MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture

Module #1

Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

Lesson title: The Cell Materials:

Lesson Objectives: Pen, paper, lecture book

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. Discuss the parts of the cell and its functions. References:

2. Distinguish the processes involved in cell cycle.
Mescher, Anthony L., Junquera’s
Basic Histology., McGraw-Hill
Companies, 2013, pp 17-70

1) Introduction

ORIENTATION

Welcome to MLS-041 subject or Human Histology with Embryology! This subject is intended to supply
knowledge to students about microscopic anatomy, the cell and its cycle, the different tissue
fundamentals, and several organ systems. Specimen viewing through prepared tissue slides will also be
done only in the laboratory.

Before proceeding to the main topic, included in this module are some important accessories of this
subject you must know such as:

● Course Syllabus

2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart

What do you know about The Cell and its properties?

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
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Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

What I Know Questions:

What is the function of DNA?

What is the powerhouse of

the cell?

What are ribosomes?

A. MAIN LESSON

3 components of the body:

1. CELL -is a discrete entity bound by a membrane that “isolates” it from environment
2. INTERCELLULAR OR EXTRACELLULAR SUBSTANCES
3. BODY FLUIDS including: Blood, tissue or intercellular fluid, lymph

► CELL STRUCTURE
-the cell is the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of living independently. It is the structural and functional
unit of the body.
► 2 TYPES OF CELLS:

o PROKARYOTIC
o EUKARYOTIC

COMPONENTS OF PROTOPLASM

► PROTEIN
Exist as: pure lipoprotein, glycoprotein, proteoglycan or mucoprotein (ex. Secretory products
●
such as enzymes, some hormones.)
► NUCLEIC ACIDS

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Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

● DNA – found mainly in the nucleus

● RNA – nucleus and cytoplasm
► CARBOHYDRATES
-stored as glycogen

► LIPID
-energy source
-important component of cellular membrane
► INORGANIC MATERIALS
-exists as:
▪ free radicals
-involved in essential functions
▪ maintenance of osmotic pressure gradients
▪ muscle contraction / relaxation
▪ tissue rigidity (e.g. bone)
▪ cell adhesion
▪ enzyme activation
► WATER
● 75% of protoplasm
● partly free: available for metabolic processes
● partly bound to protein: as a structural component

PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM

1. Irritability – capability to respond to a stimulus

2. Conductivity – can transmit a wave of excitation (an electrical impulse) throughout the cell from the point of
stimulus
-highly developed in nerve cells lesser extent, in muscle cells
3. Contractility – property of changing shape in the sense of shortening
-ex. Muscle cells
4. Respiration – essential for life. Process whereby food substances and oxygen within the cell interact
chemically to produce energy, carbon dioxide and water
5. Absorption – imbibition of materials that later may be assimilated by the cell in metabolism or otherwise utilized

6. Secretion – process by which cell extrudes material (useful)

-such as digestive enzyme or a hormone
7.Excretion – extrusion of waste material from the cell
8. Growth – increase in size

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
Module #1

Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

❖ CYTOPLASM
3 main structural components:
● organelles
● inclusions
● cytoskeleton

Fluid component: cytosol

-exhibits functional interactions among organelles
Result in:
a ) uptake and release of material
b ) protein synthesis
c ) intracellular digestion
ORGANELLES

● Plasma membrane
● Ribosomes
● Rough endoplasmic reticulum
● Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
● Annulate lamellae
● Mitochondria
INCLUSIONS

● Glycogen
● Lipid droplets
● Lipofuscin
● Golgi complex (apparatus)
● Coated vesicles
● Lysosomes
● Peroxisomes
● Centrioles
CYTOSKELETON

● Microtubules
● Microfilaments
● Intermediate filaments
● Microtrabecular lattice

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
Module #1

Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________
ORGANELLES
-metabolically active units of living matter
-limited by a membrane

