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Unit 1: Emergence of
the Social Sciences

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 Lesson 1.1 The Social Sciences

Introduction
There is so much happening in the world right now. Every day, we hear about news of recent events
people are experiencing in various parts of the world. For example, from news programs about the
COVID-19 pandemic to the memes on social media of people’s everyday life in the new normal, we
can tell that these experiences are both personal and social. We experience these events regardless of
class, age, gender, and social status.
How do you make sense of these events? How relevant are them to you, your family, and your
community? Do these experiences tell us something about ourselves and our society? In all of these
instances, social sciences are tools that can be used to have a better understanding of the world we live
in. In this lesson, we will talk about what the social sciences are and how they are relevant to our day-
to-day living. Alongside this, we will talk about the various disciplines within the social sciences and
how it is a unique branch of knowledge that can be useful to students.

DepEd Competencies
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Define the social sciences as the study of society (HUMSS_DIS11- IIIa-1).

• Distinguish the social and the natural sciences from the humanities (HUMSS_DIS11- IIIa-2).

Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Give two to three varying definitions of the social sciences.
• Explain the history and development of the social sciences as a school of thought.
• List the similarities and the differences between the social sciences, the natural sciences, and
the humanities.
Discover
Social sciences are an integral part of everyday life. For example, when buying coffee at a coffee
shop, you can observe various activities: friends hanging out, professionals in an informal meeting,
and even students preparing for an exam. You then wonder: what does this place have that brings
these people here?

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What Are the Social Sciences?
What exactly are the social sciences? According to American economist Edwin R.A. Seligman
(1930), the social sciences are “mental or cultural sciences which deal with the activities of the
individual as a member of a group.” (189) Thus, social sciences embrace all subjects that deal with the
relationship of man to society. According to this definition, social sciences are disciplines that connect
persons to many aspects of society.

Fig. 1. How are social sciences related to oneself?

From these three definitions, we can identify a common theme—social sciences encompass
disciplines that deal with the affairs of people—both as individuals and as a group of people that make
up a society.

Check Your Progress

Share a situation or experience where the social sciences are involved.
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The Development of the Social Sciences

Fig. 2. The development of the social sciences through time

Ancient Greece to the Middle Ages

The beginning of social scientific thought dates back to the Ancient Greek civilization. Great thinkers
like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle tackled questions about the meaning of life and how a state should
be governed. Generally during this time, thinkers dealt with philosophy when it was still a separate
discipline from science. Philosophy dealt more with social phenomena and the meanings attached to
them while science dealt with the natural surroundings of people. Thus, this was the period when
great thinkers focused their attention on social phenomena and tried to give meaning to them.

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The following period, the 15th century, was called the Middle Ages. During this time, religion was
the law and was as important as scientific thought. The Catholic Church was supreme, and its power
was absolute. On the other hand, the rational thought was discouraged as it seemed to contradict most
of the religious teachings. The church greatly exercised its power by ensuring that all scientific
teachings coincided with its teachings.

The Scientific Revolution to the Age of Enlightenment

The 16th century was the period known as the Scientific Revolution. Since there was a lack of
scientific reasoning—both natural and philosophical/social—during the Middle Ages, great thinkers
of this period, including Isaac Newton and René Descartes, led the propagation of scientific ideas that
we still use today, including those in the field of physics and mathematics. The Scientific Revolution
dealt primarily with the idea that reason was greater than imagination.

The following periods, the 17th and 18th century, were collectively called the Age of Enlightenment.
It was during this period that the social sciences began to be regarded as a central school of thought.
Thinkers of this period dealt with human nature, society, and politics among many other topics related
to the human condition. It was during this time when society was ruled through feudalism, where
landlords controlled the land that farmers tilled and cultivated. Because thinkers became more critical
of how society works, feudalism was eventually challenged. Thus, many new ways of governance
were conceptualized by Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke and Montesquieu.

Check Your Progress

Which period provided more avenues for the social sciences to flourish?
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The Industrial Age to the 20th Century

By the 19th century, there was a shift from agricultural societies to a society where people worked in
factories. This social norm was called industrialization. Capitalism replaced feudalism as the primary
socioeconomic system. During this time, called the Industrial Age, many social behaviors such as
alcoholism and suicide became widespread, thus gaining the attention of a number of social thinkers.
Prominent thinkers of this period were Karl Marx and Max Weber.

Fig, 3. Karl Marx

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It was in the 20th century when the social sciences became an essential part of the academic world. A
lot of theorists proposed ideas and concepts that are still used and examined today. Another important
event in this period was the beginning of social science research, with the introduction of different
methods used to gather information. In the 20th century, the social sciences have progressed in its
theories and concepts toward the shift of social situations and events. Moreover, there began an
awareness that disciplines in the social sciences are not distinct from one another but rather coexist
with each other. When used together, the disciplines under social sciences can provide deeper
understanding and effective solutions to social events. Some of the prominent thinkers of this period
were Bronislaw Malinowski and Michel Foucault.

The 21st Century

Towards the 21st century, there is a continuous need to use multiple disciplines in the social sciences
to adapt to the ever-changing and rapidly evolving world we live in today. More new fields of study in
the social sciences are being introduced. For example, academic studies towards the understanding of
the internet and social media as social phenomena became a demand. Another interesting study within
the social sciences focuses on migration, which was brought by the rapid rise of globalization.
Specifically, more and more Filipino workers are going abroad to become immigrant workers—a
social phenomenon that has been existing in the past but had a significant increase after the
introduction of a global free market. Thus, social scientists look into different aspects of this
phenomenon through various social science disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics,
and history, among others.

Social sciences will continue to reshape and adapt to be able to understand social phenomena and
their impact on the people and the society. Thus, scholars and students should understand how the
social sciences provide clues to better appraise how things work in the society and develop solutions
to issues and concerns that affect their lives and communities.

Check Your Progress

What do you think is the greatest challenge that our society faces today? How can social science
help?
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The Humanities and the Natural Sciences

In the previous sections, we discussed the definition of social sciences and how they developed
through time. In this section, let us look at the other two major branches of knowledge—the
humanities and the natural sciences.

