( R 4‖120 K ) ] R2 + R3 + ( R 4‖120 K )
( )( )
RS R2
V R =I R R 4=I S R4
4 4
‖
R S + R1 + R2 [ R 3+ ( R4‖120 K ) ] R 2+ R 3 + ( R4‖120 K )
( )( )
125 K 22 K
V R = ( 0.120 ) R4
4
‖
125 K + 8 K + ( 22 K ) [ 50 K + ( R4‖120 K ) ] 22 K +50 K + ( R 4‖120 K )
With the voltmeter:

VR VR
a) 4 = 3.08 V b) 4 = 30.22 V
VR VR
c) 4 = 251.6 V d) 4 = 940.9 V.
2.98
Problem 2.83
An ammeter is used as shown in Figure P2.83. The ammeter model consists of an ideal
ammeter in series with a resistance. The ammeter model is placed in the branch as shown in
the figure. Find the current through R5 both with and without the ammeter in the circuit for the
following values, assuming that RS = 20 Ω, R1 =800 Ω, R2 = 600 Ω, R3 = 1.2 kΩ, R4 = 150 Ω, and
VS = 24 V.
a. R5 = 1 kΩ
b. R5 = 100 Ω
c. R5 = 10 Ω
d. R5 = 1 Ω
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit shown in Figure P2.83 and the values of the components.
Find:
The current through R5 with and without the ammeter, for the following values of R5 :
a) R5 =1 k Ω
b) R5 =100 Ω
c) R5 =10 Ω
d) R5 =1 Ω .
Analysis:
First, find the Norton equivalent of the network to the left of R3, including R3. The Norton
equivalent resistance is
2.99
‖[
R N =R 3 R2 + ( R 1‖R S ) ≅ 408.6 Ω]
Replace the branch containing the ammeter with a short-circuit (a wire) and solve for that short-
circuit current. R3 plays no part in the calculation since it is in parallel with the short-circuit and
with the short-circuit in place R1 and R2 are in parallel. Apply voltage division to find the voltage
across R1||R2.
( R 1‖R 2 )
v 2= v S ≅ 22.7 V
R S + ( R 1‖R 2 )
The short-circuit current is the current through R2 so
v2
i sc = ≅ 37.8 mA
R2
Attach the ammeter branch to the Norton equivalent network and apply current division to find
the current through the ammeter.
RN 408.6
i m= i sc ≅ ( 37.8 ) mA
R N + ( R 4+ R m + R5 ) 583.6 + R5
The current through that branch without the ammeter in place is
RN 408.6
i m= i sc ≅ ( 37.8 ) mA
R N + ( R 4+ R 5 ) 558.6+ R 5
Use the above equations fill in the following table:
R5 With meter Without meter

1kW 9.75 mA 9.91 mA
100W 22.59 mA 23.45 mA
10W 26.02 mA 27.16 mA
1W 26.42 mA 27.60 mA
2.100
Problem 2.84
Figure P2.84 shows an aluminum cantilevered beam loaded by the force F. Strain gauges R1,
R2, R3, and R4 are attached to the beam as shown in Figure P2.84 and connected into the circuit
shown. The force causes a tension stress on the top of the beam that causes the length (and
therefore the resistance) of R1 and R4 to increase and a compression stress on the bottom of
the beam that causes the length (and therefore the resistance) of R2 and R3 to decrease. The
result is a voltage of 50 mV at node B with respect to node A. Determine the force if Ro = 1 kΩ,
VS = 12 V, L = 0.3 m, w = 25 mm, h = 100 mm, and Y = 69 GN/m2.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit and geometry of the beam shown in Figure P2.84, characteristics of the
material, reads on the bridge.
Find:
The force applied on the beam.
2.101
Assumptions:
Gage Factor for strain gauge is 2.
Analysis:
and are in series; and are in series.
Voltage Division:
Voltage Division:
KVL:
assuming GF=2 for aluminum.
Problem 2.85
Refer to Figure P2.84 but assume that the cantilevered beam loaded by a force F is made of
steel. Strain gauges R1, R2, R3, and R4 are attached to the beam and connected in the circuit
shown. The force causes a tension stress on the top of the beam that causes the length (and
therefore the resistance) of R1 and R4 to increase and a compression stress on the bottom of
the beam that causes the length (and therefore the resistance) of R2 and R3 to decrease. The
result is a voltage v BAacross nodes B and A. Determine this voltage if F = 1.3 MN, Ro = 1 kΩ, VS
= 24 V L = 1.7 m, w = 3 cm, h = 7 cm, Y = 200 GN/m2.
2.102
Solution:
Known quantities:
Schematic of the circuit and geometry of the beam shown in Figure P2.84, characteristics of the
material, reads on the bridge.
Find:
The force applied on the beam.
Assumptions:
Gage Factor for strain gauge is 2.
Analysis:
and are in series; and are in series.
Voltage Division:
Voltage Division:
KVL:
Assuming GF=2 for aluminum.
2.103
2.104
SECTION 2.11 Nonlinear Circuit Elements

