Module 1: Weathering ● Hydrolysis - breakdown of

Weathering - process of breakdown rocks by acidic water to

of rocks at the Earth’s Surface. produce clay and soluble salts.
Divided into three types: Take place when acid rain
1. Physical Weathering - caused by reacts with rock forming acids
effects of changing temperature, such as feldspar to produce
causing rocks to break apart. clay and salts that are removed
Has three types: in solution.
● Hydration - water reacts
● Abrasion - rock surface is
constantly exposed to water, wind, chemically with rocks, modifying
and gravity chemical structure. Ex: Water
● Freeze-Thaw - water H20 is added to Calcium
continuously seeps into rocks, Sulfate CaSO4 to create
freezes and expands, Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate
breaking the rock apart ● Oxidation - breakdown of rocks
● Exfoliation - can happen as by oxygen and water, giving
cracks develop parallel to the rocks a rust colored surface
land surface as consequence of 3. Biological Weathering - rocks are
pressure reduction during uplift weakened by different biological agents
and erosion like plants and animals
2. Chemical Weathering - caused by ● By Physical Means - caused by
rainwater reacting with the mineral movement and actions of animals
grains in rocks to form new minerals such as the burrowing of worms,
(Clays) and soluble salts. causing fragments to me more
● Carbonation - carbon dioxide in exposed to other environmental
the air dissolves in rainwater factors
and becomes weakly acidic ● By Chemical Means - caused by
(Carbonic Acid) that can acidic substances released by plants
dissolve limestones by seeping and animals
into cracks and cavities
● Acidification - polluting gasses Module 2: Earth’s Internal Heat Sources
(Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen
Primordial Heat - the Earth was formed
Oxide) dissolve in rainwater to
through the process of accretion (gasses
make stronger acids that result
and dist of cloud was attracted by
in acid rain that damage gravitational energy, causing compaction
monuments and buildings and creating planetesimals. Heat was
created and trapped in the core of the planet
and did not vanish. Convective transport of
this heat traveled to the mantle, causing Partial Melting - rocks undergo partial
preservation of some amount of primordial melting because their composition
heat in the interior Earth. melt at different temperatures (not
Radioactive Element Decay - Earth is pure materials)
considered a thermal engine due to internal
heat coming from the decay of naturally
Higher Pressure = Higher Melting Points
occurring isotopes such as
Two main mechanisms through which
Potassium-40, Uranium-235, Uranium-238,
rocks melt:
and Thorium-232.
● Decompression Melting - take
Gravitational Pressure - more descent into
Earth’s interior increases due to the force place within the Earth. The body of
pressing on an area caused by the weight of a rock is held at approximately the
overlying rocks (3 to 4 million times the same temperature but the pressure
pressure of the atmosphere at sea level). is reduced (moving toward the
Because rocks are good insulators, the heat surface), starting partial melting.
escape from the Earth’s surface is less than ● Flux Melting - happens if a rock is
the heat generated from internal close to its melting point and some
gravitational attraction so heat builds up water or carbon dioxide is added to
within the rock, reducing melting
Dense Core Material - materials of the temperature and starting partial
innermost part of the Earth are very melting
dense (made of iron and nickel and
ranges between 12,600 to 13,000 Extrusion - eruption of magmatic
kg/m3), suggesting other heavy materials that causes land formation on
elements as gold, platinum, palladium, the surface of the Earth
silver, and tungsten. The inner core’s Intrusion - magma moves up into a
intense pressure prevents the iron and volcano without erupting
other elements from melting. The
pressure and density are simply too
Plutonism - refers to all sorts of
great for the iron atoms to move into a
igneous geological processes taking
liquid state/melt
place below the surface of the Earth.
This is the process that gives birth to
Module 3: Endogenic
magma.
Processes: Plutonism and
➢ Plutonites - magmatic rocks
Volcanism
produced through the process of
Endogenic Process - geological
crystallization inside the Earth’s Crust
process that was formed, originated,
and located below the surface of the
Volcanism - all geological phenomena