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The Humanities

Fig. 4. Humanities also deal with human relations but are more focused on human experiences.

The humanities are a branch of knowledge that seeks to understand human reactions to events and
the meanings humans impose on experience as a function of culture, historical era, and life history.
The humanities are a body of disciplines that covers both memory and imagination. History plays a
central role in the humanities, and its main sources of knowledge are written texts and human
behavior. The ideas that surround humanities consist of human behavior and the events that influence
them, with a great emphasis on the setting of an event. Examples of disciplines under the humanities
are literature, creative writing, and language studies.

The Natural Sciences

Fig. 5. Natural sciences help understand humans and other things.

According to Jerome Kagan, the natural sciences are a school of thought that aims “to predict and
explain all natural phenomena.” Generally, the natural sciences deal with how measurable
occurrences are interrelated and transformed objectively. Historical events do not influence the natural
sciences as much as the social sciences and the humanities. Disciplines under the natural sciences use
mathematical concepts to understand natural phenomena in the areas of biology, physics, and
chemistry. Compared to social sciences where ideas come from behaviors and events that are not
always set in a controlled environment, the ideas related to natural sciences are usually observations
from controlled experiments. Other than biology, physics, and chemistry, mathematics is also a
discipline under the natural sciences.

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The three branches of knowledge can be used in order to see various phenomena in different ways.
The COVID-19 pandemic, for example, is a natural scientific phenomenon in terms of how much
people are getting sick.

However, the ways by which it affects people of different social classes are a social scientific
phenomenon. In addition, the ways by which the COVID-19 pandemic is being experienced
differently by various people across the globe are a perspective offered by the humanities.

Check Your Progress

What other social phenomena do you think we can view through the three branches of knowledge?
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Wrap-Up

• The social sciences are disciplines that deal with the affairs of people—both as individuals
and as a society.

• There are different periods of development of the social sciences:

o The social sciences began as early as Ancient Greece where philosophy was distinct
from science.

o The Middle Ages suppressed the growing interest of people in understanding social
events and its impact on people.

o The Scientific Revolution became a fresh start for social sciences to prosper.

o Age of Enlightenment provided a venue for social scientists to introduce different

ideas and theories.

o Industrialization and capitalism in the 19th century propelled numerous social

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 thinkers to examine society.

o Social science became an integral part of academe in the 20th century.

o The social sciences in the 21st century saw a proliferation of new fields of study and
the convergence of social science disciplines.

• The humanities are a branch of knowledge that seeks to understand human reactions to
events and the meanings humans impose on experiences.

• The natural sciences are a branch of knowledge that aims to predict and explain all natural
phenomena.

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 Lesson 1.2 Disciplines in the Social Sciences

Introduction
The same motivation that drives humans to explore the unending vastness of the universe has also
driven us to survey life and society in a scientific manner. Human nature has been as complex a topic
as planets and molecules. However, we now have objective and educated means to understand it
better. This has become possible with the help of the social sciences.
The success or failure of a society may be associated with how the social sciences are involved in
decision-making and in trends in society. In the Philippines, social science remains a gradually
evolving discipline. Along with this, there is an increasing call for government accountability,
economic equality, and respect for different cultures.

In this lesson, the different social sciences will be introduced. This will help in better understanding
the role of the social sciences and in the betterment of individuals and society.

DepEd Competencies
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Compare and contrast the various social science disciplines and their fields, main areas of
inquiry, and methods (HUMSS_DIS11- IIIb-d-3).

• Trace the historical foundations and social contexts that led to the development of each
discipline (HUMSS_DIS11- IIId-4).

Learning Objectives
• In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Compare and contrast the different disciplines of social science.
• Explain the historical development and social context of each social science discipline.
• Identify the importance and practical applications of each social science discipline.
• Explain the interconnectivity among the different fields of social science.

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Discover
The term social science is extensive and encompassing. It refers to various branches of knowledge
that aim to examine, understand, and improve humanity. Each academic discipline or subfield is a
specialized study of a particular aspect of human society. The scope of these disciplines is both
profound and comprehensive. It ranges from the pursuit to understand how the human mind operates,
to how a community functions, and even to how different societies resemble and vary from each
other.

Sociology

Sociology is the study of society and the different aspects of human social relationships. It was
founded by French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), the father of sociology. He coined the
term and helped develop sociology as a systematized discipline of social science. According to
authors John Macionis and Linda Gerber, Comte introduced sociology sometime after the French
Revolution as a means to understand the drastic changes that society underwent at the time. Comte’s
famous philosophical theory called positivism states that true knowledge can only be achieved
through direct experience and participation in the natural and social world. This principle was later
integrated in social research by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). Early
philosophers such as Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592); John Locke (1632–1704); François-Marie
d'Arouet, more commonly known as Voltaire (1694–1778); and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
are all prominent personalities that developed theories aiming to understand and improve the social
aspects of life.

Fig. 1. Philosophical works have an important role in the development of sociology.

Lewis H. Morgan (1818-1881), Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), and Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917)
separately incorporated the sociological discipline with the biological differences among organisms.
Their works became connected with Social Darwinism, which claims that certain groups in society are
innately more powerful than others. According to Michael Hawkins, Social Darwinism was once
criticized for being closely linked with racism and Nazism. These are phenomena in which certain
groups of people found themselves superior to others. One of the more recent sociological theories is
Neo-Marxism, which unites sociology with other disciplines such as existentialism and
psychoanalysis.

Other significant sociologists of the 19th and 20th centuries are Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), Karl
Marx (1818-1883), Max Weber (1864-1920), and William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963).
They all used sociological principles to find out how to solve societal issues and promote social
development and change.

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Over time, sociology has evolved into a tool to understand society and humankind. It evaluates the old
ideas about society, offers new perspectives for social change and reform, and proposes rational and
contextualized ways to address societal problems.

Demography

Fig. 2. The statistical study of population is called demography.

Demography is defined as the statistical analysis of populations. It aims to investigate the births,
deaths, and migrations of people, which are three common reasons that influence the stability and
change of a population in a given location and time. Demographers employ other social science
disciplines in carrying out its methods. These other disciplines include economics, anthropology, and
sociology, among others.

