Human Histology

PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

○ 1st describe nucleus

INTRODUCTION TO HISTOLOGY ■ while examining rbc of
salmon
○ also discovered protozoa,
HISTOLOGY bacteria, muscles, nerves,etc
● The science deals with study of normal
tissues 17th Century
○ As prelude to pathology
● Robert Hooke
Cells---tissues---organs---organ ○ An English microscopist and
systems physicist observed a slice of cork
under a microscope
○ Observation – key to identifying ○ His discovery served as the
cell types foundation of the cell theory
○ Latin term cellule
Pathology ● Marcelo Malphigi
● study of abnormal tissues ○ Italian anatomist
○ Abnormal tissues- tissues with ○ 1st describe true units forming
altered structure and function of animal tissues using simple
body, organs, tissues and cells lenses
○ True Father of Histology
Tissues ● Robert brown-
● group of cells that have similar structure ○ Introduce nucleus
and intercellular materials interrelated to ○ Observed in epidermal cells of
perform a specific function orchids
○ Came from Od French word ○ Noticed small dense centers in
“tussu” which means “weave plant cells but function is yet
fabric strands” unknown
Cytology ● Marie Francois Bichat
● The study of cells ○ French pathologist
○ Cells ○ Termed tissues as textures
■ The basic unit of life that ○ Tissues: different group of cells
composed all the living ● Matthias Schleiden
things ○ iProposed cell theory for Plants
● 1950s ● Theodor Schwann
○ Medical Technologists in the US ○ Described animals are made of
sought professional recognition cells
through licensure exams ○ Discovered cells that form sheath
surrounding nerve
● Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle
BRIEF HISTORY ○ Published 1st human histology
● Max Schultze
16th Century ○ 1st describe cells as mass of
nucleated protoplasm
● Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
○ Using his handheld microscope,
was the first person to observe
and describe living cells
○ develop compound lenses
○ 1

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

THE CELL
● Rudolf Virchow
○ Fundamental Law of Biology or
Law of Virchow ● Cell
○ Described human body as “cell ○ Structural, functional, hereditary
state” & developmental unit of all living
○ All diseases involved changes in organisms
normal cells ● 2 Types of Cells

19th Century
○ Microtome, fixing, embedding & Eukaryotic Prokaryotic
staining techniques
Nucleus w/ true w/o true
A division of Anatomy nucleus nucleus

Nuclear present absent

envelope
● Gross Anatomy
○ deals with the structures of the Histones w/ histones w/o
body that are visible to the naked histones
eye
● Microscopic Anatomy Organelles numerous membrane-
● The study of minute anatomical membrane- limited
structures on a microscopic limited organelles
scale, including cells (cytology) organelles usually
and tissues (histology) absent
⇾ Cytology: study of cells
and structures
⇾ Histology: study of groups
of similar cells for
performance of specific
function/s
⇾ Organology: Study of
group of tissues arranged
in pattern of a particular
organ

3 ELEMENTS THAT COMPOSED HUMAN

BODY
1. Cells
2. Intercellular substances
a. • Formed- collagen and elastin
b. • Amorphous ground substance
protein,polysaccharides
protein-sugar complexes
3. Body fluid-blood and lymphs

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● Respiration
○ Food subs & O2 interact
CELL STRUCTURE chemically to produce H2O &
CO2
Animal Cells contain the following structures ● Absorption/Endocytosis
1. Cell Membranes ○ Inhibition of dissolved subs
● Plasma membrane or ■ Pinocytosis
plasmalemma ● Cell drinking
2. Nucleus ■ Phagocytosis
3. Cytoplasm ● Cell eating
● Plasmalemma could only be seen ● Exocytosis
under electron microscope unless ○ Exclusion of waste products by
associated with CT elements or the cell
artificially thickened to be stained ○ Secretion hormones/digestive
enzymes (insulin)
● CELL MEMBRANE/ PLASMALEMMA ○ Excretion
○ Outer membrane of cell that ■ Exclusion of waste
controls cellular traffic products of metabolism
○ 9-10 iu in thickness (urine)
○ Functions: ● Growth & reproduction
■ Regulates entrance and ○ Increase number of cells
exit of nutritive and
excretory substances CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CYTOPLASM
■ Act as selective barrier ● Nucleic acid in nucleus
● Protoplasm ● Biochemical components in cytoplasm
○ All that are inside the cell ○ 75% water
membrane eg. organelles, ○ 1% salt
inclusion bodies and nucleus ○ 3% lipids
● Cytoplasm ○ 1% CHO in the form of glycogen
○ All contents outside the nucleus ○ 20% CHON
○ Contains organelles and Inclusion ○ Cations- Na, K, Ca, Mg
bodies ○ Anions- phosphates,
○ Function: bicarbonates, Cl
■ matrix embedding
organelles and inclusion CYTOPLASM: ORGANELLES
bodies
● Organelles
PHYSIOLOGIC PROPERTIES OF ○ internal cell component that
PROTOPLASM perform specific function for the
○ cell
● Irritability ● Mitochondria
○ Respond to stimulus ○ Powerhouse of the Cell (ATP)
○ Expression of life that disappear ○ Second largest organelle with
upon cell death unique genetic structure
● Contractility ○ Cylindrical structure. 0.5X2.5um
○ Changing shapes (muscle fibers) ○ Contains soluble enzymes:
, Kreb’s Cycle
● Conductivity ○ Generation of energy: glycolytic &
○ discovered partial heat oxidative enzymes ATP: used by
sterilization or Pasteurization; cell for metabolic activities

