M1: INTRODUCTION TO HISTOLOGY Marcelo Malphigi - 1st to describe true

units forming animal tissues using simple

DEFINITION OF TERMS lenses
- True Father of Histology
Histology - the study of normal tissues
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek - developed
- a prelude to pathology (study of
compound lenses
abnormal tissues)
- 1st to describe nucleus while
Abnormal tissues - tissues with altered
examining RBC of salmon
structure and function of body, organs,
- Also discovered protozoa, bacteria,
tissues, and cells
muscles, nerves, etc.
Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ Systems
DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY
Robert Brown - introduced nucleus (17th
Observation - key to identifying cell types
century)
- Observed in epidermal cells of
Tissues - groups of cells that have similar
orchids
structure and intercellular materials
- Small dense center in plant cells but
interrelated (connected) to perform a
function is yet unknown
specific function
- Od French word “tussu” means
“weave fabric strands”

Cytology - study of cells

Cells - basic unit of life
Mitosis - division of a cell into two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to the
parent cell
Meiosis - division of germ cells (sex cells);
four daughter cells
Marie Francois Bichat - French pathologist
who termed tissues as textures
BRIEF HISTORY - Tissues: different groups of cells

16th Century Matthias Schleiden - proposed Cell Theory

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek - first person to for plants
observe and describe living cells (w/
handheld microscope) Theodor Schwann - described animals are
made of cells
17th Century - Discovered cells that form sheath
Robert Hooke - observed a slice of cork surrounding nerve
under the microscope. (small
compartments-like honeycomb structures) Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle - published
- Foundation of the cell theory 1st Human Histology
- Latin term cellule
Max Schultze - 1st describe cells as mass of
nucleated protoplasm

Rudolf Virchow - Fundamental Law of

Biology or Law of Virchow
- Described human body as “cell
state”
- All diseases involved changes in
normal cells

19th Century
- Invention of Microtome, fixing,
embedding and staining techniques

Histology - a division of Anatomy

Gross Anatomy - what is seen w/ the naked
eye
Microscopic Anatomy - w/ microscope
(parts of the cells, etc)
CELL STRUCTURE
Cytology - study of cells and structures
Histology - study of groups of similar cells
for performance of specific functions
Organology - study of groups of tissues
arranged in a pattern of a particular organ

3 ELEMENTS THAT COMPOSED HUMAN

BODY
1. Cells
2. Intercellular substances
a. Formed - collagen and elastin
b. Amorphous Ground
Substances - protein,
polysaccharides Animal Cells contain the ff structures:
c. Protein - sugar complexes 1. Cell membrane - Plasma membrane
3. Body Fluid-blood and lymphs or plasmalemma

CELLS - structural, functional, hereditary

and developmental unit of all living
organisms
2 TYPES OF CELLS
- Eukaryotic Cells
- Prokaryotic Cells
 - Plasmalemma can only be seen 7. Growth and reproduction - increase
under electron microscope unless number of cells
associated with CT elements or
artificially thickened to be stained CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CYTOPLASM
2. Nucleus - Nucleic acid in nucleus
3. Cytoplasm
Biochemical components in cytoplasm:
PLASMALEMMA - 9-10 iu in thickness - 75% water
Functions: regulates entrance and exit of - 1% salt
nutritive and excretory substances - 3% lipids
- Acts as selective barrier - 1% CHO in the form of glycogen
- 20% CHON
PROTOPLASM - all that are inside the cell - Cations - Na, K, Ca, Mg
membrane (organelles, inclusion bodies, - Anions - phosphates, bicarbonates,
and nucleus) Cl
CYTOPLASM - all contents outside the
nucleus CYTOPLASM: ORGANELLES
- Contains organelles and inclusion
bodies Organelles - internal cell component that
Function: matrix embedding organelles and perform specific function for the cell
inclusion bodies
1. Mitochondria - Cylindrical structure:
PHYSIOLOGIC PROPERTIES OF 0.5x2.5 um
PROTOPLASM - Contains soluble enzymes: Kreb’s
1. Irritability - respond to stimulus Cycle
- Expression of life that - Generation of energy: Glycolytic and
disappear upon cell death Oxidative enzymes
2. Contractility - changing shapes - ATP: used by cell for metabolic
(muscle fibers) activities
3. Conductivity - transmit electrical - Powerhouse of the cell
impulse (nerve cells)
4. Respiration - food subs & O2 interact 2. Lysosome - contains hydrolytic
chemically to produce H2O and CO2 enzymes for CHON & CHO
5. Absorption/Endocytosis - inhibition breakdown
of dissolved subs - Suicide bag of the cell
a. Pinocytosis - cell drinking
b. Phagocytosis - cell eating 3. Centrosome - contains centrioles
6. Exocytosis - exclusion of waste (movement of chromosome during
products by the cell cell division)
a. Secretion - - Maintains chromosome number
hormones/digestive enzymes during mitosis
(insulin)
b. Excretion - exclusion of waste 4. Golgi apparatus/Dictyosome - site
prods of metabolism (urine) of accumulation, concentration,
 packaging of secretory product of CYTOPLASM: INCLUSION BODIES
the cell
- Process and packages 1. Vacuoles/Vesicles - storage cavities
macromolecules such as CHON and w/c expels waste and water from
lipids after their synthesis cell pigment
2. Lipid/Fat droplet - triglyceride
5. Endoplasmic Reticulum - involved in storage site and hormone precursor
CHON transport and maturation 3. Glycogen Granules - energy source
a. Smooth ER/Agranular - no of organisms converted to glucose
ribosomal granules 4. Pigment granule - inclusion bodies
- Lipid synthesis, w/ coloring materials
steroid formation and a. Exogenous - formed outside
detoxification of the body
some drugs b. Endogenous - formed within
b. Rough ER/Granular - the body
ribosomes are attached i. Melanin - dark
i. Liver cells - brown/black pigment
Detoxification ii. Hemoglobin -
ii. Parietal cells - HCl breakdown prods
formation such as hemosiderin
iii. Interstitial cells - and bilirubin
synthesis of neutral iii. Hemosiderin - golden
fats brown, iron
iv. Striated Muscles - containing pigment
release and recapture from destruction of
Ca ion Hgb
v. Endocrine Glands - iv. Lipofuscin - yellowish
produce steroids brown granules;
“wear & tear
6. Ribosome - dense aggregates of pigment”
RNA 5. Secretory/Zymogen Granules -
- Site of CHON Synthesis abundant in Pancreatic cells
- Chief cells of stomach and salivary
7. Fibrils - found in nearly all types of glands
CT - Rich in mucoproteins
- Cell rigidity and cell movement - Precursor of digestive
enzymes (pepsin, amylase,
8. Microtubules - contractility property trypsin)
- Diffusion channel 6. Mucigen droplets - rich in
mucoproteins
9. Microbodies/Peroxisome - contains - Precursor of mucin which forms
enzyme catalse responsible for mucus upon hydration (lubricant)
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to
H2O and O2
NUCLEUS 4. Mitosis - active cell division
- where DNA is well organized that it can a. Cytokinesis - division of
partially or totally duplicate cytoplasm
- Stains blue (basophilic) b. Karyokinesis - division of
- Hepatic cells: binucleated nucleus
- Skeletal cells & osteoclast:
multinucleated CELL DIVISION
- Unifies, controls and integrates cell - Cells have limited life cycle
function - Occurs in all adult cells except the
- Controls the biochemical reactions cells of CNS
and reproduction of the cell - Involves both Cytokinesis and
- Repository of the complete set of Karyokinesis
hereditary - Karyokinesis can occur
- Inner cell body without cytokinesis resulting
to binucleated cells of the
1. Nuclear membrane - facilitates liver and multinucleated cells
exchange of materials between:
a. Cytoplasm and Nucleoplasm TWO TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
b. Skin around nucleus 1. Mitosis - occurs in somatic cells
2. Nucleoplasm/Karyoplasm - base - Parent cell divides to form 2 new
material of the nucleus where cells identical with one another and
nuclear chromatin and nucleolus are to the parent cell
suspended 2. Meiosis - parent cell divides to form
3. Nuclear chromatin/Chromatin new cells not identical with one
Granules - carries the another and to the parent cell
genes/heredity - Necessary for sexual reproduction
4. Nucleolus - site of RNA synthesis (sex cells)

4 PERIODS OF EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE

1. G1: Initial Gap - about 10 hours

- Growth of new daughter cells
- Active synthesize of RNA and CHON,
but not DNA

2. S Stage: Synthetic Stage - Active

DNA & Histone Synthesis
- Probable replication of 2 centrioles
- 9 hours

3. G2: Second Gap - time between

DNA Synthesis & resumption of
mitosis
- 4 hours
STAGES OF MITOSIS (PMAT) - Chromosomes start to elongate or
1. Prophase disperse
2. Metaphase - Nucleoli reappear
3. Anaphase - Nuclear envelopes reform
4. Telophase

INTERPHASE - cell in resting state

- In preparation to cell division,
chromosomes duplicates from 23
pairs to 46 pairs in time for repair
and re-synthesis of CHON