Some of the most important demographic terminologies are as follows:

1. Birth rate (or crude birth rate) — the number of live births in every 1000 humans of a given
population per year
2. Death rate (crude death rate) — the number of deaths every in 1000 humans of a given
population per year
3. Emigration — the act of departure from one’s country to settle permanently in another
4. Immigration — the act of entrance to a country for permanent residence
5. General fertility rate — the number of live births per 1000 women for each year
6. Growth rate — the percentage with which the population has increased naturally or through
migration through a given period of time
7. Life expectancy — the average number of years that a person may be expected to live with all
mortality and trends considered
8. Mortality — death, particularly on a general context or large scale

Systematic demography traces its roots to the works of the English statistician John Graunt (1620–
1674), the founder of demography. He analyzed death rates and classified them in relation to the
causes of the deaths. He compared the birth rates between males and females. He also produced the
“life table,” a system that provides the expected years that remain for a group of people under a
specific age.

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The American polymath Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) examined population growth, the factors
that affect it, and its limitations. He published one of the most notable works in demography, the
essay Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, Etc. This work
influenced the economist Thomas Malthus (1766–1834) to look into the effects of population increase
on economic and social development.

Nowadays, the most familiar strategy of demographic analysis is carried out using the census. This is
a direct method where an official count of the human population is conducted by the national
government every decade or so. Other methods of population analysis include migration models, rate
construction, and population projection.

Anthropology

Anthropology came from the Greek word anthropos, which means “human being.” It is considered as
the “science of mankind.” It studies humans’ culture and evolution. It looks into our uniqueness and
diversity as a people. These diverse patterns are analyzed as they developed through time and across
different parts of the world. This field sometimes overlaps with other natural and social sciences.
These include history, linguistics, genetics, physiology, and biology.

Fig. 3. The Kaamulan Festival in Bukidnon celebrates the different ethnolinguistic groups in the
province.

Among the most well-known episodes in the development of anthropology as a distinctive social
science are the publications of the On the Origin of Species in 1859 and of the Descent of Man in
1871 by the English biologist Charles Darwin (1809–1882). He claimed that life in all its diversity has
emerged from a singular ancestry. Another highlight is the rise of the Out of Africa theory, which
claims that the human species known as Homo sapiens originated in Africa and spread across the
world as time went on. Meanwhile, fossil records and other archaeological findings permit social
scientists to visualize and analyze the social and economic organizations of peoples through time.

Biological Anthropology

Biological anthropology is defined as the study of human evolution based on biological evidence. In
this regard, this sub-field deals with fossil analysis. It also involves the comparison of the physical
features of human beings in connection with the environment they are in.

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 Fig. 4. Biological anthropology employs scientific methods such as genetic analysis to understand
how humans have evolved through time.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology studies culture and its variations. Culture is the collection of values,
knowledge, and traditions specific to a particular group or society. It relies on the ethnographic
method of study, which includes participant observations and personal interviews. Through this,
ethnographers can compare and contrast the behaviors and traditions of peoples across various
societies. This can help them come up with a holistic view of culture.

Archaeology

Archaeology refers to the collection and examination of material culture to draw conclusions about
the political and social systems of people in the past. Archaeologists analyze stone tools, religious
relics, cave paintings, and the like. They analyze historical events recorded in these objects to piece
together a complete picture of a culture to better understand man and his environment at that time.

Psychology

Psychology is the branch of social science that examines different mental states and behaviors. Traces
of this discipline may be found as early as in the ancient Greek civilization. However, psychology is
considered as a relatively new science, not developing into a distinct social science discipline until the
late 18th century.

Fig. 5. Psychology studies the human mind and behavior.

Fig. 5. Psychology studies the human mind and behavior.

The German physiologist and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) is known as the father of
experimental psychology. It is a collection of behavioral analysis methods that manipulate variables to
better comprehend human behavior. Furthermore, the American psychologist and philosopher

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William James (1842–1910) led the philosophical school of pragmatism, which prioritizes the
importance of knowledge in real-life situations. He also pioneered functionalism, a psychological
principle that gives supreme significance to observation, experience, and rational thought. Together,
Wundt and James spearheaded the acceptance of psychology as a formal social science discipline.

This was then succeeded by Watsonian behaviorism, which was first proposed by the American
psychologist John Watson (1878–1958). The approach emphasizes the more objective and scientific
study of human behavior in connection to the environment. This also saw psychology become a more
empirical social science. Behaviorism went through a change with contributions by B. F. Skinner
(1904–1990). This change came in his introduction of operant conditioning. This is a concept and/or
method that focuses on voluntary behavior either being rewarded or punished. The idea of operant
conditioning was based on classical conditioning, a concept introduced by physiologist Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936), in which involuntary responses are predicted by external stimuli.

Famed psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is believed to have overturned the discipline of
psychology with psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is a theory and method of therapy whose main goal
is to remedy mental disorders by examining the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind.
Psychoanalysis has become influential in many other fields such as medicine, literature, and art.

There have been objections against behaviorism and psychoanalysis. According to the University of
Alberta, behaviorism has been criticized for failing to recognize how socialization and free will can
affect learning. It has been criticized as well for not testing the theory on human subjects. Similarly,
as pointed out by the University of California, Berkeley, other psychologists believed that
psychoanalysis cannot be tested empirically.

With various technological advancements in neuroscience, studying the mind and its processes has
become more scientific. Cognitive psychology has helped with finding answers to questions about the
human mind scientifically. Such questions include how a person’s stored knowledge gives rise to
visual representations in the mind; how memory gets lost, regained, or organized; and how complex
data processing occurs in the brain.

Fig. 6. Neuroscience examines images of the brain to understand it better.

Check Your Progress

How did sociology, demography, anthropology, and psychology develop through time?
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Geography

Geography, or the “science of place,” is the study of the earth’s physical properties and the
distribution of human societies and other elements. It does not only consider the question “where” but
also and more importantly, the “why of where.”