1.PLASMA MEMBRANE/ CELL MEMBRANE/ PLASMALEMMA

● Lipid bilayer- composed of phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol
2. RIBOSOMES/ PALADE GRANULES
● actual sites of protein synthesis
● responsible for the basophilic staining of the cytoplasm
3. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
● site where non-cytosolic proteins are synthesized
● provide an area of storage and transport of proteins
4. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM/AGRANULAR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
● serves different functions in different cell types:
o steroid hormones and lipid synthesis
o drug detoxification (liver)
o muscle contraction and relaxation
5. ANNULATE LAMELLAE
● parallel stacks of membranes (6-10) located near the nucleus
● resemble the nuclear envelope, including its pore complexes
6. MITOCHONDRIA
● important in energy metabolism
o as major source of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
● site of many metabolic reaction

7. GOLGI COMPLEX (apparatus)

o consists of disk-shaped cisternae (saccules) arranged in a stack
● pale area near the nucleus
2 major functions:
o processing of non-cytosolic proteins synthesized in the RER
o membrane retrieval, recycling and redistribution(renewal of cell membrane)
8. COATED VESICLES
o characterized by a visible cytoplasmic surface coat
2 varieties:
● clathrin-coated vesicles
● clathrin
● 3 large and 3 small polypeptide chains that form a triskelion (3 legged structure)
9. LYSOSOMES
● essential for intracellular digestion
Types of lysosomes:
o multivesicular bodies
o phagolysosomes
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o autophagolysosomes
o residual bodies
10. PEROXISOMES
● has oxidative enzyme for the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and alcohol
11. CENTRIOLES
● direct the formation of spindle fiber during cell division
● forms the bases of cilia and flagella

INCLUSIONS (glycogen, lipid droplets, lipofuscin)

● lifeless accumulations of material

● not metabolically active
● temporarily present

CYTOSKELETON ( microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtrabecular lattice)

● structural framework within the cytosol

● functions in:
o maintaining cell shape by providing cellular support
o stabilizing cell attachments
o facilitating endocytosis and exocytosis
o promoting cell motility

❖ NUCLEUS
● Includes:
Nuclear envelope Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus Chromatin

o control various activities of the cell essential for reproduction and heredity transmission
o contains genetic apparatus encoded in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes
o directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm via:

1. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
● surrounds the nuclear material
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● consists of two parallel membranes separated from each other by a narrow perinuclear cisterna
2. NUCLEOLUS
● present in cells actively synthesizing protein
● generally detectable only when cell is in interphase
● involve in synthesis of rRNA and its assembly into precursors of ribosomes
3. NUCLEOPLASM
● portion of the protoplasm that is surrounded by the nuclear envelope
● consists of a matrix and various types of particles
4. CHROMATIN
● double-stranded DNA complexed with histones and acidic proteins, responsible for RNA synthesis.
2 FORMS:
o HETEROCHROMATIN
-light microscope: basophilic clumps of nucleoprotein
-electron microscope: dense granular clumps
-concentrated at periphery of nucleus, around the nucleolus and scattered
throughout the nucleoplasm
-transcriptionally inactive
o EUCHROMATIN
-light microscope: lightly stained dispersed region of the nucleus
-electron microscope: electron-lucent regions among heterochromatin
-transcriptionally active

❖ INTERPHASE
▪ cell doubles in size and DNA content
3 separate phases: G1, S and G2
● G1 Phase
o when certain “trigger proteins” are synthesized enabling the cell to reach a threshold
(restriction point) and proceed to the S phase
● S Phase
o synthetic phase
o DNA replication and protein synthesis occur, resulting in duplication of the chromosomes
● G2 Phase
o gap phase
o follows the S phase and extends to mitosis
▪ when:
● cell prepares to divide, centrioles grow to maturity

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
Module #1

Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

● RNA and proteins necessary for mitosis are synthesized

❖ MITOSIS
▪ follows the G2 phase
▪ completes the cell cycle
involves: Karyokinesis – division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm

4 major stages:
● Prophase
● Metaphase
● Anaphase
● Telophase

● Prophase -chromosomes condensed and become rod-like

-centrioles are forming asters
-nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear

● Metaphase - condensed chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial plate of the mitotic spindle

● Anaphase -chromatids separate at the centromere

-daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell
-formation of a cleavage furrow

● Telophase -deepening of the cleavage furrow which leaves the mid-body between daughter cells
-facilitating the completion of cytokinesis and formation of 2 identical daughter cells
-reformation of the nuclear envelope, reappearance of nucleoli