PROPHASE - chromosome becomes shorter

and thicker
- Each chromosome separates
longitudinally in half (chromatid) &
each half attaches in a centromere
- Pair of centrioles duplicates and
begins to go towards the opposite
poles
- Start of the formation of spindle
fibers between separating centrioles
- Nuclear envelop and nucleolus starts
to disappear

METAPHASE - chromosome aligned along

the equatorial plate
- Chromosome starts to pass between
the spindle fibers

ANAPHASE - chromosome splits in half

- Cell elongation - Spindle fibers pulls
chromatids to opposite poles
- Late Anaphase: constriction starts to
form (cleavage furrow)’

TELOPHASE - chromosomes detach from

chromosomal microtubules at each pole of
the cell
- Microtubules disintegrate
M2: EPITHELIAL TISSUE EPITHELIAL TISSUES
FUNCTIONS:
PRIMARY TISSUE ● Absorption (distribution - small
- Tissues are group of similar cells intestine)
specialized in a common direction to ● Secretion ( glands)
perform a common function ● Excretion (kidney tubules)
● Protection (skin/epidermis)
4 PRIMARY TISSUES & THEIR ROLES ● Sensory reception (neuroepithelium)
1. Epithelial Tissues - cover exposed ● Lubrication (sebaceous glands)
surfaces ● Reproduction (lining of the ovary)
- Line Internal Passageways
- Produce glandular secretions - Made up of polyhedral cells
compact, closely arranged, and
2. Connective Tissues - fill internal strongly attached they have scanty
spaces intercellular substances. They are
- Provide structural support attached to an extracellular matrix
- Store energy (ECM)
- Is avascular (no blood vessels)
3. Muscular Tissues - contracts to found among the cells
produce active movement - Nourishment is conveyed
through osmosis and diffusion
4. Nervous Tissues - conducts from blood vessels located at
electrical impulses tunica propia
- Carries information - Covers the body surfaces and those
found as sheets lining the organ
cavities
- Usually wet or moist (except the
epidermis of the skin)
- Some are arranged in the form of
masses (adrenal glands, parathyroid
glands)
- Cells are replaced through mitosis
STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
 Tunica Propia/ Lamina Propia
1. BASEMENT MEMBRANE/BASAL
LAMINA
- Where all epithelial tissue cells are
attached
- Provides anchorage for the cells
- Barrier limiting or regulating
exchanges of macromolecules b/w
CT and other tissues

Components contribute to the image of

basement membrane:
a. Basal lamina
b. Reticular fibers SPECIALIZATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
c. Ground substances 1. Tendency to maintain excessive
contact with one another
NOTE: Passage of tumor cells across basal a. Polarity - in columnar epithelium,
lamina indicates the invasive quality of structural and functional
these cells and is an important clue to a differences b/w 2 ends
pathologist in evaluating the degree of b. Cell Axis - imaginary line passing
malignancy.
through the centrosome and
center of the nucleus.
2. TUNICA PROPIA (LAMINA PROPIA)
- Support to the epithelium and - Perpendicular to basal lamina
vascularized CT bed providing c. Terminal Web - made of feltwork
nourishment for epithelial tissue of fine filaments beneath the
cells surface.
- Provides mechanical support for
NOTE: All epithelia have tunica propia ciliated or striated borders
2. For cell attachment and
communication - can be
Basal lamina observed only by electron
microscopy

JUXTA-LUMINAL JUNCTIONAL COMPLEX

a. Zonula occludens or tight
junctions
- Most apical of the junctions
- Junction encircle the cell
- Adjoining cell converge and fused
to close intercellular space
- Outer leaflets of adjacent unit
membrane are fused, giving rise
 to a local pentalaminar (erroneously interpreted as
appearance “intercellular bridges”)
SIGNIFICANCE: transporting epithelium FUNCTION: special adhesion of cells
as in that of gall bladder
- Mechanical role in maintenance HEMIDESMOSOME - contact between
of structural integrity of cells certain epithelial cell and basal lamina
- Serve as tight seal preventing
flow of materials b/w epithelial
cells (parallel pathway)
- Responsible for structure called
terminal bar

b. Zonula adherens or intermediate d. Gap junctions or nexus

junctions - Can be mistaken for zonula
- regions where adjacent cells are occludens but opposing
firmly held together membranes are not fused
- Found between epithelial cells, - Can occur almost anywhere along
fibroblast, smooth muscle cells lateral membranes of most
and intercalated disc of cardiac epithelial cells (absent only in
muscles skeletal muscle and blood cells)
- Also responsible for terminal bar - Well developed in tissues where
c. Desmosome or Macula Adherens cells are electrically coupled
- Disk-like structure at the surface (cardiac and smooth muscles)
of 1 cell that is match with - Permit transfer of small
identical structure at surface of molecules (ions, sugar, amino
adjacent cells acids, and some hormones)
- Only type present in stratified
squamous epithelium attach the
ends of short processes
SIGNIFICANCE OF JUNCTIONAL
SPECIALIZATION
1. Site of low resistance to ion flow -
communication between cells
and coordination of activities
2. Site of firm cohesion of cells
called Nexus - principal and only
type of junction mediating
3. Permit passage of substances
with molecules weighing 300 ug
or more SPECIALIZED CELL SURFACES
4. Important role in regulation of 1. MICROVILLI - striated or brush
growth and differentiation and in border
coordination of of functions - Short or long finger-like
among group of cells extensions or folds
5. Seen at electrical synapses in - Vertical strations seen in refractile
invertebrate CNS border of columnar epithelium
- Prominent in cells that function in
absorption
- Contains enzymes in or near the
microvilli membrane
- Brush border serve as adaptation
to enhance the surface area of
membrane exposed to substances
to be absorbed

2. STEREOCILIA - long non-motile

processes of cells projecting in
 the lumen from each cell in the
epithelium of epididymis
- Like hair of a watercolor brush
- Longer branched microvilli
- Epithelium is absorptive
- Assumed that it promotes this
function by amplifying the cell
surface
3. CILIA - numerous motile
processes larger than microvilli
- Arranged in parallel rows
projecting from surfaces of some
epithelial cells
- At the base is dense elongated
EPITHELIAL CELLS
granule called basal body
- VARIED IN SHAPE, from high
- Surfaces serve to propel fluid or
columnar to cuboidal to low
coating of mucus towards the
squamous cells including all
exterior
intermediate forms
- Polyhedral form is the common
form due to their position in
cellular layers
- Nuclei have distinct appearance,
spherical to elongated shape. It
corresponds roughly to cell shape
- Cuboidal cell - spherical
nucleus
- Squamous - flat nucleus
4. FLAGELLA - elongated motile - Long axis of the nucleus is always
structure on surface of epithelial parallel to the main axis of cell
cells, longer than cilia
- Differ with cilia in movements CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
and number of cells
- Largest flagella is the
mammalian spermatozoa
- Found in the epithelia of
nephrons, testes, and udcts of
glands
- Function is not apparent
a. SIMPLE - with single layer of cells SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIAL TISSUE
i. Simple Squamous
ii. Simple Cuboidal
iii. Simple Columnar Ciliated
iv. Simple Columnar
Non-ciliated
v. Pseudostratified Columnar
Ciliated
vi. Pseudostratified Columnar
Stereociliated
b. STRATIFIED - with more than 1
layer of cells
i. Stratified Squamous - Characteristics:
keratinized, - With thin plate-like cells arranged
non-keratinized in Mosaic pattern
ii. Stratified Cuboidal - Cells with central, round, bulging
iii. Stratified Columnar nucleus
iv. Transitional Epithelium - Cells with serrated
v. Glandular or Pyramidal borders/outlines
Epithelium (SEROUS or Function: forms barrier in regions of
MUCOUS) filtration and diffusion
Distribution: lining walls of blood
vessels, lymph vessels, cavities of heart,
lining serous cavities, lining interior
chamber of eye, perilymph spaces,
subarachnoidal spaces
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL TISSUE Distribution: gall bladder, pyloric end of
the stomach, small & large intestine,
rectum

SIMPLE COLUMNAR CILIATED

Characteristics:
- Made up of cube-like cells with
central, round nucleus
Function: in kidneys, it performs an Characteristics:
excretory function - Made up of columnar cells
Distribution: non ciliated-kidney - Cells with oval nucleus, located
tubules, thyroid follicles, secretory ducts near the basement membrane
of glands, ciliated-bronchioles - No cilia attached on the free
surface of the cell
SIMPLE COLUMNAR NON-CILIATED Distribution: fallopian tubes, lungs,
uterine tube

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
General Characteristics:
Characteristics: - Appears to have several layers but
- Made up of columnar cells actually has only one layer of cells
- Cells with oval nucleus, located - All cells attached to the basement
near the basement membrane membrane
- No cilia attached on the free - Not all cells reached the surface
surface of the cell - Shape of cells may vary
- Shape of nucleus may vary
 - Nucleus of cells lies at different STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
levels General Characteristics:
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR - Inner layer - made up of columnar
CILIATED cells
- Middle layer - with
polyhedral/cuboidal cells
- outer/surface layer - with or
without keratin