Fig. 7. Mapmaking and the invention of the compass were the first breakthroughs in geographic
development.

The Greek geographer Eratosthenes (276–194 BCE) introduced the term geographia, which means
“writing about the Earth.” The ancient Greeks first used the term in drawing and comprehending the
world around them through maps and verbal accounts of places.

Eventually, maps were made and the geographical patterns of the Earth were studied. These
developments led to the monumental discoveries of the Earth's spherical shape and its circumference.
These also led to a deeper understanding of climate patterns and population distribution.

Other notable events in early geography include mapmaking by early Islamic scholars, the use of the
compass in navigation by the Chinese in the 10th century, and Marco Polo's journey across Asia
during the 13th century.

Improvements in geographical knowledge are accompanied by breakthroughs in communication and

navigation. These have also played a great role in exploration and colonization throughout history.
Other fields of social science also rely on geography. For example, economists map out the locations
where trade is most successful. Political scientists have established the connections between
geography and a nation’s political situation.

Human Geography

Human geography surveys how people and culture are distributed throughout the world. This also
includes the analysis of the effects human activities have on the environment. This sub-field also
analyzes how various political and social systems are arranged across the globe.

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 Firg. 8. The study of the distribution of people across the globe is the primary goal of human
geography.

Human geographers also deal with how markets relate to the size of the consumer base in a given
locality. They also find out how agricultural production is determined by the climatic conditions of a
region. In addition, they investigate how human health is affected by environmental hazards such as
water pollution and earthquakes.

Physical Geography

Studying natural or environmental systems is the main focus of physical geography. Some of the
subfields of physical geography include the following:

1. Geomorphology — studies land formations and how different factors such as wind, erosion,
volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes affect them
2. Pedology — deals with the creation, alteration, and classification of soil. Pedology is a useful
field in farming and engineering.
3. Climatology — refers to the study of the climates of the Earth and climatic phenomena (e.g.,
El Niño and La Niña) and their effects
4. Oceanography — studies the world’s oceanic environment and species, along with different
phenomena such as tides and typhoon formation
5. Hydrology — defined as the study of the properties of the planet’s water
6. Biogeography — deals with the effects of the changes in the environment on plants and
animals

Linguistics

Linguistics is referred to as the systematic study of language, including its structure and meanings.
Linguistics also looks into how a language has changed and how it is used in various contexts. It relies
on cultural, social, and historical considerations to determine why a language has developed in a
particular manner. The study of language can take on many approaches. It can be synchronic or
diachronic. It can be theoretical or applied. Micro linguistic or macro linguistic approaches can also
be used.

Synchronic linguistics studies language at a given point in time. By nature, it is descriptive and
determines how language or specific grammatical elements function together. On the other hand, a
diachronic approach to studying language traces how it evolves over time.

Theoretical linguistics develops an understanding of structures of a language. Theoretical linguists

create systems known as frameworks that help in describing these structures. In contrast, applied
linguistics uses this knowledge to understand and solve problems related to language.

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 Fig. 9. The use of language is studied in linguistics.

Microlinguistics analyzes language independent from social context. Macrolinguistics is concerned

with a much broader approach to understanding language. It considers both cultural and behavioral
aspects related to the nature and development of language itself.

The first systematic approaches to linguistics were diachronic in nature and began during the 19th
century. A group of German scholars called Neogrammarians emerged during this period. They
proposed that from existing languages, their possible parent language (or protolanguage) can be
derived (or reconstructed).

In the early 20th century, the Swiss philosopher and linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913)
became one of the main figures of structuralism in linguistics. In De Saussure’s particular version of
structuralism, he presented three important concepts in language. These are the signifier, the signified,
and the sign. According to Daniel Chandler of Princeton University, the signifier refers to the word
that represents an idea; the signified is the idea itself; and the sign is the combination of the two.

With the groundbreaking book Syntactic Structures, the American linguist Noam Chomsky (1928–
present) eventually became known as the father of modern linguistics. He introduced the idea of
universal grammar, which claims that human beings are genetically wired to produce language and
figure out its processes. However, some linguists believe that this is not the case. They argue that
cultural and social factors chiefly affect how one learns language. It is still being debated as to
whether or not universal grammar is the best way to explain how language is learned and produced.

Check Your Progress

How do geography and linguistics help in investigating aspects of society?
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History

History, which is derived from the Greek word historia, meaning “inquiry or knowledge,” studies
events as they have chronologically happened in the past. This discipline also attempts to provide an
explanation of causes and effects of such events.

The importance of truth underlies the very core of history. This makes history different from fictional
accounts such as myths and legends. One of the primary obligations of historians is to describe people

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and events based on evidence. This evidence can take the forms of letters, scriptures, or the exposition
of witnesses.

One of the subfields of history is historiography, or the writing of history. Early civilizations’ pursuit
for historiography can be seen in cuneiform, which is a form of writing that includes inscriptions on
clay tablets in early Mesopotamia. This pursuit is also seen in an early writing system known as
hieroglyphs in ancient Egypt.

Herodotus (484 BC–circa 425 BCE) is known as the father of history. He is credited as the major
source of historical data about ancient Greece, as well as Egypt and some parts of Asia during his
time. Even with the advancement of technological methods to examine history, historical
documentation remains a developing science. The study of the past contributes to the improvement of
the historical consciousness. It facilitates informed decisions, rational thought, and cultural awareness.

Fig. 10. A picture of the Rosetta Stone, a well-known object containing ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs

Economics

The word economics comes from the Greek words oikos, meaning “household,” and nomos, meaning
“management.” It generally aims to examine and discuss how wealth is produced, distributed, and
consumed. Another famous definition of economics was given by the British economist Lionel
Charles Robbins (1898–1984). He defined economics as the “science which studies human behavior
as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.”

Economics was among the first disciplines that branched out as a specialized strand of social science.
In the 18th century, some French scholars thought that the government should have no part in
managing wealth. This phase in economics was led by the English economists David Ricardo (1772–
1823) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Ricardo is best known for introducing the idea of laissez-
faire, or the autonomy of the economy from the government. On the other hand, Mill is known for his
theory of utilitarianism. This is the principle that considers an action morally right when it benefits as
many people as possible.