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● Fibrils
● Lysosome ○ Found in nearly all types of CT
○ Suicide bag of the cell ■ Cell rigidity & cell
○ contains digestive enzymes movement
■ Contains hydrolytic ● Microtubules
enzymes for CHON & ○ Contractility property
CHO breakdown ■ Diffusion channel
● Centrosome ● Microbodies/peroxisome
○ Contain centrioles (movement of ○ Contractility property
chromosome during cell division ■ Contains enzyme catalase
○ Maintains chromosome number responsible for breakdown
during mitosis of hydrogen peroxide to
● Golgi apparatus/Dictyosome H2O & O2
○ Protein packaging plant.
■ Site of accumulation, CYTOPLASM: INCLUSION BODIES
concentration, packaging
of secretory product of the Vacuoles/Vesicles
cell ● Storage cavities w/c expels waste &
○ Process & packages water from cell pigment
macromolecules such as Chon & Lipid/Fat droplet
lipid after their synthesis ● Triglyceride storage site & hormone
● Endoplasmic Reticulum precursor
○ Stores, separates, & serves as Glycogen Granules
cells transport system ● Energy source of organisms once
■ involved in CHON converted to glucose
transport & maturation Pigment granule
○ Smooth ER/Agranular- ● Inclusion bodies w/ coloring materials
■ No ribosomal granules ● Exogenous: formed outside the body
■ Lipid synthesis, steroid ● Endogenous: formed within the body
formation & detoxification ○ Melanin: dark brown/black
of some drugs b pigment
○ Rough ER/Granular ○ Hemoglobin: breakdown prods
■ Ribosomes are attached such as hemosiderin & bilirubin
■ Liver cells- Detoxification ○ Hemosiderin: golden-brown, iron
■ Parietal cells- HCl containing pigment from
formation destruction of Hgb.
■ Interstitial cells- synthesis ○ Lipofuscin: yellowish-brown
of neutral fats granules. “wear & tear pigment
■ Striated muscles- release Secretory/Zymogen granules
and recapture Ca ion ● Abundant in Pancreatic cells
■ Endocrine glands- ● Chief Cells of stomach & salivary glands
produce steroids ○ Rich in mucoproteins
● Ribosome ○ Precursor of digestive enzymes
○ protein production machinery (pepsin, amylase, trypsin)
■ active in protein synthesis, Mucigen droplets
such as pancreas and ● Rich in mucoproteins
brain cells ● Precursor of mucin which forms mucus
○ Dense aggregates of RNA upon hydration (lubricant)
■ Site of CHON synthesis

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

○ Karyokinesis Division of nucleus

NUCLEUS
● the structure in a cell that contains the
CELL DIVISION
chromosomes
○ Stains blue (basophilic)
○ hepatic cells: binucleated ●Cells have limited life cycle
○ Skeletal cells & osteoclast: ●Occurs in all adult cells except the cells
multinucleated of CNS
○ Unifies, controls and integrates ● Involves both Cytokinesis & Karyokinesis
cell function ○ karyokinesis can occur without
○ Controls the biochemical cytokinesis resulting to
reactions and reproduction of the binucleated cells of the liver &
cell multinucleated cells
○ Repository of the complete set of ○
heredity TWO TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
○ Inner cell body ● Mitosis
○ Occurs in somatic cells
Nuclear membrane ○ Parent cell divides to form 2 new
● Facilitates exchange of materials cells identical with one another
between and to the parent cell
○ cytoplasm & nucleoplasm ● Meiosis
○ Skin around nucleus ○ Parent cell divides to form new
Nucleoplasm/Karyoplasm cells not identical with one
● Base material of the nucleus where another & to the parent cell
nuclear chromatin & nucleolus are ○ Necessary for sexual
suspended reproduction
Nuclear chromatin/Chromatin Granules
● Carries the genes/hereditary STAGES OF MITOSIS
Nucleolus Interphase
● Site of RNA synthesis ● Cell in resting state
● In preparation to cell division,
4 PERIODS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE chromosomes duplicates from 23
● G1: Initial Gap pairs to 46 pairs in
○ About 10 hours ● It is the time for repair &
○ Growth of new daughter cells re-synthesis of CHON
○ Active synthesize of RNA & 1. Prophase
CHON, but not DNA a. The pair of centrioles duplicates
● S Stage: Synthetic Stage & begins to go towards the
○ Active DNA & histone synthesis opposite poles
○ Probable replication of 2 b. Start of the formation of Spindle
centrioles fibers between separating
○ 9 hours centrioles
● G2: Second Gap c. Nuclear envelope & nucleolus
○ Time between DNA synthesis & starts to disappear
resumption of mitosis 2. Metaphase
○ 4 hours a. Chromosomes aligned along the
● Mitosis equatorial plate
○ Active cell division b. Chromosome starts to pass
○ Cytokinesis between the spindle fibers
■ Division of cytoplasm