Earth (tectonic movements,
that occur on the natural terrestrial
metamorphism, seismic activities, and
surface (Creation of volcanoes and hot
magnetism)
springs). It deals with the transportation
of igneous material from the planet’s
Magma - formed from partial
interior towards the natural terrestrial
melting of mantle rocks
surface
Volcanites - molten material that
undergoes crystallization on the 2. Pressure - changes the
natural terrestrial surface. Composed composition, mineralogy, and
of gray, dull pink colored trakibasaltic texture of rocks. Pressure is
lava with large phenocrystal and different in various tectonic settings,
pyroclastic like temperature
Module 4: Metamorphism Two types of Pressure:
Metamorphism - one of the a. Vertical stress or
geologic processes in which rocks Confining pressure -
change in form, composition, and stress or pressure
structure due to intense heat and exerted on the rock by the
pressure and sometimes with the weight of overlying material
introduction of chemically active such as in burial
fluids metamorphism
b. Directed or Differential
Metamorphic Rocks - Metamorphic pressure - imposed by a
rocks form when existing rocks are force in a particular direction.
subjected to intense heat and This results in a textural
pressure, usually deep below the change such that the
earth's surface minerals are elongated in the
direction
Three factors involved in perpendicular to the directed
Metamorphism: stress and this contributes to
the formation of foliation
Temperature - plays a crucial role in Foliation - It is a set of flat or
metamorphism. The heat affects the wavy parallel cleavage planes
rock’s chemical composition, produced by deformation under
mineralogy, and texture directed pressures
Geothermal gradient - rate at which
temperature increases with depth in Module 5: Rock Behaviors Under Stress
the Earth’s crust Stress - the force applied to an object. In
(Explanation: Sedimentary rock geology, stress is the force per unit area
(mudrock) shale becomes buried that is placed on a rock
deeper and deeper, Types of Stress:
the clay minerals in the rock will begin 1. Tensional stress - causes rocks to
to recrystallize and form new minerals, be pulled apart that result in
such as micas in slate – a lengthening and break apart. This
metamorphic rock from shale. With type of stress can be found at
additional burial, at greater depth, divergent plate boundaries
where the temperature is higher, 2. Compressional stress - causes
mineral micas begin to transform into rocks to fold or fracture. It squeezes
a new mineral garnet in schist – rocks together. Compression is the most
another common type of stress in convergent
metamorphic rock with a higher grade plate boundaries
 3. Shear stress - happens when forces a joint because there is a block of rock
slide past each other in opposite left standing on either side of a fracture
directions which results in slippage and line. Footwall is the rock that is placed
translation. This is the most common on top of the fault, while the hanging wall
stress found in transform plate is below the fault. There are three types
boundaries of faults:
a. Normal faults - most common
Geologic Features - features that we faults at divergent boundaries. In
relation to the footwall, it develops
can observe on a rock when it has
as the
experienced stress. They are divided
into folds and faults hanging wall drops down. East
Folds - formed when rocks African Rift is one of the
experienced compressive stress and examples of this type of fault
deformed plastically. It causes
bending of rocks. There are three b. Reverse faults - most common at
types of folds: the convergent boundaries. It
a. Monocline - simple bend in the forms when the hanging wall
rock layers where the oldest moves up. It creates the world’s
rocks are at the bottom and the highest mountain ranges such as
youngest are at the top Himalayas
Mountains and Rocky Mountains
b. Anticline - fold that arches
upward where the oldest rocks are
found at the center of an anticline c. Strike-slip faults -this type of
while The youngest rocks are faults formed when the walls move
covered over sideways. It can be either right
them at the top of the structure lateral or left lateral. It is mostly
c. Syncline - fold that bends common on transform plate
downward which rocks are boundaries. The most popular
curved down to a center Example Image example of this type is San
of Fold Types: Andreas Fault
Faults - rock under ample stress can
crack, or fracture. The fracture is called