Fig. 11. Economics deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.

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Another milestone in the development of economics is the publication of The Wealth of Nations by
18th-century Scottish economist Adam Smith (1723–1790). According to Encyclopædia Britannica,
the publication of this book may also have led to the emergence of economics as a distinct field. He is
hailed as the father of modern economics. The book pioneered a great bulk of the ideas in economics.
One of these is the idea of free markets, where businesses can compete without the government
controlling them.

Later on, Karl Marx (1818–1883) also became a central figure in the analysis of economy and society.
He denounced capitalism and advocated an economic design anchored on collective ownership of
wealth and production.

Understanding economics is beneficial for both the individual and society. It can primarily help in
deciding how to best distribute limited resources. Economic principles can therefore help in
addressing the universal problem of scarcity. Solving this problem can then help people in
determining what, how, and for whom to produce. This then ensures the overall economic welfare of
society.

Fig. 12. Karl Marx advocated for collective ownership of wealth and property.

Check Your Progress

What roles do history and economics play in the development of individuals and societies?
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The following table outlines the foci, goals, and methods in each of the social sciences discussed.

Disciplines Foci Goals Methods

Sociology society and human to examine the social surveys,

relationships structure and participant observation,

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 development of society field researches, and
and propose solutions social experiments
to its problems

Demography population (birth rate, to statistically examine census, migration

mortality rate, general and describe human models, population
fertility rate, etc.) populations projection, and rate
construction models

Anthropology human evolution to study the nature of participant observation,

man, including culture interviews, and
and evolution linguistic and
archaeological analyses

Psychology human mind to investigate, explain, psychoanalysis, case

predict, and improve studies, naturalistic and
human behavior laboratory observations

Geography places and people in to study the Earth’s cartography

them physical properties and (mapmaking), physical
the distribution of geography sampling,
human societies and and spatial data
other elements analysis

Linguistics language to systematically study structural analysis and

language, its structure contextual analysis
and meanings, along
with how it has
changed and how it is
used in different
contexts

History past events to study events as they oral history,

happened in the past historiography
and to provide an (research, memoirs,
explanation of their speeches)
causes and effects

Economics wealth and other to examine and discuss theoretical (using

resources the means with which various economic
wealth is produced, approaches) and
distributed, and empirical (relies on

21
 consumed practical applications
and causal analysis)
methods

Political Science politics the activity through institutionalism,

which people make, political economy,
preserve, and amend democratization, social
the general rule under movements/contentious
which they live politics,
constructivism, post-
structuralism

Wrap-Up

• Each discipline or subfield of the social sciences is a specialized study of a particular aspect
of human society.

• Sociology is concerned with the study of society and the different facets of human social
relationships.

• Demography is defined as the statistical analysis of populations.

• Anthropology aims to study humans’ culture and evolution.

• Psychology is the branch of social science that examines different mental states and
behaviors.

• Geography is the study of the Earth’s physical properties and the distribution of human
societies and other elements across it.

• Linguistics is referred to as the systematic study of language.

• History studies past events and their causes and effects.

• Economics looks into how wealth is produced, distributed, and consumed.

22
 Unit 2: Dominant
Approaches and Ideas
in the Social Sciences

23
 Lesson 2.1 Structural-Functionalism

Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has undoubtedly disrupted the usual flow of things in our society. What
was previously our typical everyday routine has undergone drastic changes. Circumstances such as
these give us a chance to take a second look at how our lives have been for the past few years. More
importantly, it opened our minds and made us ask questions about society. For example, why have we
been on lockdown and what is its purpose? What role does the government play in addressing the
pandemic? Why have classes been pushed through and work has proceeded despite the threat of
COVID-19? What role do school, businesses, and family play during this situation? Why is every
aspect of society affected by the pandemic and lockdown measures? In order to answer these
questions and gain a better grasp of our society, this lesson will help us understand structural-
functionalism.

DepEd Competencies
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Define structuralism (HUMSS_DIS 11 -IIIe-f-1).

• Determine manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions of sociocultural phenomena

(HUMSS_DIS 11 -IIIe-f-1).

Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Explain structural-functionalism.

• Identify Emile Durkheim’s contribution to structural-functionalism.

• Distinguish between manifest and latent functions.

24
Discover
For social scientists, society can be defined as a group of people who interact in a defined territory
and have a common culture. Since we are part of society, it is important that we understand how it
works. In this lesson, we will discuss one of the sociological approaches utilized in understanding this
process—structural-functionalism.

What is Structural-Functionalism?

Structural-functionalism is one of the major approaches in sociology. It is an approach that views

society as a complex unit or system composed of many parts that come and work together to ensure
its stability and survival. Structural-functionalism is characterized as a macro-level approach by
sociologist John Macionis; meaning, it analyzes society as a large-scale unit, or in its totality.
According to sociologist Kingsley Davis, the term structural-functionalism was used to label this
approach because of what it focuses on. The first of these is the relationships among social structures
and institutions. Structural-functionalism also emphasizes structure in society.

Structural-functionalism is one of the major approaches in sociology. It is an approach that views

society as a complex unit or system composed of many parts that come and work together to ensure
its stability and survival. Structural-functionalism is characterized as a macro-level approach by
sociologist John Macionis; meaning, it analyzes society as a large-scale unit, or in its totality.
According to sociologist Kingsley Davis, the term structural-functionalism was used to label this
approach because of what it focuses on. The first of these is the relationships among social structures
and institutions. Structural-functionalism also emphasizes structure in society.

Fig. 1. Concept map of structural-functionalism

As seen in Fig. 1, interrelatedness and interdependence are observable among social institutions.
These institutions include, but are not limited to, the family, school, the economy, religion, culture,
and the government. Since they are interrelated and interdependent, social institutions need one
another for society to function as a whole. For example, the family nurtures individuals to be part of
society. Oftentimes, school teaches an individual the needed skills and knowledge to pursue a career
in the future. The economy, particularly companies, may employ individuals who finished schooling
to be a productive member of the workforce. Religion plays a role in imparting moral values on how
to properly act and behave in a society. Other norms, beliefs, and traditions may also affect one’s
behavior and morals. Lastly, the government is expected to ensure the safety and well-being of its
citizens and can work with schools and the economy to do so. These are all examples of the specific
social function(s) of these institutions to keep society going.