❖ MEIOSIS
● sex cells divide this type
● chromosome number is reduced from diploid (2n) to haploid (n)
● occurs in developing germ cells (spermatozoa and oocytes), fertilization results in diploid zygotes
Involves:
● doubling of DNA content in S phase
● affected by 2 successive cell divisions that give rise to 4 haploid cells

⮚ Stages:

A. Reductional division (meiosis I) -occurs following interphase during which 46

chromosomes
are duplicated giving the cell a 4CDNA content (total DNA
content of the cell)
● PROPHASE I

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Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

a) Leptotene d) Diplotene
b) Zygotene e) Diakinesis
c) Pachytene
● METAPHASE I
● ANAPHASE I
● TELOPHASE I

B. Equatorial division (meiosis II) -begins soon after completion of meiosis I events similar
to
meiosis

❖ PROPHASE I
● 5 stages:
a )Leptotene -chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, each contains 2 chromatids
joined at the centromere

b )Zygotene -homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and make physical
contact (synapsis) via the synaptonemal complex, forming a tetrad
c) Pachytene -chiasmata are formed, crossing over occurs
-random exchange of geners b/w segments of homologous chromosomes
-increasing genetic diversity
d) Diplotene -chromosomes continue to condense, chiasmata can be observed
e) Diakinesis -nucleolus disappears,chromosomes are condensed maximally, nuclear
envelope
disappears
❖ METAPHASE I
❖ ANAPHASE I
❖ TELOPHASE I

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

B. EQUATORIAL DIVISION (MEIOSIS II) -begins soon after completion of meiosis I, following a brief interphase.
-separation of sister chromatids and distribution into 4 daughter cells each
containing

Component Structure Major Function

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Module #1
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Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________
Plasma membrane Phospholipid bilayer containing
cholesterol and proteins (integral and
peripheral) and some carbohydrates
(externally); forms a selectively
permeable boundary of the cell
Cilia Short, numerous membrane
extensions supported by microtubules,
which occur on exposed membrane
surfaces of some cells
Flagellum Long, singular membrane extension
supported by microtubules; present on
sperm cells
Microvilli Numerous thin membrane folds
projecting from the free cell surface;
supported by microfilaments
Nucleus Large structure enclosed within a
double membrane; contains
chromatin, nucleolus, and nucleoplasm
Nuclear envelope Double membrane boundary between
cytoplasm and nuclear contents;
continuous with rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Nuclear pores Openings through the nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus Large, prominent structure within the
nucleus
Cytoplasm Contents of cells between the plasma
membrane and nuclear envelope
Cytosol Viscous fluid medium with dissolved
solutes (eg, ions, proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids)
Organelles Membrane-bound and
nonmembrane-bound structures
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) Extensive interconnected membrane
network that varies in shape (eg,
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MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
Acts as a physical barrier to enclose cell contents;
regulates material movement into and out of the
cell; establishes and maintains an electrical charge
difference across the plasma membrane; functions
in cell communication
Move substances (eg, mucus and dissolved
materials) over the cell surface
Propels sperm
Increase membrane surface area for greater
absorption
Houses the DNA that serves as the genetic material
for directing protein synthesis
Separates nucleus from cytoplasm
Allow passage of materials between the cytoplasm
and nucleoplasm, including ribonucleic acid (RNA),
protein, ions, and small water-soluble molecules
Functions in synthesis of ribosomes
Responsible for many cellular processes
Provides support for organelles; serves as the
viscous fluid medium through which diffusion
occurs
Carry out specific metabolic activities of the cell
Modifies, transports, and stores proteins produced
by attached ribosomes; these proteins are secreted,
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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
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Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

cisternae, tubules); ribosomes attached become components of the plasma membrane, or

on cytoplasmic surface
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth Extensive interconnected membrane
ER) network lacking ribosomes
serve as enzymes of lysosomes
Synthesizes, transports, and stores lipids (eg,
steroids); metabolizes carbohydrates; detoxifies
drugs, alcohol, and poisons; forms vesicles and
peroxisomes