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

THE EPITHELIAL TISSUE

3. Anaphase
a. Chromosome splits in half
b. Cell elongation- Spindle fibers Tissues are group of similar cells specialized in
pulls chromatids to opposite a common direction to perform a common
poles function
c. Late Anaphase: constriction ● Tissue is derived from 3 primitive germ
starts to form (cleavage furrow) layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and
4. Telophase endoderm\
a. Chromosomes detach from
chromosomal microtubules at 4 Primary Tissues
each pole of cell ● Epithelial tissues
b. Microtubules disintegrate ● Connective tissues
c. Chromosomes start to elongate ● Muscular tissues
or disperse ● Nervous tissues
d. Nucleoli reappear
e. Nuclear envelopes reform

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH

EPITHELIAL TISSUE EPITHELIAL TISSUES

● made up of polyhedral cells compact ● Basement membrane/ basal lamina

● closely arranged and strongly attached ○ where all epithelial tissue cells
to each other that they have scanty are attached
intercellular substances ○ provides anchorage for the cells
○ attached to extracellular matrix ○ Barrier limiting or regulating
(ECM) exchanges of macromolecules
● avascular or no blood vessels found b/w CT and other tissues
among the cells ● Components contribute to image of
○ Nourishment is conveyed through basement membrane
osmosis and diffusion from blood ○ Basal lamina
vessels located at tunica propia ○ Reticular fibers
● covers the body surfaces and those ○ Ground substances
found as sheets lining the organ cavities -
● Usually wet or moist passage of tumor cells across basal
○ except the epidermis of the skin lamina indicate invasive quality of these
● Some are arranged in the form of cells and is important clue to pathologist
masses in evaluating degree of malignancy
○ Adrenal gland, parathyroid gland
● Cells are replaced through mitosis ● Tunica propria /lamina propria
○ support to the epithelium and
Functions vascularized CT bed providing
nourishment for epithelial tissue
● Absorption cells
● Secretion ○ All epithelia has tunica propria
● Covering
SPECIALIZATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE:

● Tendency to maintain excessive

Functions Distribution
contact with one another
Absorption small intestine ○ Polarity
■ in columnar epithelium,
Secretion glands structural and functional
differences b/w 2 ends
Excretion kidney tubules ○ Cell axis
■ imaginary line passing
Protection skin/epidermis through the centrosome
and center of the nucleus.
Sensory reception neuroepithelium ■ Perpendicular to basal
lamina
Lubrication sebaceous glands ○ Terminal web
■ made of feltwork of fine
Reproduction lining of the ovary filaments beneath the
surface.
■ provide mechanical
support for ciliated or
striated borders

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

○ Only function is as special

● For cell attachment and adhesion of cells
communication ● Hemidesmosome
○ can be observed only by electron ○ contact b/w certain epithelial cell
microscopy and basal lamina
● Gap junction or nexus
Juxta-luminal Junctional Complex ○ Can be mistaken for zonula
occludens
Zonula occludens or tight junctions ○ Can occur almost anywhere
○ Most apical of the junctions along lateral membranes of most
○ Junction encircle the cell epithelial cells ,
○ Adjoining cell converge and fused ○ Well developed in tissues where
to close intercellular space cells are electrically coupled
○ Outer leaflets of adjacent unit ○ Permit transfer of small
membrane are fused, giving rise molecules
to a local pentalaminar
appearance
● Significance
○ Transporting epithelium as in that
of gallbladder
○ Mechanical role in maintenance
of structural integrity of cells
○ Serve as tight seal preventing
flow of materials b/w epithelia;l
cells (parallel pathway)
○ Responsible for structure called-
terminal bar