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS - KERATINIZED

- Flattened cells in outer layer -

without nucleus
- Above the surface layer - keratin
Distribution: epidermis of skin

Distribution: trachea, bronchi, uterus, STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS - NON -

oviduct, and larynx KERATINIZED
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
STEREOCILIATED

Distribution: testes, epidydimis, male

urethra - Flattened cells in outer layer -
with nucleus
- No keratin above the surface
layer
Distribution: opening of mouth, anus, different in composition from
vagina, esophagus blood or intercellular fluid
- Process is usually accompoanied
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM by intercellular synthesis of
macromolecules
- Generally, compounds produced
is stored in small membranous
bound vesicle called secretory
granules
- May synthesize, store, and
secrete: proteins - pancreas,
lipids-adrenal and sebaceous;
complex of CHO and
CHON-salivary; CHON, CHO and
lipids - mammary glands
TYPES OF GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
1. Mucous Glandular

Characteristics:
- Inner layer - polyhedral or
columnar cells
- Middle layer - pyriform shaped
cells
- Outer layer - umbrella shaped
cells
- With indistinct basement
membrane - found in sublingual, salivary gland
- Possess a certain degree of - Basophilic in staining
elasticity - With wider lumen
Distribution: urethra, ureter, urinary - Without canaliculi
bladder - With flattened nucleus, pushed
Function: distention and prevention of towards the basement membrane
caustic effects of urine Distribution: sublingual and
submaxillary glands
SPECIALIZED TYPE OF EPITHELIUM
1. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
- Formed by cells specialized to
produce a fluid secretion different
in composition fluid secretion
 2. Serous Glandular M3: CONNECTIVE TISSUE (PART 1)

Connective Tissues
I. Functions
II. Composition
A. CT Cells
B. Extracellular Matrix
1. CT Fibers
2. Matrix ground
substances
III. Classification of CT

- found in parathyroid glands, pancreas GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF CT

- Acidophilic in staining - Support and bind tissues for all
- With narrow lumen organs
- With canaliculi - Provide packing tissue between
- With round, central nucleus organs
Distribution: parotid gland and pancreas - Create hydrophilic environment
- Mediates exchange of
substances b/w blood and
tissues
- Mesodermal in origin

MESENCHYME
- Embyonic tissue
- Origin of different tissues w/c
develop into specialized cells of
adult tissue e.g. CT, smooth
muscles, blood cells

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE

TISSUES
1. Structural framework for the
body - binding of tissues and
organs
2. Protection/mechanical support
for all organs and tissues -
supports, surrounds, and
connects other tissues
 3. Transport of metabolites b/w - Fat cells - store energy in form of
blood and tissues triglyceride
4. Storage of energy - in the form of - Stores triglycerides, support,
lipids protect, and insulate (FIXED)
5. Protection of the body against 3. Fibroblasts (Fibrocytes/
infection Desmocytes)
6. Significant role in repair or - Flat with fine granular cytoplasm -
healing of wounds spindle, fusiform (young),
lamellar, stellate (old)
CONNECTIVE TISSUES: COMPOSITION - Secrete both fibers and ground
A. CT CELLS substance of the matrix
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES CELLS (wondering)
1. Fixed cells 4. Macrophages (Phagocytes,
- Produce and maintain Classmocytes, Histiocytes)
extracellular components and - Phagocytes that develop from
storage of reserve fuel Monocytes (wandering or fixed)
- Fibroblast, fixed macrophages, 5. Plasma Cells
adipose cells, reticular cells, - Antibody secreting cells that
undifferentiated mesenchymal develop from B-Lymphocytes
cells (wandering)
2. Free mobile or wandering cells 6. Leukocytes (GLITTER CELLS)
- For short term tissue reaction to - Migrate from blood vessels to CT
injury by diapedesis
- Macrophages, eosinophils, - All leukocytes except
lymphoid cells, plasma cells, mast lymphocytes do not return to
cells blood circulation after entering
CT CELLS CT
1. Mast cells - Neutrophil
- Bone marrow in origin - Eosinophil - anti-parasitic activity
- Produce Histamine - Basophil - not easy to find in
- Help dilate small blood normal tissues
vessels in reaction to injury - Lymphoccyte
- Granules contain an relase - Monocyte
heparin, histamine, and
chemical mediators involve
1 Inflammatory responses
Example: Kupffer cell - liver, Osteoclast -
bone, Microglia 1 cell - CNS
2. Adipocytes
 C. MATRIX GROUND SUBSTANCE
1. Hyaluronic Acid
- Complex combination of
Collagen (white fibers) - pinakamarami polysaccharides and proteins
pero hindi siya nagbbranch found in “true” or proper CT
- GAG-glycosaminoglycans
B. EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX - CT FIBERS 2. Chondroitin Sulfate
1. Collagen Fibers (White fibers) - Jellylike ground substance of
- large fibers made of protein cartilage, bone, skin, and blood
collagen typically the most vessels
abundant fibers, do not branch 3. Other ground substances
- pinakamarami pero hindi siya - Dermatin sulfate, Keratin sulfate,
nagbbranch and adhesion proteins
2. Elastic fibers (Yellow Fibers)
- Intermediate fibers made of CONNECTIVE TISSUES: CLASSIFICATION
protein elastin TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Branching fibers that allow 1. True Connective Tissue or
stretch and recoil Connective Tissue Proper
- Stained with aldehyde fuchsin 2. Supportive Connective Tissue -
3. Reticular Fibers Specialized CT
- Small, delicate, branched fibers 3. Liquid CT - Specialized CT
- With same chemical composition
as collagen ADULT CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Structural framework for organs I. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
e.g. spleen and lymph nodes A. Classification based on
- Stained with silver stain distribution
1. Loose CT
2. Dense CT
a. Dense Irregular CT
 b. Dense Regular CT ii. Distribution:
B. CT with Special Properties subcutaneous layer,
1. Mucous CT around organs in the
2. Elastic CT yellow marrow of long
3. Reticular CT bones
4. Adipose CT iii. Function: supports,
5. Pigment protects and insulates, and
6. Embyonal CT serves as an energy
7. Lymphoid or Adenoid CT reserve
8. Interstitial CT - Loose, dense

1. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

a. Areolar CT - widely distributed
under epithelia
i. Composition: all 3 types of
fibers, several types of
cells, semi-fluid ground
substance
ii. Distribution:
subcutaneous layer, c. Reticular CT - lymphoid organs
mucous membranes such as lymph nodes
around blood vessels, i. Composition: fine
nerves and organs interlacing reticular fibers
iii. Function: strength, and reticular cells
support, and elasticity ii. Distribution: liver, spleen
and lymph nodes
iii. Function: forms
framework (stroma) of
organs and binds together
the smooth muscle tissue
cells

b. Adipose Tissue - Hypodermis,

within abdomen, breasts
i. Composition: Adipocutes -
“signet ring” appearing fat
cells
 i. Irregularly arranged
collagen fiber
ii. Some elastic fiber

2. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

a. Composition: fine
interlacing reticular fibers
and reticular cells c. Dense elastic
b. Distribution: liver, spleen, i. Contains high proportion
and lymph nodes of elastic fibers
c. Function: forms
framework (stroma) of SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
organs and binds together CARTILAGE
the smooth muscle tissue a. Composition: consist of cartilage
cells cells - Chondrocytes
TYPES OF DENSE CT - Responsible for production of
a. Dense regular CT both collagen and
i. Primarily collagen fiber chondromucoprotein which
ii. Few elastic fiber makes up the matrix
iii. Major cell type - fibroblast - Intercellular subs predominates
ober the cell
- Solid but l=pliable matrix
- Avascular
- Fibers are embedded in the
matrix
b. Function: provides support for
soft tissue, essential for
development of long bones, and
provides sliding area for joints
thus facilitating joint movement
TYPES OF CARTILAGE:
a. Elastic Cartilage
b. Dense Irregular CT i. Composition: elastic fibers
rich in elastin, more
 opaque and more flexible,
yellowish in fresh
preparation, few cell
families, avascular
ii. Function: serves as
framework, prevents
collapse of tubular organs,
provided with
perichondrium and outer
covering
iii. Distribution: external ear, c. Hyaline Cartilage
eustachian tube, epiglottis, - Most common type
walls of external auditory - With abundant cell families
- With perichondrium
- Without fibers