Module 6: Seafloor Spreading echoes of these sound waves, many people

Harry Hess - American Geophysicist, believed that the ocean floor was a
explained how the convection currents in completely flat surface
the Earth’s interior make the seafloor 2. Magnetometers - By the use of these that
spread in 1960 were attached to ships, scientists
discovered a lot about the magnetic
Technology Used to Research the Sea properties of the seafloor. They found that
Floor: magnetic polarity in the seafloor was normal
1. SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) at mid-ocean ridges but reversed in
- device that bounces sound waves off symmetrical patterns away from the ridge
underwater objects and then records the center. This normal and reversed pattern
continues across the seafloor and form ocean basins

Seafloor Spreading - the geologic process Ocean Basin - formed geologically of

that occurs at the boundary between two oceanic crust, in contrast to continental
plates where molten material within the crust that forms the Earth’s major land
earth pushes its way up, causing the plates masses. It covers the largest area of the
to move away from each other Earth’s surface
Subduction - Happens where
tectonic plates crash into each other instead Features and Structures of Ocean Basins:
of spreading apart. At subduction zones, the 1. Continental shelf - partly shallow
edge of the denser plate subducts, or slides, extension of the continent underwater 2.
beneath the less-dense one. The denser Continental slope - transition zone of
lithospheric material then melts back into continental shelf and deep ocean floor. It
the Earth's mantle starts from oceanic crust to continental crust
Heat - force that causes seafloor 3. Continental rise - where the ocean
spreading and the moving of continents and begins. All basaltic and oceanic rocks are
tectonic plates originates at the earth's found here. It is the place where the
extremely hot, dense core sediments from land are washed. The
Convection Current - Carries heat from the continental margin starts from continental
molten materials in the mantle and core shelf up to continental rise
towards the lithosphere. This current 4. Abyssal plain - the flattest part of the
ensures that the recycled materials formed ocean. 50 % of the earth’s surface is
in the lithosphere were back to the mantle. covered by this plain.
5. Island - part of the ocean basin that
Three Evidence that Support Seafloor extends up from the ocean floor.
Spreading: 6. Seamount - it is an undersea mountain.
1. Evidence from molten materials - rocks The erosion caused by waves destroyed the
shaped like pillows (rock pillows) show that top of a seamount which caused it to be
molten materials have erupted again and flattened.
again from cracks along the mid ocean 7. Trench - the deepest part of the ocean.
ridge and cooled quickly. 8. Mid-oceanic ridge - seafloor mountain
2. Evidence from magnetic strip - rocks system which is situated in the middle of the
that make up the ocean floor lie in a pattern ocean basin. It is where upwelling of
of magnetized stripes which hold a record of magma happens which causes the seafloor
the reversals in magnetic field to spread
3. Evidence from drilling sample - core
samples from the ocean floor show that John Tuzo Wilson (1960) - Canadian
older rocks are found farther from the ridge; geologist and geophysicist
youngest rocks are in the mid-ocean ridge
Wilson Cycle - explains the process of the
Module 7: Structure and Evolution opening (beginning) and the closing (end) of
of Ocean Basins an ocean which is driven by Plate Tectonics.
Pangea - called the supercontinent and due
to tectonic forces it causes to break apart Opening Phase:
 1. Embryonic Ocean Basin collide. This creates large mountain
2.Juvenile Ocean Basin ranges, an example being the
3. Mature Ocean Basin Himalayas
2. Divergent Boundary - plate boundary
Closing Phase: occurs when two plates move away from
4. Declining Ocean Basin each other. The space created will be
5. Terminal Ocean Basin filled with new material from molten
6. Suturing (Continental collision) Magma. It forms mid ocean ridges and
formed the African Rift Valley and other
Module 8: Movement of Plates rifts/rift valleys
Tectonic Plates - massive, irregularly 3. Transform Boundary - the interaction
shaped slab of rock. The plates move along Transform boundaries are
at a rate of one to two inches per year characterized by earthquakes due to the
friction and pressure build-up along the fault
Motion of Plates lines. Transform plate boundary is also
1. Collision - two continental plates are called as conservative plate boundary. This
moved toward each other plate boundary type created the San
Andreas Fault in California
2. Subduction - when one plate subsides
beneath the other plate Module 9: How Layers of Rocks
(Stratified Rocks) are Formed
3. Spreading - occurs when two plates are Sedimentary Rocks - rocks formed from
move away from each other sediment material consisting of sand,
gravel, mud, ions in solution derived from
4. Transform - occur when two plates slide preexisting rocks or organic debris derived
past each other from living organisms. With the passage of
time and the accumulation of more particles,
and often with chemical changes, the
Types of Plate Boundaries
sediments at the bottom of the pile become
1. Convergent Boundary - plate boundary
rock. Below is the process of making
occurs when two plates collide. There are sedimentary rocks:
three types of convergent boundaries a.
Stratification - process leading to the
Oceanic-Continental: when
formation or deposition of layers, especially
oceanic crust collides with a
of the sedimentary rocks. The layers range
continent. When oceanic crust
from several millimeters to many meters in
meets continental crust, the denser thickness and vary greatly in shape. Strata
oceanic plate is subducted, often may range from thin sheets that cover many
forming a mountain range on the square kilometers to thick lens-like bodies
continent such as the Andes that extend only a few meters lateral
b. Oceanic-Oceanic: two oceanic How rock layers are formed:
plates converge or collide. Island 1. Law of Superposition - basic law of
arcs and oceanic trenches occthrough this geochronology, stating that in any
c. Continental -Continental: two undisturbed sequence of rocks deposited in
continental plates converge or layers, the youngest layer is on top and the
 oldest on bottom, each layer being younger Methods/Techniques:
than the one beneath it and older than the
one above it Module 11: Relative and Absolute Dating
2. Law of Original Horizontality - first Methods of Relative Dating:
proposed by Danish geological pioneer 1. Stratigraphy: oldest dating method
Nicholas Steno in the 17th century. IT states which studies the successive placement of
that layers of sediment were originally layers. It is based on the concept that the
deposited horizontally under the action of lowest layer is the oldest and the topmost
gravity. It suggests that all rock layers are layer is the youngest
originally laid down (deposited) horizontally
and can later be deformed Methods of Absolute Meeting:,
3. Law of Lateral Continuity - states that 1. Radiometric dating: This technique
the layers of rock are continuous until they solely depends on the traces of radioactive
encounter other solid bodies that block their isotopes found in fossils. The rate of decay
deposition or until they are acted upon by of these elements helps determine their
agents that appear after deposition takes age, and in turn the age of the rocks. 2.
place such as erosion and fault movements Amino acid dating: Physical structure of
living beings depends on the protein content
Module 10: Different Methods of in their bodies. The changes in this content
Determining the Age of Stratified Rocks help determine the relative age of these
Relative Dating technique - used to fossils.
determine the age by comparing the 3. Dendrochronology: Each tree has
historical remains to the nearby layers. It is growth rings in its trunk. This technique
a less advanced technique when compared dates the time or period during which these
to absolute dating rings were formed.
Methods/Technique: 4. Thermoluminescence: It determines the
- Stratigraphy: assumes that the period during which a certain object was last
lowest layer is the oldest while the subjected to heat. It is based on the concept
topmost layer is the youngest layer. It that heated objects absorb light and emit
is one of the oldest methods of electrons. The emissions are measured to
relative dating compute the age.
- Biostratigraphy: fossils of dead
animals are used to establish a
strategy for dating. It is an extended Module 12: Describe How Index Fossils
version of stratigraphy (also known as Guide Fossils) are Used
- Cross dating: the fossils of one to Define and Identify Subdivisions of
layer are compared with the Geologic Time Scale
another
layer with known dating. Terms to Remember:
Absolute Dating - technique that - Fossil: any remains of ancient life. It can
determines the exact numerical age of a be body fossils which are remains of the
historical remainder. Since it evaluates the organism itself, or trace fossils, such as
exact age of the sample, absolute aging is burrows, tracks, or other evidence of activity
also called numerical dating - Preservation: relatively rare process. The
chances of becoming a fossil are enhanced change too over time
by quick burial and the presence of
preservable hard parts, such as bones or Types of Fossils:
shells 1. Preserved Remains - rarest form of
- Fossils form in five ways: fossilization is the preservation of original
● preservation of original remains ● skeletal material and even soft tissue. For
permineralization example, insects have been preserved
● molds and casts perfectly in amber, which is ancient tree
● replacement sap. Several mammoths and even a
● compression Neanderthal hunter have been discovered
- Rock: formations with exceptional fossils frozen in glaciers
are called very important for scientists to 2. Permineralization: most common
study. They allow us to see information method of fossilization is permineralization.
about organisms that we may not otherwise After a bone, wood fragment, or shell is
ever know buried in sediment, it may be exposed to
- Index fossils: fossils that are widespread mineral-rich water that moves through the
but only existed for a short period. Index sediment. This water will deposit minerals
fossils help scientists to find the relative age into empty spaces, producing a fossil. Fossil
of a rock layer and match it up with other dinosaur bones, petrified wood, and many
rock layers marine fossils were formed by
- Living fossils: organisms that haven’t permineralization
changed much in millions of years and are 3. Molds and Casts: in some cases, the
still alive today original bone or shell dissolves away,
- Adaptations: favorable traits that leaving behind a space in the shape of the
organisms inherit. Adaptations develop from shell or bone. This depression is called
variations within a population and help mold. Later the space may be filled with
organisms to survive in their given other sediments to form a matching cast in
environment the shape of the original organism. Many
- Changes: accumulate in populations over mollusks (clams, snails, octopi, and squid)
time; this is called evolution are commonly found as molds and casts
- Fossil Record: shows us that present-day because their shells dissolve easily 4.
life forms evolved from earlier different life Replacement: in some cases, the original
forms. It shows us that the first organisms shell or bone dissolves away and is
on Earth were simple bacteria that replaced by a different mineral. For
dominated the Earth for several billion example, shells that were originally calcite
years. may be replaced by dolomite, quartz, or
- 540 million years ago: more complex pyrite. If quartz fossils are surrounded by a
organisms developed on Earth. During the calcite matrix, the calcite can be dissolved
Phanerozoic Eon, all the plant and animal away by acid, leaving behind an exquisitely
types we know today have evolved. - Many preserved quartz fossil
types of organisms: once lived but are 5. Compression: some fossils form when
now extinct. Earth’s overall their remains are compressed by high
environment, especially the climate, has pressure. This can leave behind a dark
changed many times, and organisms imprint on the fossil. Compression is most
common for fossils of leaves and ferns but Layer:
can occur with other organisms, as well We can use index fossils and key beds to
correlate or match rock layers with the same
Exceptional Preservation - some rock age. By doing this, we can then place other
beds have produced exceptional fossils. layers of rocks in order of their relative ages
Fossils from these beds may show evidence to find the oldest and youngest rocks in a
of soft body parts that are not normally series of outcrops
preserved. Two of the most famous
examples of soft organism preservation are Module 13: History of Earth’s Life Forms
the Burgess Shale in Canada and the Paleontology: the branch of science
Solnhofen Limestone in Germany concerned with fossil animals and plants