Problem 2.86
Apply nodal analysis to find two equations in terms of the node voltages v1 and v2 shown in
Figure P2.86. The two non-linear resistors Ra and Rb are characterized by:
The resulting non-linear (but not transcendental) equations cannot be solved by the methods
used for simultaneous linear equations. While the equations can be solved analytically and/or
numerically, consult your instructor before attempting to solve these equations.
Solution:
Known quantities:
3
Two nonlinear resistors characterized by: i a  2v a i b  v b3  10v b
Find:
The node voltage equations in terms
 of v1 and v2.
Analysis:
KCL at node 1 yields
KCL at node 2 yields

These equations can be expressed in terms of v1 and v2 by using the following expressions to
substitute for va and vb.
The result is
These coupled non-linear algebraic equations can be solved analytically (with some difficulty)
and/or numerically to find
2.105
One can test these solutions by substitution.
Problem 2.87
Many practical circuit elements are non-linear; however, it is usually possible to linearize the V –
I relationship near any specific point on the non-linear V -I curve. Such a point is often referred
to as an operating point. In other words, in the vicinity of an operating point [V0, I0] the V -I
relationship can be linearly approximated by:
where m is the slope and b is the I-intercept. The inverse of the slope m at the operating point is
defined as incremental resistance Rinc , where
a. Refer to Figure P2.87 and find the operating point of the non-linear element.
b. Find the incremental resistance of the non-linear element at the operating point.
c. If VT is increased to 20 V, what is the new operating point and the new incremental
resistance?
Solution:
Known quantities:
The characteristic curve, I = 0.06V2, the voltage, VT = 10V, and the resistance, RT = 100Ω, in
Figure P2.87.
2.106
Find:
a. The operating point of the element that has the characteristic curve shown in Figure P2.87.
b. The incremental resistance of the nonlinear element at the operating point of part a.
c. If VT is increased to 20V, find the new operating point and the new incremental resistance.
Analysis:
(a) Apply KVL around the series loop to find
Use the characteristic curve to substitute for the current.
Solve this quadratic equation for V to find
(b) Take the derivative of both sides of the characteristic V-I relation to determine the
incremental resistance.
(c) When VT is increased to 20V the revised KVL equation is
The revised solution to this quadratic equation is
The incremental resistance is found in the same manner as above.
2.107
Problem 2.88
The device D in the circuit in Figure P2.88 is an induction motor with a non-linear i-v
characteristic. Determine the current through and the voltage across the motor when VS = 450V
and R = 9Ω.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The characteristic I-V curve, the voltage, VS = 450V, and the resistance, R = 9Ω, in Figure
P2.88.
Find:
The current through and the voltage across the nonlinear device.
Analysis:
Plot the load line of the Thévenin source seen by the non-linear load and
estimate the intercept of that load line with the non-linear characteristic I-
V curve. The open-circuit voltage is VS = 450V and the short-circuit
current is VS/R = 450V/9Ω = 50A. The straight line connecting these two
extreme operating points (450V, 0A) and (0V, 50A) is shown in the figure
below. The solution for V and I is at the intersection of the load line and
the non-linear device characteristic curve. The result is
2.108
Problem 2.89
The non-linear diode in Figure P2.89 has the i-v characteristic shown in the plot. Assume VS =
VTH = 1.5V and R = RTH = 60Ω. Determine the voltage across and the current through the diode.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The I-V characteristic, the voltage, VS = VTH = 1.5V, and the resistance, R = RTH = 60Ω, in Figure
P2.89.
Find:
The current through and the voltage across the nonlinear device.
Analysis:
Plot the load line of the Thévenin source seen by the non-linear
load and estimate the intercept of that load line with the non-
linear characteristic I-V curve. The open-circuit voltage is VS =
1.5V and the short-circuit current is VS/R = 1.5V/60Ω = 25mA.
The straight line connecting these two extreme operating points
2.109
(1.5V, 0A) and (0V, 25mA) is shown in the figure below. The
solution for V and I is at the intersection of the load line and the
non-linear device characteristic curve. The result is
2.110
Problem 2.90
The resistance of the device D in Figure P2.90 is a non-linear function of pressure P. The i-v
characteristics of D are shown as a family of lines for various pressures. Assume VS = 2.5V and
R = 125Ω.
a. Plot the DC load line.
b. Plot the voltage across device D as a function of pressure.
c. Determine the current through device D when P = 30 psig.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The I-V characteristic for various values of pressure.
2.111
Find:
The DC load line, the voltage across the device as a function of pressure, and the current
through the nonlinear device when P = 30 psig.
Analysis:
Plot the load line of the Thévenin source seen by the non-linear device and estimate the
intercept of that load line with a particular characteristic I-V curve. The open-circuit voltage is
VS = 2.5V and the short-circuit current is VS/R = 2.5V/125Ω = 20mA. The straight line
connecting these two extreme operating points (2.5V, 0A) and (0V, 20mA) is shown in the figure
below. The solution for V and I is at the intersection of the load line and the device characteristic