b. Fibrocartilage i. Adult Hyaline

i. Composition: no - Respiratory system (trachea,
perichondrium, has bronchi, larynx, costal cartilage,
collagenous fibers, has nasal cavity)
chondrocytes cells - With perichondrium
arranged in rows, avascular - Avascular
ii. Function: transitory - With collagenous fibers
structure between dense ii. Articular
fibrous CT and Hyaline - Allows joints to move smoothly
Cartilage against one another
iii. Distribution: intervertebral - Found in articulating surfaces
disk, symphysis pubis, - Avascular
ligamentum teres femoris - Absence of perichondrium
iii. Fetal Hyaline
- Very cellular
- Avascular
 - Found in skeletal system of - Sodium
developing embryo except in flat TYPES OF BONE CELLS
bones of skull and face 1. Osteoprogenitor Cells
SPECIALIZED CT: BONE - Undifferentiated bone cells
- Osseous tissue having a capacity for mitosis
- Rigid form of CT - During fracture healing, they
- One of the hardest tissues of the undergo mitosis and transform
body into bone forming cells
- Second to cartilage to withstand 2. Osteoblast
stress - Young bone cell responsible for
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS: the formation of bone matrix and
1. They have a solid matrix collagen fibers
2. Vascular 3. Osteocytes
3. No prominent fibers - Principal cells of fully formed
4. With abundant bone cells bone
5. Have solid, hard, and brittle - They are essentially osteoblast
ground substances who have undergone cell
Osteogenesis - process of bone differentiation
development - Plays an active role in the release
- Occurs by one or two processes of calcium from bones to blood
1. Intramembranous Ossification - - Enclosed in a capsule known as
Development of osteoblast occurs Lacuna
directly from the mesenchyme 4. Osteoclast
start to secret osteoid - Giant multinucleated cells which
2. Endochondral Ossification - are active agents in bone
development starts at the resorption
pre-existing hyaline cartilage FUNCTIONS
matrix which eroded and taken 1. Provides support and framework
over by osteoblast and begin to to the body
secret oseoid 2. Protects vital organs (skull
COMPOSITION OF BONE MATRIX encloses the brain)
- Organic Substances 3. Store minerals such as calcium
- Collagen 4. Encloses bone marrow
- Protein Polysaccharide a. Responsible for the
- CHondroitin Sulfate production of blood cells
- Inorganic Substances 5. Attachment of muscles and
- Where hardness of bones tendons
depend CLASSIFICATION OF BONES:
- Calcium 1. According to Development
- Magnesium a. Membranous
 i. Developed by COMPOSITION OF COMPACT BONES
intramembranous 1. Bone Matrix - interstitial subs
ossification deposited in layers and lamellae
ii. Osteoblast beings to 2. Lacunae - spaces throughout the
produce bone in CT matrix which contains osteocytes
Membrane 3. Canaliculi - tubular passages
iii. Osteoblast line up radiating in all directions essential
on the surface of CT for nutrition of the cell
fibers and begin 4. Haversian System - unit if
depositing bone structure (cylindrical) formed by
matrix to form concentrically arranged lamellae
trabeculae (ex. 5. Haversian Canals - channels in
Bones of skull) the center of Haversian system
b. Cartilagenous
i. Developed by
endochondrial or
intra-cartilagenous
ossification
ii. Cartilage cells
proliferate, enlarge,
and die
iii. Osteoblast invade
the spaces left by
the dying cartilage
cells and begin to
form bone lamellae B. Spongy or Cancellous Bones -
(ex. Bones at the formed in epiphysis (ends of long
base of the skull bones), diploe of the flat bones of
and most bones of the skull and face, in middle and
the skeletal system, inner portion of all other bones
long bones of the - Found only as a thin
limb) portion inside the
2. According to Histological diaphysis of long bones but
Structure constitutes a greater part
a. Compact Bones - Found in of the epiphysis
outer surface of all bones, - Very thin lamellae which
shaft of diaphysis (slender are not penetrated by
part of bone) of long blood vessels
bones, appears as solid - No Haversian System
mass
 3. According to Morphologic - Joint Cavity - sealed capsule that
Characteristics contains synovial fluid. It is lined
a. Long bones by specialied CT called synovial
b. Short bones membrane
c. Flat bones - Synovial membrane - extends
d. Irregular bones fold and villi to the cavity and
JOINTS secretes synovial fluid which acts
- Found in areas of adjacent bones. as lubricant
They are covered and held - Synovial fluid - came from
together firmly by connective plasma, with higher
tissues concentration of hyaluronan
- Degree of movement between - Hyaluronan - secreted by the
the bones are defined by the cells of synovial membrane
types of joints 2 SPECIALIZED CELLS IN SYNOVIAL
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS: MEMBRANE
A. Synarthroses - permits very 1. Macrophage - like synovial cells
limited movements or no or type A cells
movement at all - Derived from monocytes, remove
- Can be subdivided into wear-and-tear debris from the
cartilagenous and fibrous joints synovial fluid
which depends on the tissues - Regulate inflammation that may
that binds the joints take place in the diarthrotic joints
MAJOR SUBTYPES OF SYNARTHROSES 2. Fibroblastic - synovial cells or
1. Synostoses - bones are jointed type B cells
only by the bones. Does not allow - Produce lots of hyalyronan and
movement (e.g. unite the skull extracellular components
bones of older adults) - Lubricates the joints to reduce
2. Syndesmoses - only dense friction, supplies oxygen and
connective tissue unites the nutrients to the articular cartilage
bones (ex: posterior region of the
sacroiliac joints) SPECIALIZED CT: BLOOD
3. Symphyses - immobile joints. Definition of Terms
Ends are covered by pad of 1. Erythropoiesis - RBC Production
fibrocartilage between articular 2. Erythropoietin - a hormone that
cartilage (ex. Pubic symphysis) stimulates RBC Production
B. Diarthroses - permits bone to - Is produced in the kidneys
move freely (ex. Elbow and knee) 3. Erythrocytosis (increase) -
- Proper alignment of the bones increased number of Circulating
are maintained by the ligaments RBC
and capsule of dense CT
 4. Erythrocytopenia (decrease) - - Maintain/regulate:
decreased number of Circulating Homeostasis(balance), water,
RBC acid-base balance, body
5. Anemia - decreased in oxygen temperature, degree of irritability
carrying capacity of RBC (not a of tissues
disease but a SYMPTOM) - Serve as body’s defense
● To know if a person is anemic or mechanism against infection
not: CBC TEST CHARACTERISTICS
6. Macrocytic - RBC is bigger than its - pH - slightly basic (7.35 - 7.45)
normal size - Higher density and viscosity than
7. Microcytic - RBC is smaller than water (due to formed elements)
its normal size - Blood volume is around 8% of
8. Normocytic - RBC in normal size total body weight (M: 5-6 liters; F:
9. Poikilocytosis - variation in RBC 4-5 Liters)
Shape - Blood is composed of 55%
10. Anisocytosis - variation in RBC plasma and 45% cellular
Size elements
11. Hyperchromic - RBC appearing COMPONENTS
darker than normal due to Liquid Components
increased HGB content 1. Plasma (unclotted): the fluid
12. Hypochromic - RBC appearing matrix of whole blood
paler due to decreased HGB - Colorless fluid and 90% H2O
content - Components: water, Inorganic
13. Normochromic - RBC with normal Salts (Na, Ca, Mg, K, Cl2, PO4,
HGB Content BiCO3) and Plasma proteins
(Albumin, Globulin, and
BLOOD Fibrinogen)
- Has fluid extracellular matrix - Gases: N, H, O2
known as plasma, with 2. Serum (from clotted): the liquid
suspended cellular elements. portion of clotted blood w/o
- Blood is pumped by the rhythmic fibrinogen
contractions of the heart flowing - Contains growth factors and
in a single direction at a close other proteins released by the
circuit called the circulatory platelets during the clotting
system. process
GENERAL FUNCTIONS
- Transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide, nutrients to tissues and
organs, hormones to target
organs
 - Contains hemoglobin
- Oxygen binding pigment
responsible for the
transport of most O2 in
the body
- Compound of iron and
protein
- Combined readily with O2
to form oxyhemoglobin

RETICULOCYTES - pag may sakit

(leukemia), marami silang reticulocytes
kasi gagawa nang gagawa ang bone
marrow ng rbc kasi kulang na