For cell attachment and communication

Significance of Junctional Specialization
● Zonula adherens or intermediate
1. Site of low resistance to ion flow
junctions
a. Communication b/w cells and
○ Regions where adjacent cells are
coordination of activities
firmly held together
2. Site of firm cohesion of cells called
○ Found b/w epithelial cells,
Nexus
fibroblast, smooth muscle cells
a. Principal and only type of
and intercalated disc of cardiac
junction mediating
muscles
3. Permit passage of substances with
○ Also responsible for terminal bar
molecules weighing 300 ug or more \
● Desmosome or Macula Adherens
4. Important role in regulation of growth and
○ Disk-like structure at the surface
differentiation and in coordination of
of 1 cell that is match with
functions among group of cells
identical structure at surface of
5. Seen at electrical synapses in
adjacent cell
invertebrate CNS
○ Only type present in stratified
squamous epithelium attach the
Intestinal Epithelium showing 3 cells
ends of short processes
● Middle
(erroneously interpreted as
○ emptied of contents to show
“intercellular bridges”)
surface of the membrane

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● Zonula occludens formed by multiple ● Epithelial cells

ridges ○ Varied in shape, from high
● Zonula adherens and occludens form columnar to cuboidal to low
ribbon at the cell apex squamous cells including all
● Desmosome and gap junction makes intermediate forms
spot-like plaques ■ cuboidal cell- nucleus is
spherical
■ Squamous- nucleus is flat
Specialized cell surfaces

● Microvilli
○ -striated or brush border
■ Prominent in cells that
function in absorption
■ Contain enzymes in or
near the microvilli
membrane
■ Brush border serve as
adaptation to enhance the
surface area of membrane
exposed to substances to
be absorbed
● Stereocilia
○ Glomerular filtration rate
CLASSIFICATION AS TO THE NUMBER OF
■ Function is not well
LAYERS
established but epithelium
is absorptive
■ it promotes this function
●Simple
by amplifying the cell
○ single layer of cells
surface
● Stratified
● Cilia
○ with more than 1 layer of cells
○ Surfaces serve to propel fluid or
● Pseudostratified
coating of mucus towards the
○ more than 1 layer but in reality 1
exterior
■ Arranged in parallel rows layer
projecting from surfaces ■ different height of nuclei
of some epithelial cells and irregular shape
■ Moves in waves and SHAPES
sweep over epithelium
● Flagella ● squamous
○ Found in the epithelia of ○ round and flat
nephrons, testes and ducts of ○ unifrom in heights
glands ● cuboidal
■ Elongated motile structure ○ cube shape and single central
on surface of epith cells, nucleus
longer than cilia
○ equal lenghth and width
● columnar
○ taller than its wider

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● Distribution
○ fallopian tubes
● SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL ○ lungs,
TISSUE ○ uterine tube
○ with thin plate like cells arranged ● Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial
in Mosaic pattern Tissue
○ cells with central, round, bulging ○ appears to have several layers
nucleus but actually has only one layer of
○ cells with serrated cells
borders/outlines ○ all cells attached to the basement
● Function membrane
○ forms barriers in regions of ○ not all cells reached the surface •
filtration and diffusion shape of cells may vary
● Distribution ○ shape of nucleus may vary •
○ lining walls of blood vessels, nucleus of cells lies at different
○ lymph vessels, levels
○ cavities of heart, ● Pseudostratified Columnar ciliated
○ lining serous cavities, ○ trachea, bronchi, uterus, oviduct
○ lining interior chamber of eye, and larynx
○ perilymph spaces, ● Pseudostratified Columnar Stereo
○ Subarachnoid spaces Ciliated
● SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL ○ testes,
TISSUE ○ epididymis,
○ made up of “cube-like” cells, with ○ male urethra
central, round nucleus
● Function ● Stratified Squamous Epithelium
○ it performs an excretory function ○ inner layer
■ kidney ■ made up of columnar cells
● Distribution ○ middle layer
○ Non ciliated-kidney tubules, ■ with polyhedral/cuboidal
thyroid follicles, secretory ducts of cells
glands ○ outer/surface layer
■ Ciliated- bronchioles ■ with or without keratin
● SIMPLE COLUMNAR NON-CILIATED ● Stratified Squamous –Keratinized
○ made up of columnar cells ○ without nucleus
○ cells with oval nucleus, located ■ flattened cells in outer
near the basement membrane layer
○ no cilia attached on the free ○ Keratin
surface of the cell ■ above the surface layer
● Distribution ○ Epidermis of skin
○ gallbladder, ● Stratified Squamous –
○ Pyloric end of stomach, Non-Keratinized
○ small and large Intestine, ○ with nucleus
○ rectum ■ flattened cells in outer
● SIMPLE COLUMNAR CILIATED layer
○ made up of columnar cells ○ no keratin above the surface
○ cells with oval nucleus, located layer
near the basement membrane ○ opening of mouth,
○ with cilia attached on the free ○ anus,
Surface of the cell ○ vagina, and esophagus