Index and Living Fossils: Fossils: the preserved remains of plants

Index fossils - are widespread but only and animals whose bodies were buried in
existed for a relatively brief period. When a sediments, such as sand and mud, under
particular index fossil is found, the relative ancient seas, lakes and rivers
age of the bed is immediately known.
Living fossils - are organisms that have Charles Doolittle Walcott - Paleontologist,
existed for a tremendously long period 4th secretary of the Smithsonian (1907-
without changing very much at all. For 1927). He found a fossil from the Cambrian
example, the Lingulata brachiopods have Period that had a soft worm-like body, five
existed from the Cambrian period to the eyes, and a long nose
present, a period of over 500 million years
Species diversity (diversity) - the number
Three Criteria of Index Fossils: and relative abundance of species found in
1. The fossilized organism must be easily a given biological organisation
recognizable. It must be easy to ID and look
unique Adaptations - Characteristics developed by
2. The fossils must be geographically a species to aid in their survival within a
widespread or found over large areas so specific environment. Variation and diversity
that we can use them to match layers are caused by adaptation, stemming from
separated by huge distances genetic mutations formed by one favorable
3. The fossil must have lived for only a short trait of a predecessor being passed on to
time so that it appears in only a horizontal the next generation.
layer of sedimentary rocks

Using Index Fossils to Correlate Rock

Phanerozoic Eon - It is the current geologic
eon in the planet's geologic time scale
spanning from 540 million years ago to the
present. These eras are further divided into
periods. This eon is known as "The Age of
Life," a timescale that is marked by the
sudden development of complex life.It is
divided into three chunks called era namely
the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras

Mass Extinctions - Events called mass

extinctions separate each era. Mass
extinctions occur when a large amount of
species face extinction within a brief amount
of time. Nearly 95% of all species on Earth
perished between the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic eras. It is the most devastating
mass extinction event in all of the planet's
history.