25
 Fig. 2. Human Body

Early proponents of structural-functionalism, such as English philosopher and sociologist Herbert

Spencer (1820–1903), compared society to a human body. Every part of our body should be present
and work together for us to fully function as a human being. For example, the heart pumps out blood
and the lungs are needed in absorbing oxygen. Meanwhile, the veins and arteries are connected to
both organs, carrying blood and oxygen throughout our system. If one part is missing, there will be
disruptions in the overall functioning of the body. Similar to the human body, society needs each of its
parts to work together in order to survive. For example, the government enacts laws to ensure the
well-being of citizens. However, it can only do so effectively by working with other sectors such as
the economy and health. If it fails to do so, solidarity and stability cannot be attained and social
disruptions will occur. Thus, it is vital that all interrelated and interdependent social structures and
social institutions are present, performing their assigned functions and working together.

Check Your Progress

What function does social media play in your life? Would you consider social media as a social
institution? Why or why not?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Manifest and Latent Functions

According to Macionis, sociologists under structural-functionalism identify and investigate the

various social structures and institutions and their specific functions in a society. American sociologist
Robert K. Merton elaborated the concept of social function, which is fundamental to structural-
functionalism.

In his book Social Theory and Social Structure, Merton explained that social structures and social
institutions have a variety of social functions attributed to them. He coined the term manifest function,
which refers to the “recognized and intended consequences” of an aspect of society. These are social
functions that are readily attributed and openly stated with regard to a particular social structure or
social institution. For example, it is believed that the function of a university is to produce educated
graduates and future productive members of the workforce. The other type of function, latent
function, refers to the “unrecognized and unintended consequences” of an aspect of society. In other
words, these are the hidden purposes of a particular social structure or social institution. Going back

26
to the previous example, a university becomes an avenue for young people from various walks of life
to come together and interact with one another. In universities, people from a specific age group
develop relationships, intimate or otherwise, and it is considered part of the norm.

Fig. 3. One of the manifest functions of schools is to produce graduates that will contribute to society
and its workforce in the future.

While both manifest and latent functions maintain stability and solidarity, Merton explained that there
are also functions that can be disruptive in nature. Social dysfunction, as he called it, is an element or
process of or within a society that may disrupt solidarity and stability. According to sociologists Ruth
Wallace and Alison Wolf, Merton’s social dysfunction can be analyzed in two ways. On one hand, it
can be seen generally as indeed detrimental to society. For example, heavy traffic is generally
believed to lessen the overall economic productivity of a country. On the other hand, Wallace and
Wolf also explain that for some, what is considered a social dysfunction can vary from one person to
another. For example, an individual can view religion as making people numb to inequalities and
injustices that they are experiencing, while others may view it as a source of guidance and purpose in
life.

Check Your Progress

What other aspects of society (either social structure or social institution) exhibit both manifest and
latent functions? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Emile Durkheim

According to Ruth Wallace and Alison Wolf, one of the most

prominent figures under structural-functionalism is Emile
Durkheim (1858–1917). He was born to a family of rabbis and
was briefly studying to follow their footsteps. He decided not to
proceed with this profession and pursued a career in academe to
which he viewed teaching as a “sacred duty.”

27
Fig. 4. Emile Durkheim, one of the main figures of structural-functionalism
Some of his contributions include his ideas on collective conscience and integration. In his work The
Rules of Sociological Method, he discussed social facts. He defined these as behaviors determined by
external forces, according to author Robert Alun Jones. In The Elementary Forms of Religious Life,
he explained how religion is a phenomenon created by people/society. Another important work by
Durkheim is The Division of Labor in Society where he examined the function of division of labor.
In Suicide, he described suicide as a social problem. All of these are pivotal in the understanding of
social structures and their functions in a society.

In addition, Durkheim paved the way in the establishment of sociology as a discipline and field of
study in universities in France. His influence also became crucial in the progress of sociology as a
whole. He became influential to other well-known sociologists such as Talcott Parsons (1902–1979)
and Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), as well as anthropologists Bronislaw Malinowski (1884–1942)
and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown (1881–1955).
Structuralism
According to sociologist George Ritzer, the late 20th century saw a “linguistic turn” among social
scientists. This led to the conception of structuralism which looks into the underlying patterns in
human behavior, in turn leading to observable social phenomena. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-
Strauss derived this approach from linguistic structuralism. According to linguistic structuralists,
language is structured in a way that it follows certain rules and principles that even the speaker is not
aware of. Lévi-Strauss believed that social phenomena could be reconceptualized as though they were
linguistic structures. He claimed that unconscious regularities or unobservable structures are found not
only in grammar or language, but also in social phenomena and human expressions. According to
Lévi-Strauss, these reflect the way we think.

While structuralists and structural-functionalists presented different approaches and claims, both
remained focused on discovering and understanding general patterns or principles and their
function(s) in society.

28
Wrap-Up

• Structural-functionalism is an approach that views society as a complex unit or system

composed of many parts that come and work together to ensure its stability and survival.

• Social functions, according to sociologist John Macionis, refer to “consequences [of each
social structure] for the operation of society.”

• Manifest function refers to the recognized and intended consequences of an aspect of

society. Latent function refers to the unrecognized and unintended consequences of an
aspect of society.

• Social dysfunction refers to an element or process of or within a society that may actually
disrupt solidarity and stability. It can be analyzed as generally detrimental to society.
However, some people can also have varying notions of what is considered a social
dysfunction.

• Structuralism is the study of the underlying patterns in human behavior, in turn leading to
observable social phenomena.