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

○ acidophilic in staining
● Transitional epithelium ○ Found in parathyroid gland,
○ inner layer pancreas
■ polyhedral or columnar
cells
○ middle layer
The Connective Tissues
■ pyriform shaped cells
○ outer layer
■ umbrella shaped cells
○ with indistinct basement
membrane
○ possess a certain degree of
Elasticity/stretchability
● Function
○ Distention and prevention of
caustic effects of urine
● Distribution:
○ Urethra,
○ Ureter,
○ urinary bladder

Specialized Type of Epithelium

● Glandular Epithelium General Functions

○ Formed by cells specialized to ● Support and bind tissues for all organs
produce a fluid secretion different ● Provide packing tissue between organs
in composition from blood or ● Create hydrophilic environment
intercellular fluid ○ Mediates exchange of
○ Process is usually accompanied substances b/w blood and tissues
by intracellular synthesis of ● Mesodermal in origin
macromolecules
■ secretory granules Mesenchyme
○ May synthesize, store and ● embryonic tissue
secrete ● Origin of different tissues w/c develop
■ proteins- pancreas, into specialized cells of adult tissue e.g.
lipids-adrenal and CT, smooth muscles, blood cells
sebaceous
■ Complex of CHO and Main functions of Connective tissues
CHON- salivary ● Structural framework for the body
■ CHON, CHO and lipids- ○ Binding of tissues and organs
mammary glands ● Protection/mechanical support for all
● Types of Glandular Epithelium organs and tissues
○ Supports, surrounds and
● Mucous Glandular connects other tissues
○ basophilic in staining ● Transport fluids and dissolved
○ found in sublingual, salivary gland substances
○ Exchange of metabolites b/w
blood and tissues

● Serous Glandular

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● Storage of energy ○ Flat with fine granular cytoplasm-

○ in the form of lipids spindle, fusiform(young), lamellar,
● Protection of the body against infection stellate (old)
● Significant role in repair or healing of ○ Secrete both fibers and ground
wounds substance of the matrix
(wandering)
Composition of Connective tissues
● Macrophages- phagocytes,
Connective tissue Cells classmocytes, histiocytes
○ Phagocytes that develop from
Types of Connective Tissue cells Monocytes (wandering or fixed)
● Plasma Cells
● Fixed cells ○ Antibody secreting cells that
○ Produce and maintain develop from B Lymphocytes
extracellular components and (wandering)
storage of reserve fuel ● Leukocytes
○ Fibroblast, fixed macrophages, ○ Migrate from blood vessels to CT
adipose cells, reticular cells, by diapedesis
undifferentiated mesenchymal ○ All leukocyte except lymphocyte o
cells not return to blood after entering
● Free mobile or wandering cells CT
○ For short tem tissue reaction to ○ Neutrophil
injury ○ Eosinophil- antiparasitic activity
○ Macrophages, eosinophils, ○ Basophil- not easy to find in
lymphoid cells, plasma cells, normal tissues
mast cells ○ Lymphocyte
○ Monocyte
● Mast Cells
○ Bone marrow in origin Extracellular Matrix – CT fibers
○ produce histamine
■ help dilate small blood ● Collagen Fibers (white fibers)
vessels in reaction to ○ Large fibers made of protein
injury collagen typically the most
■ Granules contain an abundant fibers, do not branch
release heparin, histamine ○ Promote flexibility
and chemical mediators ● Elastic Fibers (Yellow fibers)
involved in inflammatory ○ Intermediate fibers made of
responses protein elastin
● Kupffer cell- liver, ○ Branching fibers that allow stretch
osteoclast- bone, and recoil
microglia l ○ Stained with aldehyde fuchsin
cell-CNS ● Reticular Fibers
● Adipocytes ○ Small delicate, branched fibers
○ Fat cells –store energy in form of ○ With same chemical composition
triglyceride as collagen
■ store triglycerides, ○ Structural framework for organs
support, protect and ■ spleen and lymph nodes
insulate (fixed) ○ Stained with silver stain
● Fibroblasts- fibrocytes or desmocytes

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

Matrix Ground Substance True or Proper Connective Tissue

● Hyaluronic Acid Loose Connective Tissue

○ Complex combination of
polysaccharides and proteins
found in “true” or proper
connective tissue
■ GAG-glycosaminoglycans
● Chondroitin sulfate
○ Jellylike ground substance of
cartilage, bone, skin and blood
vessels
● Other ground Substances
○ Dermatan sulfate, keratin sulfate,
and adhesion proteins