SURVIVAL TIME (RBC): 120 DAYS / 120

DAYS +/- 10

FORMED ELEMENTS

1. Erythrocytes (RBC)
- Characteristics: Biconcave disc (6
- 8 u in diameter), Formed in the
bone marrow, non-nucleated(if
adult; if child, nucleated),
average life span of 30 - 120 days
 2. Leukocytes (WBC) - Normal Values: Relative
- Characteristics: has nucleus and Count: 2 - 4% | Absolute
cytoplasm Count: 350 - 600/ul or
TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES: 0.35 - 0.60 x 10^9/L
a. Granulocyte - Function: helps in killing
- Neutrophil parasitic worms or
- Cell size: 10 - 15 um helminths with the help of
- Cytoplasmic Major Basic Protein that is
Characteristics: with fine present in eosinophil +
lilac-pink granules eosinophil peroxdase,
diffusedly distributed; enzymes, and toxins;
granules do not lie in over modules inflammatory
the nucleus responses through
- Nuclear Characteristics: releasing of chemokines,
Nuclear lobes connected lipid mediators and
by thin filaments; coarse cytokines; important role
and clumped chromatin in inflammatory response
- Normal Values: Relative due to allergies
Count: 50 - 70% |
Absolute Count: 1800 - - Basophil
7800/ul or 1.8 - 7.8 x - Cell size: 10 - 14 um
10^9/L - Cytoplasmic
- Function: has active role in Characteristics:
phagocytosis of bacteria bluish-black with variable
and other small particles; size granules; granules
usually the first leukocyte unevenly distributed and
to arrive at the site of lie in over the nucleus
infection - Nuclear Characteristics:
- Eosinophil (dumadami pag may Indistinct nucleus;
allergic reaction) unsegmented or bilobed
- Cell size: 10 - 15 um nucleus
- Cytoplasmic - Normal Values: Relative
Characteristics: Count: 0-1% | Absolute
reddish-orange large Count: 0-200/ul or 0-0.02
granules; granules do not x 10^9/L
lie in over the nucleus - Function: release heparin,
- Nuclear Characteristics: histamine, and peroxidasel
usually segmented 2 lobes; involved in intermediate
coarse and clumped and delayed
chromatin hypersensitivity reaction
- Stab/Band/Staff Cell looking with fine
- Cell size: 10 - 15 um chromatin
- Cytoplasmic - Normal Values: Relative
Characteristics: with fine Count: 25-40% | Absolute
lilac-pink granules Count: 1000-4800/ul or
diffusedly distributed; 1.0-4.8 x 10^9/L
indentation is not more - Function: has different roles in
than ½ of the total cell immune defense from invading
width of cell’s indent point microorganisms, some parasites,
- Nuclear Characteristics: and abnormal cells
Curved/Elongated/Sausage
-shaped nucleus - Monocyte (HORSESHOE)
- Normal Values: Relative - Cell size: 14-20 um
Count: 2-6% | Absolute - Cytoplasmic
Count: 350-700/ul or Characteristics: blue gray
0.35-0.70 x 10^9/L cytoplasm
b. Agranulocyte - Nuclear Characteristics:
- Lymphocyte (small or typical) single nucleus, partially
- Cell size: 6 - 10 um lobulated, deeply indented
- Cytoplasmic or horseshoe-shaped;
Characteristics: sky blue; chromatin are fine parallel
small amount with darkest strands
blue cytoplasm; lacks - Normal Values: Relative
granules Count: 2-8% | Absolute
- Nuclear Characteristics: Count: 300-800/ul or
nucleus is compact, large, 0.3-0.80 x 10^9/L
round; almost occupies - Function: precursor of
entire cell macrophages and cells in
- Normal Values: Relative CTS like osteoclast,
Count: 25-40% | Absolute microglia;
Count: 1000-4800/ul or monocyte-derived cells
1.0-4.8 x 10^9/L serves as antigen
- Lymphocyte (small or typical) presenting cells which is
(ROBINS EGG) important role in immune
- Cell size: 12 - 15 um response
- Cytoplasmic
Characteristics: sky blue;
abundant cytoplasm
- Nuclear Characteristics:
nucleus is immature
3. Thrombocytes
- Irregular fragments of cells
formed in the bone marrow
- From a much larger cell
(megakaryocyte)
- Non-nucleated
- Lightest element of blood
- 2 - 4 um in diameter
- Difficult to count
- Adhere easily on surface
- easily disintegrates
- NV: 150000 - 400000/[Link]
- Function: maintain the integrity
of BV; forms hemostatic plugs to
stop blood loss from injury
vessels; release serotonin
HUMAN HISTOLOGY (LECTURE FINALS) MUSCULAR TISSUES: GENERAL
M4: MUSCULAR TISSUE FUNCTIONS
1. MOVEMENT
DEFINITION OF TERMS - Skeletal and smooth muscles aid in
the movement of bones and fluids
FASCICLE - bundle of muscle fiber 2. POSTURE MAINTENANCE
MYOFIBRILS - thread-like structures w/ - Skeletal muscles contract to
contractile function maintain the body position
MYOFILAMENTS - finer structure inside 3. JOINT STABILIZATION
myofibrils - Tendons that cross over stabilize
EPIMYSIUM - dense CT, surrounds whole joint as the muscle tone (constant
muscle low level contraction) places tension
PERIMYSIUM - thinner covering around on the tendon
fascicle or a bundle of muscle fiber 4. HEAT GENERATION
ENDOMYSIUM - a delicate layer of reticular - Muscular contractions generate heat
fibers around each muscle fiber influencing body temperature
SARCOPLASM - cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
(acidophilic) MUSCULAR TISSUES: SPECIAL
SARCOLEMMA - plasma membrane of a FUNCTIONS
muscle cell 1. ABLE TO CONTRACT
SARCOMERES - linear unit, basic functional (CONTRACTILITY)
unit of myofibril - When long cells shorten
SARCOSOME - granules in the sarcoplasm simultaneously, pulling force is
(under EM is actually mitochondria) created, and contracts the muscle
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SR) - reduce overall size then cause
membranous sacs which encircles each movement or stabilization
myofibril 2. ABLE TO EXTEND (EXTENSIBILITY)
- At the end of contraction, muscle
MUSCULAR TISSUES: GENERAL may return to original length by
CHARACTERISTICS relaxing or extending with the aid of
1. CELLS - elongated (called fibers) opposing muscle
2. SARCOPLASM - appears fibular due 3. ABLE TO BECOME EXCITABLE
to myofibrils (EXCITABILITY)
3. SARCOLEMMA (PLASMA - Muscle cells respond to nerve
MEMBRANE) impulses
● Sarcos = flesh 4. ELASTICITY
● Lemma = sheath - Recoils (back to its normal size) after
4. ACIDOPHILIC STAINING stretch
5. Cells held together by loose areolar
CT containing blood vessels and
nerves (TUNICA PROPIA) MUSCULAR TISSUES: COMPOSITION
6. Contraction depends on 1. MUSCLE FIBERS - elongated cells
myofilaments
 ❖ EPIMYSIUM - outermost
layer, a sheath of dense CT
externally surrounds the
entire muscle
❖ FASCICLES - bundles within
the muscle
❖ PERIMYSIUM - a sheath of
fibrous CT surrounding
fascicles
❖ ENDOMYSIUM - a sheath of
reticular fibers surrounding
the bundles within the
fascicles
2. LOOSE AREOLAR CT - intercellular
substance that held together muscle
fibers

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

MODULE 4: THE MUSCULAR TISSUE 2. Sarcoplasm: appears fibular
INTRODUCTION • due to myofibrils
• It is composed of muscle cells that are supported 3. Plasma membrane is called sarcolemma
and bound together by intercellular material that • Sarcos = flesh
consists of connective tissue. The tissue is • Lemma = sheath
responsible for locomotion of the individual as well 4. Acidophilic staining
as movement of the various parts of the body 5. Cells held together by loose areolar Connective
because muscle cells are highly contractile. Tissue containing blood vessels and nerves
Contraction of muscle cells moves or restrains the 6. Contraction depends on myofilaments
movement of a body part. There are 3 types of A. General Functions
muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. These 1. movement
types of tissue differ morphologically and • skeletal and smooth muscle aid in movement of
functionally. bones and fluids
2. posture maintenance
• skeletal muscles contract to maintain the body
position
3. joint stabilization
• tendons that cross over stabilize joint as the muscle
tone (constant low level contraction) places tension
on the tendon
4. heat generation
• muscular contractions generate heat influencing
DEFINITION OF TERMS body temperature
• Fascicle B. Special Functions
o bundle of muscle fiber 1. Able to contract (Contractility)
• Myofibrils • when long cells shorten simultaneously, pulling
o thread like structures w/ contractile function force is created, contracts the muscle reduce
• Myofilaments overall size then cause movement or stabilization
o finer structure inside myofibrils 2. Able to extend (Extensibility)
• Epimysium • at the end of contraction, muscle may return to
o dense CT, surrounds whole muscle original length by relaxing or extending with the aid
• Perimysium of opposing muscle
o thinner covering around fascicle or a bundle of 3. Able to become excitable (Excitability)
muscle fiber • muscle cells respond to nerve impulses
• Endomysium 4. Elasticity
o delicate layer of reticular fibers around each • Recoils (back to its normal size) after stretch
muscle fiber C. Composition
• Sarcoplasm 1. Muscle fibers - elongated cells
o cytoplasm of a muscle fiber (acidophilic) • epimysium - outermost layer, a sheath of dense
• Sarcolemma connective tissue (CT) externally surrounds the
o plasma membrane of a muscle cell entire muscle
• Sarcomeres • fascicles - bundles within the muscle
o linear unit, basic functional unit of myofibril • perimysium - a sheath of fibrous CT surrounding
• Sarcosome fascicles
o granules in the sarcoplasm (under EM is actually • endomysium - a sheath of reticular fibers
mitochondria) surrounding the bundles within the fascicles
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) 2. Loose areolar CT: intercellular substance that held
o endoplasmic reticulum, membranous sacs which together muscle fibers
encircles each myofibril Organization of Connective Tissues
General Characteristics
1. Cells: elongated (called fibers)
 ▪ very scanty intercellular subs (has least amount
of Loose areolar CT)
o Few long slender mitochondria
o Scanty ribosomes and ER
o Sarcolemma showing pinocytic vesicles
o Single nucleus - bulging and centrally located