29
 Lesson 2.2 Marxism

Introduction
Have you ever wondered why there are people who have more of something while others have less
or even none of it? Why are there people who can afford their own personal vehicles while others
are crammed in deteriorating public transportation systems? Why are there people who had the
privilege to finish a college degree while others need to walk kilometers of harsh terrain just to reach
their elementary school? Or why can some people lavishly dine in expensive restaurants and have
enough money to spare while others can barely make ends meet just to have food on their tables?
Marxism is a theory that believes that these situations reflect social inequality, and that we should
acknowledge this reality.

DepEd Competency
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze social inequalities in terms of class conflict
(HUMSS_DIS 11-IIIg-2).

Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Define Marxism.
• Identify the key contributions of the following: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Antonio
Gramsci.
• Understand the Marxist concepts of class conflict, economic base-superstructure model,
class consciousness, and revolution.

Discover
Our understanding of society is a dynamic experience. As we mature, we are being exposed to harsh
realities right before our eyes. We are then able to see the world in a different manner. Things that
we did not seem to care about before are now something we are aware of and responsive to. As
future social scientists, we need to be armed with an open mind to better grasp all facets of society,

30
including its prevalent inequalities. In this lesson, we will discuss Marxism, another sociological
approach utilized in understanding how our society works.

Marxism

For American sociologist John J. Macionis, Marxism, in its general sociological sense, sees the world
as a “struggle between segments of society over valued resources.” These social segments can also
be referred to as social classes, and their struggles are also called social conflicts. These conflicts can
take many different forms. However, what social scientists usually focus on is the class conflict that
arises from the existing economic system that governs society.

For many sociologists, Marxism is the complete opposite of the structural-functionalist approach,
which focuses on solidarity and stability. On the other hand, the Marxist approach views society as
an arena of inequality, which generates conflict and change.

Capitalism as the Historical Context behind Marxism

Before we proceed further with Marxism, we first need to understand how it came into fruition. The
Industrial Revolution in the 19th and early 20th century transformed largely agricultural economies
to industrial economies in most European societies. This revolution prompted the proliferation of
capitalism as the prevailing economic system. According to John Macionis and Linda Gerber,
capitalism refers to an economic system where natural resources and means of producing goods are
privately owned in pursuit of profit. Private ownership meant that a select number of individuals
controlled the means of production with a clear-cut goal of profit-making.

In theory, this economic system can have positive impacts on the economy of a country. It was
believed that with capitalism, more individuals, other than nobles or aristocrats, can attain a wealthy
status. It was also believed that capitalism could promote development in various parts of a country.
However, Karl Marx, the key figure behind Marxism, witnessed the complete opposite of capitalist
ideals for the majority of the population. According to Macionis, Marx saw this society as a
contradiction where various forms of inequalities are widespread. In a growing society with
sprawling new factories, surplus of resources, and technology, why are there so many people who
are poor? What can be done to change their situation? Furthermore, Marx believed that capitalism
led to a human's alienation. Instead of reaching his or her fullest potential, a human being is defined
by the specific type of work that the capitalists have told him or her to do. As an example, rather
than dreaming of creating his own vehicle, a worker is content with installing tires for the rest of his
life as long as he or she earns enough money to feed his or her family and make it through a day.
According to Macionis, this reality became Marx’s motivation to help a severely divided society and
create a new and fairer social order for everyone.

Key Figures in Marxism

Karl Marx (1818–1883) originally studied law to follow the footsteps of his father. He attended the
University of Bonn. Then, in the University of Berlin, he became fascinated with and later joined a
group of intellectuals known as the Young Hegelians; they critiqued German politics at that time.

Later in 1843, Marx migrated to Paris to work as a journalist. It was here that he met Friedrich Engels
(1820–1895), a budding philosopher and part of a family of textile manufacturers. According to
sociologist James Farganis, Engels played a very important role in the life of Marx as Engels
supported him financially and shared his vision of historical progress and revolutionary
transformation. Engels would later become Marx’s benefactor and lifelong friend. Both of them

31
collaborated to write The Communist Manifesto, which was published in 1848. Marx then faced
financial struggles from 1848 to 1863. He settled in London and continued to write Das Kapital. This
book was published later in 1867 and became his masterpiece.

In addition, the works of Karl Marx are associated with the communist and socialist ideologies. The
works of Marx and Engels also laid the groundwork for communism. Communism is a hypothetical
economic and political system in which all members of a society are equal. In theory, the goal is to
return to a communist society where all class divisions are abolished, and everyone is equal. In this
society, conflicts and inequalities will no longer exist. For Marx, according to Macionis, communism
was present in the early hunting and gathering societies. However, Marx added that, gradual change
and advancement of societies led to social conflicts.

On the other hand, socialism refers to an economic system in which natural resources and the
means of producing goods and services are collectively owned. For Marx, socialism is the economic
system that shall replace capitalism after a revolution takes place. According to Macionis, socialism
is an important step toward the ideals of a communist society.

One of Marx’ modern contemporaries went by the name of Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937), an Italian
philosopher and communist. Gramsci is most well-known for his concept of hegemony, which refers
to cultural leadership exercised by the ruling class, according to American sociologists George Ritzer
and Jeffrey Stepnisky. Hegemony can be described as a way of exercising power through the consent
of masses rather than by force. According to Ritzer and Stepnisky, Gramsci was a Marxist, but he
believed that historical developments are not inevitable. Ritzer and Stepnisky added that according
to Gramsci, the masses have to act for a revolution to occur. For the masses to act and topple the
existing order, they should become conscious of the reality that they are experiencing. For this to
happen, communist intellectuals shall play a vital role in enlightening them from the false
consciousness that clouds their reality.

Check Your Progress

Capitalism is the main concern of Marxism. In your own words, explain how capitalism exists in the
Philippines. Cite at least two examples.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Society through the Lens of Marxism

Marxism argues that the economy or prevailing economic system dominates the others and defines
the character of the entire society. This idea is part of Marx’s materialism. According to Ritzer and
Stepnisky, materialism claims that the way by which people provide for their material needs
conditions the relations that people have with each other. In a macro-sense, the prevailing economic
system acts as the economic base that serves as a “foundation” to all other institutions or
superstructures.