Connective tissue proper ● Areolar tissue

○ Widely distributed under epithelia
Classification based on distribution ■ all 3 types of fibers
■ several types of cells
1. Loose Connective Tissue ■ semi-fluid ground
2. Dense Connective Tissue substance
3. Dense irregular Connective Tissue ○ strength, support and elasticity
4. Dense regular Connective Tissue ■ subcutaneous layer
■ mucous membranes
Connective tissue with special properties ■ around blood vessels,
■ nerves and organs
1. Mucous Connective Tissue
2. Elastic Connective Tissue
3. Reticular Connective Tissue
4. Adipose Connective Tissue
5. Pigment
6. Embryonic Connective Tissue
7. Lymphoid or adenoid Connective Tissue
8. Interstitial Connective Tissue- loose,
dense

● Adipose tissue
○ Hypodermis, within abdomen,
breasts
■ Adipocytes
● "signet ring"
appearing fat cells

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● store energy in
form of
triglycerides
(lipids)
○ supports, protects and insulates,
and serves as an energy reserve
■ subcutaneous layer,
around organs in the
yellow marrow of long
bones
■ Under skin in The
Hypodermis around
kidneys eyeballs
● Dense regular connective tissue
○ Primarily collagen fiber
○ Few elastic fiber
○ Major cell type- fibroblast
■ Tendons, most
■ Ligaments,
■ aponeuroses.

● Reticular connective tissue

○ Lymphoid organs such as lymph
nodes
■ fine interlacing reticular
fibers and
■ reticular cells
○ forms framework (stroma) of
organs ● Dense irregular connective tissue
○ binds together smooth muscle ○ Irregularly arranged collagen fiber
tissue cells ○ Some elastic fiber
■ Fibrous capsules
■ Of organs and of joints
Dense connective tissue ■ dermis of the skin
■ submucosa of digestive
tract
● Dense elastic
○ Contains high proportion of
elastic fiber

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

○ Avascular
Specialized Connective Tissue

Cartilage
● Consist of cartilage cells-
CHONDROCYTES
○ responsible for production of both
collagen & chondromucoprotein
which makes up the matrix
● Intercellular subs predominates over the
cell
● Solid but pliable matrix
● Avascular
● Fibers are embedded in the matrix
Fibrocartilage
● Transitory structure between dense
Function
● fibrous CT & hyaline cartilage
● provides support for soft tissue
○ intervertebral disk, symphysis
● essential for development of long bones
○ pubis, ligamentum teres femoris
● provides sliding area for joints thus
● Compose of
● facilitating joint movement
○ No perichondrium
○ Fibers- collagenous fibers
○ Cells- chondrocytes arranged in
rows
○ Avascular

Elastic Cartilage
● Serves as framework
○ prevents collapse of tubular Hyaline Cartilage
organs ● Most common type
● Provided with perichondrium & outer ● With abundant cell families
covering ● With perichondrium
○ external ear, eustachian tube, ● Without fibers
○ epiglottis, walls of external
auditory Adult Hyaline
● Compose of ● Respiratory system (trachea, bronchi,
○ Elastic fibers larynx, costal cartilage,
○ More opaque, more flexible ● nasal cavity)
○ Yellowish in fresh preparation ● With perichondrium
○ Few cell families ● Avascular

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

Inorganic Substances
● With collagenous fibers ● Where hardness of bones depend
Articular ○ Calcium
● Allows joints to move smoothly against ○ Magnesium
one another ○ sodium
● Found in articulating surfaces
● Avascular Types of Bone Cells
● Absence of perichondrium
Fetal Hyaline Osteoprogenitor cells
● Very cellular ● undifferentiated bone cells having a
● Avascular capacity for mitosis
● Found in skeletal system of developing ● During fracture healing, they undergo
embryo except in flat bones of skull & mitosis & transform into bone forming
face cells
Osteoblast
BONES ● Young bone cell responsible for the
● Osseous Tissue formation of bone matrix & collagen
● Rigid form of Connective Tissue fibers
● One of the hardest tissue of the body Osteocytes
Second to cartilage to withstand stress ● Principal cells of fully formed bone
● They are essentially osteoblast who
General Characteristics have undergone cell differentiation
● They have a solid matrix ● Plays an active role in the release of
● Vascular calcium from bones to blood
● No prominent fibers ● Enclosed in a capsule known as Lacuna
● With abundant bone cells Osteoclast
● Have solid, hard & brittle ground ● Giant multinucleated cells which are
● substances active agents in bone resorption