lines, as shown in the figure to the right.
The various operating points for various pressures are listed in the table below along with a plot
of the device voltage at those operating points versus pressure.
p [psig] VD [V]
10 2.14
20 1.43
25 1.18
30 0.91
40 0.60
Clearly, the device voltage is a nonlinear function of pressure. At P = 30 psig:
2.112
Problem 2.91
The non-linear device D in Figure P2.91 has the following transcendental i-v characteristic:
where VT is the so-called thermal voltage. Assume that VS = 2V and R = 40Ω. Determine an
expression for the DC load line. Then use an iterative technique to determine the voltage across
and the current through D.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The I-V characteristic of the nonlinear device in the circuit shown in Figure P2.91:
Find:
An expression for the DC load line. The voltage across and current through the nonlinear
device.
Analysis:
Apply KVL around the series loop.
(1)
The I-V characteristic of the nonlinear device is
(2)
Combine the two to find
(3)
This result is a transcendental equation and cannot be solved analytically; it must be solved
numerically or graphically. The numerical solution relies upon an iterative scheme of guessing
the solution for VD, plugging that value into (1) to calculate ID, and using that value with (2) to
calculate a new value of VD. This procedure is repeated until hopefully VD and ID converge upon
a solution. This iterative procedure requires an initial guess for the value of VD, which can be
2.113
critical to the success of the iteration. Although a thorough discussion of issues to consider
when making an initial guess is beyond the scope of this problem, the basic idea is to make the
initial guess as close to the actual solution as possible such that the iteration simply polishes
that approximate solution. The graph below shows plots of the load line (1) for the nonlinear
element and its I-V characteristic (2). A good initial guess for VD would appear to be 0.5V.
The table below shows the results of the iteration for an initial guess of 750mV for VD.
VD [mV] ID [mA]
500.000 37.500
493.561 37.661
493.668 37.658
493.666 37.658
… …
Thus:
2.114
Problem 2.92
The resistance of the device D in Figure P2.90 is a non-linear function of pressure P. The i-v
characteristics of D are shown for various pressures. Assume VS = 3.0V and R = 100Ω.
Construct the DC load line and determine the current through D when P = 40 psig.
Solution:
Known quantities:
The I-V characteristic for various values of pressure.
Find:
The DC load line and the current through the device when p = 40 psig.
Analysis:
Plot the load line of the Thévenin source seen by the non-linear device and estimate the
intercept of that load line with a particular characteristic I-V curve.
2.115
The open-circuit voltage is VS = 3.0V and the short-circuit current is VS/R = 3.0V/100Ω = 30mA.
The straight line connecting these two extreme operating points (3.0V, 0A) and (0V, 30mA) is
shown in the figure below. The solution for V and I is at the intersection of the load line and the
device characteristic lines, as shown in the figure to the right.
At p = 40 psig:
2.116
Problem 2.93
The so-called forward-bias i-v relationship for a silicon diode is
where ISAT and VT are known as the saturation current and thermal voltage, respectively, and k is
Boltzmann’s constant, T is absolute temperature in kelvins, and q is the charge of an electron.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure P2.93. KVL applied around the loop results in a
transcendental equation for the loop current i = iD. Such equations cannot be solved in terms of
a closed-form expression i = . . .. Instead, graphical or iterative procedures must be used.
a. Use graphical analysis to estimate the current through and the voltage across the diode.
Assume RT = 22Ω and VT = 12V.
b. Use the iterative algorithm depicted in the flowchart of Figure P2.93 to construct a computer
program that solves for V and i. The algorithm relies upon the fact that 0 < V < VT to make an
initial guess VD1 = VT /2 for the voltage across the diode. The algorithm then determines whether
the current iD1 through RT is greater than, less than, or equal to the diode current iD2 for the
guessed diode voltage. In the first case, a new guess for VD1 is set equal to the average value of
VD1 and VD2, which stores the most recent value of VD1 that resulted in iD2 > iD1. The initial value
VD2 = VT guarantees that iD1 = 0 and, thus, iD2 > iD1 for the first pass through the iterative
algorithm. The result is that VD1 and VD2 bracket the actual value of V. Each pass through the
algorithm narrows the bracket until the difference |iD1 − iD2| < ε, where ε is some sufficiently small
error term.
2.117
c.
Solution:
Known quantities:
Circuit shown in Figure P2.93 and the program flowchart
Find:
a) Current through and voltage across the diode.
Analysis:
a) For every voltage value for the diode, we can
calculate the corresponding current. Therefore
we can calculate the voltage in the whole circuit.
The intersection of voltage circuit and the
Thévenin equivalent voltage shows the answer.
v D  0.65
iD  0.5
2.118
b) Run the attached Matlab code, we can have the following answer. They are close to the
answer we got above.
v D  0.64
iD  0.52
clc;clear;close all;
ISAT=10e-12;kTq=0.0259;VT=12;RT=22;
VD1=VT/2;
VD2=VT;
flag=1;
while flag
iD1=(VT-VD1)/RT;
iD2=ISAT*(exp(VD1/kTq)-1);
if iD1>iD2
VD1=VD1+(VD2-VD1)/2;
else
VD2=VD1;
VD1=VD1/2;
end
if abs(VD2-VD1)<10E-6;
flag=0
end
end
iD1
VD1
2.119