• Fibers
o Myofibrils - non-striated
o Myofilaments - not distinct
o Involuntary (cannot consciously control
movement)
Types of Muscle Tissue
o Contraction - very slow and sustained
• Skeletal muscle/somatic or striated voluntary ▪ Is very fatigue resistant
muscles
• Cardiac muscle striated involuntary muscles
• Smooth muscle/plain/visceral or non-
striated/involuntary muscles

• Distribution
o mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs
1. In blood vessels: walls of vein and arteries
o regulates blood pressure and flow
Muscular Tissues: Smooth, Cardiac, Skeletal 2. In reproductive and glandular systems:
• Cells o produces movements
• Fibers 3. In digestive and urinary systems:
• Function o forms internal sphincters of anus
• Distribution o produces contractions
Types of Muscle Tissue 4. In integumentary system:
• Smooth: walls of hollow organs o Arrestores pitorum or arrector pili muscles
o Lack striations ▪ cause goose bumps
o Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary) o 6 major locations:
• Cardiac: only in the wall of the heart a. inside the eye
o Cells are striated b. respiratory tubes
o Contractions are involuntary (not voluntary) c. urinary organs
• Skeletal d. reproductive organs
o Attach to and move skeleton e. digestive tubes
o 40% of body weight f. walls of vessels
o Fibers = multinucleate cells (embryonic cells
fuse)
o Cells obviously striated
o Contractions are voluntary
1. Smooth Muscle
• Cells o Lining of hollow visceral organs
o spindle or fusiform shaped ▪ the walls of the digestive system ex. stomach,
o not branched, no striations bladder, respiratory passages
o Cells somewhat compact in arrangement ▪ Middle to lower part of esophagus
 o Walls of ducts and glands associated with o Muscle layer of the heart (myocardium)
alimentary tract o Walls of the aorta, vena cava and pulmonary
o Walls of respiratory passages (trachea to alveolar vessels
ducts urinary & genital ducts) • Functions
o Walls of arteries, veins & larger lymphatics o to provide the contractile activity of the heart
o Spleen o Conduction System of the Heart
o Arrestores pitorum or arrector pili muscle (goose ▪ A special function unit
flesh) ▪ responsible for generating and conducting
o Iris & ciliary body of the eye concerned with electrical impulses for the heart
accomodation, constriction & dilation of pupil ▪ cause heart to contract and pump blood
o Areola of mammary gland throughout the body
o Subcutaneous tissue of scrotum ▪ Made up of 5 elements:
• Functions 1. Sino-atrial (SA) or Sinoatrial Node
o to alter activity of various body parts to meet (Pacemaker, Node of Keith & Flack)
needs of the body ➢ Located below the epicardium at the
1. Contraction of the bladder junction of sup vena cava & right atrium
2. Move food through the intestines (peristalsis) ➢ Function: Regulates heart rate [Link]
3. Peristaltic movement to move feces down the body needs
digestive system 2. Atrio-ventricular (AV) node or
4. Contraction of smooth muscle in the trachea Atrioventricular Node (Node of Tawara)
and bronchi w/c decreases the size of the ➢ Located below the endocardium, on the
airways lower part of the interatrial septum
5. Constriction and dilation of blood vessels ➢ Functions:
6. Constriction, accomodation and dilation of a. Delays cardiac impulses from sinoatrial
pupil node to allow atria to contract and empty
7. Uterine contraction during birthing the contents first
2. Cardiac Muscle b. Relays cardiac impulses to the
• has characteristics of both skeletal and smooth atrioventricular bundle
muscle 3. Bundle of His or Atrioventricular Bundle of
o Contractions lasts longer than a skeletal muscle His
twitch ➢ bundle of fibers located within the septum
• Depends on aerobic respiration to generate ATP of the heart
o Requires constant supply of oxygen ➢ Function: Carries cardiac impulses down
• Is very fatigue resistant the septum to ventricles via the Purkinje
• Activation of cardiac muscle is involuntary (like fibers
smooth muscle) 4. Left and right bundle branches
• Intercalated disks ➢ Function:
a. The right bundle carries nerve
impulses, cause contraction of right
ventricle
b. Left bundle carries nerve impulses that
cause contraction of left ventricle
5. Purkinje fiber node or Purkinje Fibers
• Cells ➢ Located beneath the endocardium on either
o single spherical centrally located nucleus side of the cardiac septum
(Branches have no nucleus) ➢ Function: Relays cardiac impulses to
o With intercalated disk of Eberth: serves as ventricular cells causing ventricle
junction between cardiac cells contraction
• Fibers ➢ Characteristics:
o elongated, branches, w/ numerous areolar CT ✓ Pale in color
o Myofibrils striated w/ distinct actin & myosin ✓ Fewer branches, nuclei, striations
• Distribution ✓ Bigger in diameter
 ✓ Shorter in size ▪ take ~3x as long to reach peak tension after
✓ Lies in abundant amount of loose areolar stimulation
connective tissue o many mitochondria
o Energy source: oxidative phosphorylation
2. White Fibers / Fast Muscle Fibers
o Larger diameter
o Pale due to less pigment (Less myoglobin)
o With smaller, functional sarcosome
o Poor blood supply
o Contracts faster so fatigue more quickly
o Energy source: anaerobic glycolysis (w/ large
glycogen reserves
o most common
o reach peak twitch tension in 0.01 sec or less after
stimulation
o contain densely packed myofibrils
o very few mitochondria
3. Intermediate Fibers
o Similar with red fibers but with smaller sarcosome
3. Skeletal Muscles Somatic/Striated Voluntary o Speed of contraction is comparable to that of the
• Are voluntary muscles that move bones white fibers
• Are called striated because they look striped • Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
• Are attached to tendons, which are attached to o Myoblasts
bones ▪ embryonic cells that fuse to develop muscle
fibers
o Myosatellite cells
▪ unfused cells that remain in adult skeletal
muscle
o Fascia
▪ Dense sheet or broad band of irregular
• Cells
connective tissue that surrounds muscles
o elongated cells that do not branch
o Sarcolemma
o w/ larger diameter
▪ plasma membrane of a muscle fiber
o Nucleus: appears multinucleated
surrounding the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm)
▪ Flattened and peripherally located
containing mitochondria, and myofibrils
• Fibers
o Sacroplasmic reticulum (SR)
o Myofibrils are striated
▪ transverse tubule encircling a myofibril, storing
o “Kollicker’s Column”: myofibrils grouped into
calcium for muscle contraction
parallel bundles longitudinally
o Myofibrils
o W/ distinct myofilaments (actin & myosin)
▪ cylindrical bundles of myofilaments (two types)
o Moderate amount of Loose Areolar CT
▪ lie parallel to one another
o Without intercalated disk
responsible for muscle fiber contraction
• 3 Types of Skeletal Fiber in Skeletal Muscle
o Myofilaments
1. Red Fibers (slow twitch high oxidative fibers)
▪ protein filaments (organization of these produce
o Appears red due to presence of muscle pigment alternating light/dark bands)
(Myoglobin)
➢ thin: composed primarily of actin
o Have smaller diameter & sarcoplasm (about half
➢ thick: composed primarily of myosin
the diameter of fast fibers)
o Sarcomeres
o Contain numerous large sarcosomes ▪ repeating functional units of myofilaments
o Rich blood supply > higher oxygen supply
responsible for muscle contraction
o Red Muscle: According to function, contracts
▪ approximately 10,000 end to end in a myofibril
more slowly so fatigue less quickly (running)
▪ contain: thick/thin filaments, proteins
 ➢ differences in size, density, and distribution ✓ Projections of each myosin
account for the banded appearance molecule protrude outward
➢ dark bands (A bands) and light bands (I (myosin head)
bands) b. Actin
✓ Thin filaments
✓ Actin molecules provide a site
where myosin head attach
✓ Tropomyosin and troponin also
part of the thin filament
✓ In relaxed muscle
✓ Myosin is blocked from binding to
actin
✓ Strands of tropomyosin cover the
myosin-binding sites
✓ Ca ion binding to troponin moves
• Myofibrils tropomyosin away from myosin-
o Z discs/Z band (telophragma) binding sites
▪ Separate one sarcomere from the next ✓ Allows muscle contraction to begin
▪ Thick and thin filaments overlap one another as myosin binds to actin
o A band (Anisotropic) 2. Regulatory proteins
▪ Darker middle part of the sarcomere ➢ Switch the contraction process on and off
▪ Thick and thin filaments overlap 3. Structural proteins
o I band (isotropic) ➢ Align the thick and thin filaments properly
▪ Lighter, has thin filaments but no thick filaments ➢ Provide elasticity and extensibility
▪ Z discs passes through the center of each I band ➢ Link the myofibrils to the sarcolemma
o H zone/H band (intermediate disc of Hensen) a. Titin
▪ Center of each A band which contains thick but ✓ Stabilize the position of myosin
no thin filaments ✓ accounts for much of the elasticity
o M line/M band (Mesophragma) and extensibility of myofibrils
▪ Supporting proteins that hold the thick filaments b. Dystrophin
together in the H zone ✓ Links thin filaments to the
sarcolemma
• Contraction Theory
o Sliding Theory of Huxley
▪ Muscle fiber is stimulated to contract
▪ actin and myosin filaments react by past sliding
by each other but w/ no change of length
➢ Thick myosin strand in A band is stationary
➢ Thin actin filament attached to Z discs extend
further into A band
➢ May eventually obliterate the H line
• Skeletal Muscle Tissue ➢ The thin filaments attached to Z disc drawn
o Muscle Proteins toward each other
▪ Myofibrils are built from three kinds of proteins ➢ Sarcomeres are compressed, myofibrils
1. Contractile proteins shortened and contraction occurs
➢ Generate force during contraction ➢ Note: contraction occur not because of
a. Myosin shortening but due to increase in the overlap
✓ Thick filaments b/w filaments
✓ Functions as a motor protein which • Distribution
can achieve motion o widely distributed
✓ Convert ATP to energy of motion ▪ attached to entire skeletal system of the body
(external urethra & external anal sphincter)
 o tongue & upper part of the esophagus • All the nerve tissues found in the body belong to
▪ although unattached to the skeletal system, it is the Nervous System
classified as striated voluntary • Nervous system three major functions:
▪ lower part is involuntary in nature o Sensory – monitors internal & external
Muscular Tissues environment through presence of receptors
o Integration – interpretation of sensory information
o Motor - response to information processed
through stimulation of effectors
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Two Anatomical Divisions
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
o Consists of Brain and Spinal cord
▪ Contains:
➢ nerve cells-neuron
➢ Supporting cells- neuroglia
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o Consists all the neural tissue outside CNS
o Afferent division (sensory input)
MODULE 5: THE NERVOUS TISSUE o Efferent division (motor output)
▪ Somatic nervous system
▪ Autonomic nervous system
o Includes Ganglia- small group of nerves outside
CNS