Osteogenesis Functions
● Process of bone development 1. Provides support & framework to the
● Occurs by one or two processes body
2. Protects vital organs
Intramembranous ossification a. (skull encloses the brain)
● Development of osteoblast occurs 3. Store minerals such as calcium
directly from the mesenchyme start to 4. Encloses bone marrow
secret osteoid a. which is responsible for the
production of blood cells
Endochondral Ossification 5. Attachment of muscles and tendons
● Development starts at the preexisting
hyaline cartilage matrix which eroded
and taken over by osteoblast and begin
to secrete osteoid

Composition of Bone Matrix

● Organic Substances
○ Collagen
○ Protein polysaccharide
○ Chondroitin sulfate

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

concentrically arranged
lamellae
Classification of Bones ○ Haversian Canals
■ Channels in the center of
According to Development Haversian system

Membranous
● developed by intramembranous
ossification)
● Osteoblast begins to produce bone in
the CT membrane.
● osteoblast line up on the surface of CT
fibers & begin depositing bone matrix to
form trabeculae
○ Ex. Bones of skull

Cartilagenous
● developed by endochondral or
intracartilaginous ossification
● Cartilage cells proliferate, enlarge & die
● Osteoblast invade the spaces left by the Spongy or Cancellous Bones
● dying cartilage cells & begin to form ● Formed in epiphysis (ends of long
bone lamellae bones), diploe of the flat bones of the
○ Ex. Bones at the base of the skull skull & face, in middle & inner portion of
& most bones of the skeletal all other bones
system, long bones of the limb ● Found only as a thin portion inside the
diaphysis of long bones but constitutes a
According to Histological Structure greater part of the epiphysis
● Very thin lamellae which are not
Compact Bones penetrated by blood vessels
● Found in outer surface of all bones, shaft ● No Haversian system
of diaphysis (slender part of bone) of
long bones, appears as solid mass According to Morphologic Characteristics
● Compose of ● Long bones
○ Bone matrix ● Short bones
■ Interstitial subs deposited ● Flat bones
in layers & lamellae ● Irregular bones
○ Lacunae
■ Spaces throughout the
matrix which contains
osteocytes
○ Canaliculi
■ Tubular passages
radiating in all direction
essential for nutrition of
the cell
○ Haversian system
■ Unit of structure
(cylindrical) formed by

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

Fibroblastic synovial cells or type B cells

Joints ● derived from moProduce lots of
hyaluronan and extracellular
Classification of joints components
● Lubricates the joints to reduce friction,
Synarthroses supplies oxygen and nutrients to the
● Can be subdivided into cartilaginous and articular cartilage
fibrous joints which depends on the
tissues that binds the joints Blood
Synostoses
● bones are joined only by bones. Does Definition of Terms
not allow movement
○ examples: unite the skull bones Erythropoiesis
of older adults ● Rbc production
Syndesmosis Erythropoietin
● only dense connective tissue unites the ● Hormone that stimulates the rbc
bones production
○ example: posterior region of the ● Produced by the kidney
sacroiliac joints Erythrocytosis
Diarthroses ● Increased number of circulating rbc
● Proper alignment of the bones are Anemia
maintained by the ligaments and capsule ● Decreased in oxygen carrying capacity
of dense connective tissue of rbc
● joint cavity ● Not a disease but a symptom
○ sealed capsule that contains Macrocytic
synovial fluid. It is lined by ● Rbc is bigger than its normal size
specialized connective tissue Microcytic
called synovial membrane ● Rbc is smaller than its normal size
● Synovial membrane Normocytic
○ extends fold and villi to the cavity ● Rbc in normal size
and secretes synovial fluid which Poikilocytosis
act as lubricant ● Variation in rbc shape
● Synovial fluid- Anisocytosis
○ came from plasma., with higher ● Variation in rbc size
concentration of hyaluronan Hyperchromic
● Hyaluronan ● Rbc appearing darker than normal due to
○ - secreted by the cells of synovial increased hgb content
membrane Hypochromic
● Rbc appearing paler due to decreased
2 specialized cells in synovial membrane hgb
Normochromic
Macrophage-like synovial cells or type A ● Rbc with normal hgb content
cells-
● derived from monocytes, remove wear
-and –tear debris from the synovial fluid
● Regulate inflammation that may take
place in the diarthrotic joints

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

Serum
● liquid portion of clotted blood w/o
Blood fibrinogen
● A specialized connective tissue, has fluid ● Contains growth factors and other
extracellular matrix known as plasma, proteins released by the platelets during
with suspended cellular elements. clotting process
● Blood is pumped by the rhythmic
contractions of the heart flowing in a Formed elements
single direction at a close circuit called
circulatory system

General Functions:

Transport
● oxygen & carbon dioxide
● nutrients to tissues and organs
● hormones to target organs
Maintain/regulate-Homeostasis
● water, acid-base balance
● body temp
● degree of irritability of tissues
Serve as body’s defense mechanism against
infection

Characteristics
Erythrocyctes
● pH- slightly b ● Characteristic
○ 7.35-7.45 ○ Biconcave disc (6-8µ in diameter)
● Higher density & viscosity than water ○ Formed in the bone marrow
○ due to formed elements ○ Non-nucleated
● Blood volume is around 8% of total body ○ Ave life span of 30-120 days
weight ● Contains hemoglobin
○ Males: 5-6 liters – ○ Oxygen binding pigment
○ Females: 4-5 liters • responsible for the transport of
● Blood is composed of 55% plasma and most O2 in the body
45% cellular elements ○ Compound of iron and protein
○ Combined readily with O2 to from
Components oxyhemoglobin

Liquid components

Plasma
● the fluid matrix of whole blood
● colorless fluid & 90% H2O •
● Components: water, Inorganic salts (Na,
Ca, Mg, K, Cl2, PO4, BiCO3) & plasma
proteins (Albumin, Globulin & fibrinogen)
● Gasses: N, H, O2

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

○
Nuclear characteristics
White blood cell or Leukocytes ■ Nuclear usually
● Characteristic segmented 2 lobes
○ Has nucleus & cytoplasm Coarse and clumped
● Types of Leukocytes chromatin
● Basophil
Granulocyte ○ Release heparin, histamine &
● Neutrophil peroxidase
○ Has active role in the ○ Involved in intermediate &
phagocytosis of bacteria and delayed hypersensitivity reaction
other small particles ○ Relative count: 0-1% Absolute
○ Usually the first leukocyte to count: 0-200/ul or 0 - 0.02 x109/
arrive at the site of infection ○ Cytoplasmic characteristics
○ Relative count: 50-70% ■ Bluish-black with variable
■ Absolute size granules
count:1800-7800/ul or ■ Granules unevenly
1.8-7.8 x109/L distributed and lie in over
○ Cytoplasmic characteristics the nucleus
■ With fine lilac-pink ○ Nuclear characteristics
granules diffusely ■ Nucleus is indistinct
distributed ■ Unsegmented or bilobed
■ Granules do not lie in over nucleus
the nucleus Agranulocyte
○ Nuclear characteristics ● Stab or band or staff cell
■ Nuclear lobes connected ○ Cell size- 10-15 um
by thin filaments ○ Cytoplasmic characteristics
■ Coarse and clumped ■ Similar to neutrophil with
chromatin lilac granules
● Eosinophil ■ Indentation is not more
○ Helps in killing parasitic worm or than ½ of the total cell
helminths with the help of Major width of cell’s indent point
Basic Protein that is present in ○ Nuclear characteristics
eosinophil together with ■ Nucleus is curved,
eosinophil peroxidase and other elongated or sausage
enzymes and toxins shaped –
○ Modulates inflammatory ○ Normal values: Relative count:
responses through releasing of 2-6% Absolute count: 350-700/ul
chemokines, lipid mediators and or 0.35 - 0.70 x109/L
cytokines ● Lymphocyte
○ Has important role in ○ Has different roles in immune
inflammatory response due to defense from invading
allergies microorganisms, some parasites
○ ‘Relative count: 2-4% Absolute and abnormal cells
count: 350-600/ul or 0.35-0.60 ○ Cytoplasmic characteristics
x109/L ■ Sky blue
○ Cytoplasmic characteristics ■ Abundant cytoplasm
■ Reddish-orange large ○ Nuclear characteristics
granules ■ Nucleus is immature
■ Granules do not lie in looking with fine
over the nucleus chromatin

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 Human Histology
PCML113-22324
2023-2024 - 2nd Semester

● Monocyte
○ Precursor of macrophages and
cells in connective tissues like
osteoclast, microglia
○ Monocyte-derived cells serves as
antigen presenting cells which is
important role in immune
response
○ Relative count: 2-8% Absolute
count: 300-800/ul or 0.3 - 0.80
x109/L
○ Cytoplasmic characteristics
■ Blue gray cytoplasm
○ Nuclear characteristics
■ • Single nucleus ,partially
lobulated, deeply indented
or horseshoe shaped •
Chromatin are fine parallel
strands
● Thrombocytes
○ Maintain the integrity of BV
○ Forms hemostatic plugs to stop
blood loss from injury vessels
○ Release serotonin
○ Irregular fragments of cells
formed in the bone marrow
○ from a much larger cell
(megakaryocyte)
○ Non-nucleated
○ Lightest element of blood
○ 2-4µm in diameter
○ Difficult to count
■ Adhere easily on surface
■ Easily disintegrates

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