Rizzoni Principles 7e Ch02 ISM

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Rizzoni Principles 7e Ch02 ISM

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G. Rizzoni and J.

Kearns, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, 7 th Edition Solutions, Chapter 2

Chapter 2: Equivalent Networks – Instructor Notes

The concept of equivalent resistance is extended in Section 2.3 to that of equivalent

The homework problems include a variety of practical examples, with emphasis on

Learning Objectives for Chapter 2

SECTION 2.1, 2.2: Voltage and Current Division

(b) Apply voltage division:

(c) Apply voltage division:

Apply voltage division to find the voltage across R4 ¿∨R5∨¿ R 6.

v 456 R4 ¿∨R 5∨¿ R6 5

i 4 =i5 =i6 ≅ 0.101 A

b) Find the expected output voltage range for a tolerance of ± 1 percent.

Notice that the peak power absorbed by R occurs when R = RS.

The power delivered by the voltage source is

Apply current division:

Solve for R when Ra =1 k Ω, I a=30 μA and I =10 , 100 ,1000 mA.

R234 =9‖( 4 +4 ) ≅ 4.24 Ω

Apply current division:

Assume R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 10Ω, R3 = 5Ω, R4 = 2Ω, IS = 3A.

SECTION 2.3: Equivalent Resistance between Two Nodes

The power dissipated by the 15W resistor is

R12456 =R12+ R 546 ≅ 4.13Ω

R123456=R 12456∨¿ R3 ≅ 2.73 Ω

R78=R 7∨¿ R8 ≅ 0.91 Ω

The equivalent resistance seen by the voltage source Vs is:

This result is in series with R3.

Further, this result is in parallel with R2.

( 569 ) 4 = 224 ≅ 2.43 Ω

Finally, this result is in series with R1. Thus:

Req =2.43+ 9=11.43 Ω

The equivalent resistance

Since the equivalent resistance cannot be negative the result is Req =( 1+ √ 3 ) R.

with terminals c-d shorted, Req= (360‖180)+(540‖540)Ω=390Ω ,

with terminals a-b shorted, Req= (360‖540)+ ( 180‖540 ) Ω=351Ω .

( R2∗R3 ) + ( R2∗R 5 ) + ( R3∗R5 ) 92

SECTION 2.4: The Principle of Superposition

SECTION 2.3 Principle of Superposition

V 'B V 'C ( R3‖R 4 ) 4.8

Apply the principle of superposition to find

The voltage across using superposition.

Voltage division determines the voltage drop across this resistance.

Finally, Ohm’s law determines the current through R3 due to VS2.

Another application of current division will determine the current, i.

where these voltages are relative to the reference node.

Sum all the voltages to find

Turn off vS and replace it with a short-circuit. Apply current division.

Sum the two component currents to find

The given voltage across R3 indicates the temperature.

For mesh (b):

For mesh (c):

For mesh (b):

Ohm’s law determines the current.

Apply current division to find the current through that equivalent

Note that this current is negative because it is directed opposite to i0.

Again, this current is negative because it is directed opposite to i0.

Section 2.6: Source Transformations

Req =R12∨¿ R3 =2.86 Ω

Req =R1||R2|| R3 =1.2 Ω

Apply current division:

Apply current division to express the current through the 2W resistor.

v 1=i2 Ω ( 2 Ω )= ( 0.3 ) ( v s −v 1 /6 ) ( 2 Ω )=0.6 v S−0.1 v 1

Gather coefficients of v 1 to find v 1=( 6/11 ) v S.