INTRODUCTION
• It is the most complex tissue in the body. It is
formed by a network of billions of nerve cells
(neurons), all assisted by numerous supporting
cells called glial cells. Each neuron has Histology of Nervous tissue
interconnections with other neurons, forming a very • Two types of nerve cells in nervous system:
complex system for processing information and 1. Neurons or Nerve cell - processing, transfer, and
generating responses. storage of information
• The Nervous system is divided into two main parts: 2. Neuroglia or Glial cell - support, regulation &
o The central nervous system (CNS) comprising of protection of neurons
the brain and the spinal cord. NEURON
o The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises A. Neuron structure
the nerves which run between the CNS and other
tissues, together with the nerve's relay stations
known as "ganglia".
 o At the synapse there are:
▪ Pre-synaptic cell- neuron that sends message
▪ Postsynaptic cell – cell that receives message
▪ Synaptic cleft – small gap that separates pre-
synaptic membrane and post-synaptic
membrane
• Dendrite ▪ Synaptic Knob
o are the elongated processes extending from ➢ expanded portion of axon of presynaptic
perikaryon neuron
o Specialized to receive stimuli from other neurons ➢ contain vesicles of neurotransmitters
synapse ✓ chemical messengers released at
• Cell body or perikaryon presynaptic membrane
o Consists of nucleus and most of cell organelles ✓ bind to receptors of postsynaptic
except cell processes membrane are broken down by enzymes
o Serve as trophic center for all the neurons are reassembled at synaptic knob for use
o with large euchromatic nucleus with well in case of another impulse
developed nucleolus.
o contains Nissl substance or Nissl bodies which
are large masses of polysomes and Rough
endoplasmic reticulum indicative of high rate
protein synthesis
• Axon
o A single long process ending at synapses
o Specialized to generate and conduct nerve
impulses to other cells
o Covered with myelin sheath
o End has many small branches called telodendria
▪ end is knob like structure that forms part of
synapse connection with other neuron
o Myelinated axons
▪ Axons surrounded by myelin sheath
▪ presence of myelin speeds up the transmission
B. Classification of neurons
of action potentials along the axon
o Nodes of Ranvier
▪ unmyelinated gaps left when myelin laid down
in segments (internodes) along the axon

1. Structural classification - based on number of

processes coming off of the cell body:
a. Anaxonic neurons
• no anatomical clues to determine axons from
• Synaptic terminal/synapse
dendrites
o Unique sites in the neuron that send stimuli
o area where neuron communicates with another • functions unknown
cell (muscle cell, another neuron attached or b. Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neuron
close to it) • single process coming off cell body
 • giving rise to dendrites (at one end) & axon • Gray matter- unmyelinated
(making up rest of process) 3. Cell bodies of neurons are clustered together
c. Bipolar neuron • Ganglia in the PNS
• two processes coming off cell body – one • Nuclei/centers in the CNS
dendrite & one axon NEUROGLIA (GLIAL CELLS)
• only found in eye, ear & nose • Glial cells support neuronal survival and activities
• Ex: cells of retina, vestibular & cochlear • More abundant in the mammalian brain than
ganglia neurons
d. Multipolar neuron • CNS, has very small amount of connective tissue
• multiple dendrites & single axon and collagen, glial cells served as re3placement for
• most common type the cells of the connective tissues in some aspects
• Ex: motor nerve cells of ventral gray matter of Types of Glial Cells
spinal cord & brain stem. A. CNS neuroglia:
2. Functional classification - based on type of • Astrocytes/astroglia
information & direction of info transmission: o largest with numerous radiating processes
a. Sensory (afferent) neurons o Star shaped with central nuclei
• transmit information from receptors of PNS to o Unique and the most number of glial cells in CNS
CNS o Fibrous astrocytes- are astrocytes with long
• most sensory neurons are unipolar, few are processes and found in the white matter
bipolar o Protoplasmic astrocytes- are astrocytes with
b. Motor (efferent) neurons shorter processes and mostly found in the gray
• transmit motor information from CNS to matter
effectors (muscles/glands/adipose tissue) in o Glial fibrillary acid protein- made the bundle of
periphery of body intermediate filaments and served as unique
• all are multipolar marker for astrocytes since astrocytes are the
c. Association (interneurons) most common source of brain tumor
• transmit information between neurons within o create supportive framework for neurons
CNS; analyze inputs, coordinate outputs o create “blood-brain barrier” called glial limiting
• most common type of neuron (20 billion) membrane
• are all multipolar o monitor & regulate interstitial fluid surrounding
Neuron Doctrine neurons, movement of nutrients, water and
1. An independent anatomic unit metabolites between neurons and blood vessels
o stimulate formation of scar tissue secondary to
• consisting of an axon and dendrites, no
CNS injury
physical continuity
o Guiding and supporting movements and locati9ns
2. Neuron is physiological unit
of developing neurons in the CNS
• Only thru neurons are impulse detected
• Oligodendrocytes/oligodendroglia
3. Neuron is a genetic or developmental unit.
o With less processes and Shorter than other
• A neuroblast gives rise to single nerve cell &
neuroglia
its processes
o create myelin sheath around axons that serve as
4. Nerve cell is a trophic (to nourish) unit
insulator of neurons in the CNS
• once axon is severed, distal portion
o Extend sheetlike processes – the myelin sheath,
degenerates while the proximal part survives
that surrounds parts of several axons
& regenerate since its still attached to &
o Most common glial cells in the white matter (color
nourished by the cell body
is due to the lipid concentrated in the membrane
C. Anatomical organization of neurons
wrapped sheaths
1. Axons of Neurons tend to group together into
o Microscopically seen as small cells with rounded,
organized bundles
condensed nuclei over unstained cytoplasm.
• Nerves in PNS o Myelinated axons transmit impulses faster than
• Tracts/pathways in the CNS unmyelinated axons
2. Most axons surrounded by myelin sheath • Microglia/mesoglia
• White matter- myelinated o Small phagocytic type, mesodermal in origin
 o Small cells with short processes distributed o White mater - made by regions of the nervous
evenly in the gray and white mater system containing groupings of myelinated
o Resembles inactive fibroblast axons, composed of capillaries, neuroglia, nerve
o “brain macrophages”, phagocytize cellular fibers
wastes & pathogens together with neutrophils o Gray mater - mainly comprised of groups of
o Nuclei of microglial cells can be identified using neuron cell bodies, dendrites & synapses
Hematoxylin and Eosin stain, observe their small (connections between neurons)
dense, elongated structure compared with the
lightly stained nuclei of other glial cells
• Ependymal cells
o Cuboidal or columnar cells lining the cavities of
CNS
▪ line ventricles of brain & central canal of spinal • Meninges
cord o membranes made up of connective tissues that
o Joined apically with junctional complexes like in brain tissues from cranial bone
Epithelial cells but it has no basal lamina o 3 layers of meninges
o Embryo: ciliated ▪ Dura
o Adult: some are ciliated ➢ Composed of dense fibroelastic connective
o produce, monitor & help circulate CSF tissue that continue to the periosteum of the
(cerebrospinal fluid) cranial bone
➢ All internal surface of dura mater and
external or spinal cord is surrounded by
simple squamous epithelium that originated
from mesenchyme
➢ Subdural space separate dura mater from
the arachnoid
▪ Arachnoid
➢ 2 components: connective tissue sheet in
contact with dura mater and collagen and
fibroblast arranged loosely, with collagen and
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM fibroblast
• Brain and Spinal Cord ➢ Connective tissue in the arachnoid has no
o nerve tissue, connective tissues and blood capillaries to supply nutrients but it has larger
vessels blood vessels
• Functions: To process and coordinate: ➢ Subarachnoid space - sponge-like cavity
o sensory data from inside and outside of body filled with CSF, surrounds the trabeculae. It
o motor commands: control activities of peripheral serve as cushion that protect CNS from
organs ex: skeletal muscles, glands, etc trauma
o higher functions of brain: intelligence, memory, ➢ Arachnoid villi - a CSF filled projection
learning, emotion covered by endothelial cells, serve as site for
absorption of CSF into the blood
• Major Regions of CNS
▪ Pia mater
o Cerebrum
➢ Composed of flattened cells closely lined in
o Cerebellum
the surface of CNS tissue
o Spinal cord
➢ It does not directly connect with the nerve
• Covered by 3 layers of connective tissue-the
cells or fibers.
meninges, with very small amount of collagen or
➢ Completely enveloped the Cerebral arteries
fibrous tissue which make them delicate and
and veins travel in the subarachnoid space
damaged easily due to injuries in the cranial and
• Blood brain barrier
vertebral bones that protects them
o composed of capillary endothelial cells, protects
• With gray matter and white matter- that differs in
neuron and glia from toxins, infectious agents and
the presence or absence of myelin
other substances
• Choroid plexus
o Composed of highly vascularized tissue with
prominent folds and villi projecting into 4 large
ventricles of the brain
o Function is to remove water from blood and
release it as CSF
CNS: BRAIN