Continuation…
Golgi apparatus Series of several elongated, flattened saclike Modifies, packages, and sorts materials
membranous structures that arrive from the ER in transport
vesicles; forms secretory vesicles and
lysosomes
Vesicles Spherical-shaped membrane-bound sacs; contain Transport cellular material
various types of materials to be transported through
the cell
Lysosomes Spherical-shaped membrane-bound organelles Digest microbes or materials (eg, ingested
formed from the Golgi apparatus; contain digestive by the cell, worn-out cellular components,
enzymes or the entire cell)
Peroxisomes Smaller, spherical-shaped membrane-bound Detoxify specific harmful substances
organelles formed from the ER or through fission; either produced by the cell or taken into
contain oxidative enzymes the cell; engage in beta oxidation of fatty
acids to acetyl CoA
Mitochondria Double membrane-bound organelles containing a Synthesize most ATP during aerobic
circular strand of DNA (genes for producing cellular respiration by digestion of fuel
mitochondrial proteins) molecules (eg, glucose) in the presence of
oxygen
Ribosomes Organelles composed of both protein and ribosomal Engage in protein synthesis: Bound
RNA (rRNA) that are organized into both a large and ribosomes produce proteins that are
small subunit; may be bound to a membrane or free in secreted, incorporated into plasma
cytosol membrane, and within lysosomes; free
ribosomes produce proteins used
within the cell
Cytoskeleton Organized network of protein filaments and hollow Maintains intracellular structural
tubules, including microfilaments, intermediate support and organization of cells;
filaments, and microtubules participates in cell division; facilitates
movement

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
Module #1

Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

Microfilaments Actin protein monomers organized into two thin, Maintain cell shape; support
intertwined protein filaments (actin filaments) microvilli; separate two cells during
cytokinesis (a process of cell division);
facilitate change in cell shape;
participate in muscle contraction
Intermediate filaments Various protein components Provide structural support; stabilize
junctions between cells
Microtubules Hollow cylinders composed of tubulin protein Maintain cell shape and rigidity;
organize and move organelles;
support cilia and flagella; participate
in vesicular transport; separate
chromosomes during the process of
cell division
Centrosome Amorphous region adjacent to nucleus; contains a pair Organizes microtubules; participates
of centrioles in mitotic spindle formation during
cell division
Proteasomes Large, barrel-shaped protein complexes located in both the cytosol and nucleus
Inclusions Aggregates of specific types of molecules (eg, melanin Serve as temporary storage for these
protein, glycogen, or lipid) molecules

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

Encircle the correct answer. There is a space provided below for rationalization.

1. Which of the following is not a component of protoplasm?

A. Mitochondria C. All of the Above

B. Glyoclipid D. Lipase enzyme

Rationalization:

2. Mary accidentally threw her plate when she got spilled with hot water on her foot. What property is
being stated?

A.Contractility C. Conductivity
B. Irritability D. Respiration

Rationalization:

3-5. What are the 3 structural components of cytoplasm?

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
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Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

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Rationalization:

6. All of the following are cell inclusions, except:

A. Golgi Apparatus C. Lipofuscin

B. Lysosome D. Nucleolus

Rationalization:

7. What organelle is responsible for intra and extracellular digestion of harmful and useless substances in
the cell?

A. Macrophage C. Natural Killer cell

B. Lysosome D. All of the Above

Rationalization:

8. What organelles is responsible for the breakdown of alcohol and peroxides?

A. Lysosome C. Peroxisome
B. Xanthochrome D. Only A

Rationalization:

9. Where can DNA be located?

A. Nucleus C. Cytoplasm
B. Nucleus and Cytoplasm D. All of the Above

Rationalization:

10. What process involves the division of nuclear envelope?

A. Karyokinesis C. Cytokinesis
B. Either D. Neither

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 MLS 041- Human Histology- Lecture
Module #1

Name:__________________________________________ Class number: _________________

Section: _________ Schedule: ______________________ Date: _________________________

Rationalization:

A. LESSON WRAP-UP
1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning
Teacher directs the student to mark (encircle) their place in the work tracker which is simply a visual to help
students track how much work they have accomplished and how much work there is left to do. This tracker
will be part of the student activity sheet.

Exit Ticket: Write down below a part of the discussion that is unclear to your understanding.

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