o Layers of the Cerebrum:

1. Molecular or plexiform layer
• Cerebrum or cortex ▪ chiefly composed of cell processes.
o largest part of human brain 2. External granular layer
o associated w/ higher brain function: thought and ▪ Contains small pyramidal cells and
action numerous closely packed stellate cells
o Cerebral cortex [Link] pyramidal layer
▪ Layer of gray matter that constitutes the outer ▪ Composed mainly of large pyramidal cells
layer of the cerebrum and is responsible for and some stellate cells
integrating sensory impulses and for higher [Link] granular layer
intellectual functions ▪ consists of closely packed stellate cells
[Link] pyramidal layer or ganglionic layer
(Betz cells)
▪ contains large pyramidal cells., stellate cells
and Martinotti cells
[Link] layer
▪ Cells of the Cerebral cortex ▪ contains neurons of many shapes, pyramidal
➢ Pyramidal cells cells, stellate cells and Martinotti cells
✓ The most numerous neurons in the • Cerebellum or little brain
cerebral cortex o involved in coordination of voluntary motor
✓ Multipolar neuron, large vesicular nucleus movement, balance and equilibrium and muscle
✓ Pyramidal cell bodies, Abundant nissl tone
granules
✓ Dendrites - one main apical dendrites that
run towards the most superficial part of the
cerebral cortex and some other smaller
dendrites
✓ Axon – arises from the center of base and o 3 layers of cerebellar cortex
runs in the white mater 1. Molecular layer
▪ Cell population is low
▪ Mainly composed of cell processes
▪ Stellate cells and basket cells are present
here
2. Purkinje cells:
➢ Non pyramidal cells ▪ large, multipolar neurons
1. Stellate cells - also called as granule cells ▪ Vesicular nucleus with a prominent
because of their small size nucleolus
2. Horizontal cells - found in most ▪ Large number of Nissl granules in the
superficial layer cytoplasm
3. Martinotti cells - found in the deeper 3. Granular Layer
layers
 ▪ Population of small neurons called granule ➢ neuron and specialized cells
cells ➢ complex sensory organs Ex: eyes, ears, etc
➢ appear as closely packed nuclei, stain o Effectors
deeply basophilic ▪ respond to afferent signals or to the information
▪ Golgi type II cells are also present picked up by the receptors
➢ short axon which make synapse with ➢ cells and organs
terminal branches of Mossy fibers • Efferent divisions (Exiting) - carries motor
CNS: SPINAL CORD commands out of CNS to PNS muscles glands and
• sends sensations to brain from the body other tissues
• returns motor commands to the various parts of the o Somatic Nervous System
body ▪ controls skeletal muscle contraction
• has primary role in reflexes and in autonomic ▪ voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions
nervous system (reflexes)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM o Autonomic Nervous System
• Central canal is present lined by ependymal cells ▪ control subconscious actions, contractions of
• Inner butterfly shaped arrangement of gray matter smooth and cardiac muscles and glandular
• Large Multipolar neurons in the anterior horn secretions
• Outer white mater consist of nerve fibers, ➢ Sympathetic “Fight or Flight response”– has
capillaries and neuroglia a stimulating effect
• Pia mater on the surface ➢ Parasympathetic “rest and digest” – has a
relaxing effect
PNS Ganglia
• Masses of nerve cell bodies found in PNS and
surrounded by neuroglia
• Ganglia contain neuronal cells surrounded by
delicate connective tissue and denser capsule
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Serve as relay station to transmit nerve impulses
• All nerve tissues outside the CNS, ganglia and
• The direction of the nerve impulse states whether
peripheral nerve endings
the ganglion will be
o Nerve made up of bundle of axons, CT and blood
• Two Types:
vessels
o Central Sensory or cranio-spinal ganglia
• Functions:
▪ large cell bodies has thin sheetlike extension of
o Carry sensory information and motor commands
small glial satellite cell
in PNS (into and out of the CNS). There are 2
▪ Supported by connective tissue capsule
categories:
▪ receive impulses to be delivered to CNS
▪ cranial nerves – connected to the brain
▪ Ex: Dorsal root ganglia
▪ spinal nerves- attached to spinal cord
o Autonomic Ganglia/ Visceral or Peripheral Motor
• PNS helps bring information in and helps carry Ganglia
direction that are given to it by the brain out of the ▪ clusters of neuron cell bodies that
CNS transmit sensory signals from the periphery to
the integration centers in the CNS.
▪ Nerves that effect the activity of smooth
muscles, all involuntary activities like secretion
of glands, heart rate

Functional Divisions of PNS

• Afferent division (Accessing) - carries sensory
information from PNS to CNS
o Receptors
▪ pick up a change or stimulus Peripheral Nerve Endings
▪ bring the information to the CNS for
interpretation
1. Endings in Epithelium - Ex: Tactile Disc of Merkel
(for touch), neuroepithelium in taste buds, free nerve
endings
2. Endings in Connective tissues - Ex: Meissner’s
corpuscles (for touch), Ruffini’s cylinder (for heat)
3. Endings in Muscles Classification of Nerve Fibers
a. Motor nerve endings- (found in ends of efferent • Medullated nerve fibers w/ neurolemma
nerves in contact with muscles, glands)
• Medullated nerve fibers w/o neurolemma
b. Sensory nerve endings (arising from ganglia of
• Non – Medullated nerve fibers w/ neurolemma
spinal cord and cerebral nerves)
• Non – Medullated nerve fibers w/o neurolemma
Anatomical structure of Nerves
• Peripheral nerves
o Epineurium – outer tube like layer of dense
irregular CT
o Perineurium – encases fascicle thicker and more
resistant than epineurium
o Endoneurium – encloses nerve fiber Myelin Sheath (Medullary Sheath)/Myelininated
• Neurolemma/sheath of Schwann Fibers
o thin cytoplasmic covering • white, multi layered, fatty covering for some nerve
o produced by Schwann cells processes
• Nodes of Ranvier • arranged in segments, separated by Nodes of
o regular interval interruption of myelin over whole Ranvier (enables salutatory conduction)
length of axon • Internode- segment b/w 2 nodes of Ranvier
• The myelin is not continuous over the whole length o each internode covered by a single Schwann cell
of axon but interrupted atregular intervals called • In fixed preparation, myelin darkened by Osmium
nodes of Ranvier. Ther is schwann cell between 2 tetroxide or Weigert's staining method
nodes of Ranvier. These nodes are necessary for o Axon (lipoprotein complex) remained unstained
conduction of electrical inpulses • Function
o Insulation of nerve process
o Increased speed of conduction
Myelin Sheath & Neurilemma: Formation

Axons of Neurons group together in organized

bundles: Nerve in PNS/Tract/pathway in CNS
B. Types of PNS neuroglia
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) Unmyelininated Fibers
o surround all axons of neurons in PNS creating • the glial cell does not form the wrapping of the
neurilemma around them myelin sheath
o Neurilemma allows for potential regeneration of • With the absence of rudolf myelin sheath, nodes of
damaged axons Ranvier are not visible
o creates myelin sheath around most axons of
PNS- one Schwann cell forms myelin sheath in
one segment of an axon
• Satellite cells
o Serve as covering for the large neuronal cell
bodies in the ganglia of PNS
o support groups of cell bodies of neurons w/in
ganglia of PNS with insulation, nutrition and
regulation of their environment