According to Marx, a connected concept to the base is superstructures. Marx believed that
superstructures are social institutions that support the base and justify its actions. It can be said that
the base shapes the superstructures. Examples of superstructures include the family, government,
religion, and media. A capitalistic society may operate through production and relationships in
businesses (base). Then, it may be believed that businesses drive growth and development in every
social institution in a society. In turn, a school (superstructure) might then reinforce the mindset that

32
businesses and capitalism help society develop, thus justifying their presence. Schools can then be
seen as a "manufacturing establishment" that produces educated and productive members of the
labor force. These members of the labor force might then later work in capitalists' businesses or
companies. Similarly, laws can be said to support the capitalist economic base by containing
provisions protecting the property and interests of capitalists.

Another important concept in Marxism is false consciousness, which Marx believed to be

widespread in a capitalist economic system. According to Macionis and Gerber, false consciousness
can be defined as the concept of explaining “social problems as the shortcomings of individuals
rather than the flaws of society.” That is, the rich are in that state because they have earned that
money and resources through hard work and education while the poor remain poor because they
lack the drive to better themselves and escape such harsh conditions. According to Marxism, this can
then lead to widespread inequality being accepted as if it were the way of life.

Fig. 2. Economic base-superstructure model

Class Conflict and History

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” This may be considered
the most famous excerpt from The Communist Manifesto, and it summarizes the Marxist view of
society in relation to history. According to American sociologist Ruth Wallace and British economist
Alison Wolf, this statement generates three important propositions of historical materialism: (1)
people within a similar socio-economic class tend to act as a group; (2) socio-economic classes are
the most important groups found in any given society; and (3) their history is the history of human
society. Marx believed that any prevailing economic system in the history of man divides the society
into two classes: the haves and have-nots. In the case of capitalism, it was divided between the
capitalists and the proletariat. The capitalists are those who own the factories and businesses to gain
profits. On the other hand, the proletariat are the workers who sell their labor to earn wages from
the capitalists. Under Marxism, the proletariat and capitalists are constantly engaged in a class
conflict.

Class conflict, as defined by Macionis, is a type of social conflict between entire classes over the
distribution of a society’s wealth and power—the means of production. Throughout the history of
human society under Marxism, class conflict has been the catalyst that leads to changes and
development. Only a select group of individuals are believed to have controlled the majority of
resources and how such resources will be utilized or distributed. These groups include kings, royals,

33
aristocrats, and capitalists. The majority of the people are then subject to the control of these
powerful groups.

According to Marxism, at the end of each class conflict, new classes will emerge and will control the
means of production. Capitalism, which is an example of a prevailing economic system even today, is
believed to have produced a society where the capitalists exploit the majority of the masses
(proletariat).

According to Marx, revolution is our only way out. For a revolution to occur, Marx pointed out that
the proletariat must become aware of their situation. They need to wake up from their false
consciousness. He believes that the proletariat need to be aware of the oppression and exploitation
that they are experiencing. The next crucial step is for them to organize and act to address these
problems. Protests or demonstrations are considered as an example of the proletariat organizing
and acting to address their concerns. Both steps will result in class consciousness, which according to
Macionis, is the “proletariats’ recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists
and ultimately to capitalism itself.” It is only then that a true revolution will transpire to remake
society. As Marx and Engels themselves said, “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains.
They have a world to win.”

Check Your Progress

What do you think Marx and Engels imply with the following statement: “The proletarians have
nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win”? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Wrap-Up

• Marxism sees society as a conflict between groups of people over valued resources. These
struggles or conflicts can take many different forms, yet the main focus is the class conflict
that arises from the existing economic base that governs a given society.
• Marxism argues that the society is composed of various social institutions. However, the
economy acts as the economic base that shapes the ideas and values of other institutions. In
turn, superstructures justify the actions of the prevailing economic system as its base or
foundation.
• Class conflict is a type of social conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a
society’s wealth and power—the means of production.
• Class consciousness is the proletariat’s recognition of themselves as a class unified in
opposition to capitalists and ultimately to capitalism itself.
• According to Marx, the history of society is a history of class conflict and social change.

34
35
 Lesson 2.3 Symbolic-Interactionism

Introduction
The lockdown and social distancing measures brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic changed
our usual way of doing things. Since then, the majority of our face-to-face interactions have been
limited to our family members. The internet, particularly social media, has been able to keep us
connected to our friends and to other people important to us. However, at the back of our minds,
we still feel the need to have actual interactions with them, to go outside without restrictions, and
visit malls or restaurants without the fear of getting sick. The social isolation that the pandemic
caused has affected us in many ways.

Social interactions, especially face-to-face interactions, play an important role in how we live our
lives. Without realizing it, these interactions that we were used to make us not only social beings but
also shape the society that we live in. In order to fully grasp this notion and gain a better grasp of our
society, this lesson will help us understand symbolic interactionism.

DepEd Competency
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to appraise the meanings that people attach to
everyday forms of interaction in order to explain social behavior (HUMSS_DIS 11-IIIh-3).

Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Explain symbolic interactionism.
• Identify Max Weber’s contribution to symbolic interactionism.

36
Discover
Social interactions are key to how an individual develops. As we go through the socialization process,
we are immersed in various types of situations that help us to integrate into the larger part of the
society. A number of sociologists try to explain large-scale interactions in society. However, our
everyday minute interactions also play a role not only in our individual development but also in
greater societal changes. In fact, these interactions can also help redefine everything in our society.
In this lesson, we will discuss symbolic interactionism, a sociological approach utilized in
understanding how our society works even in the smallest of interactions.
What Is Symbolic Interactionism?

Symbolic interactionism is a major approach in sociology that centers on social interactions in

specific situations in society. It is therefore considered as a micro–level approach. According to
authors John Macionis and Linda Gerber, symbolic interactionism “sees society as the product of the
everyday interactions of individuals.”

The term symbolic interactionism was coined by sociologist Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) in 1937. As
its name implies, sociologists using this approach accept that we live in a world full of symbols.
According to author Joel Charon, symbols refer to social objects used to represent whatever people
agree they shall represent (Charon 1995, 39). Examples of symbols include gestures, language, and
actions. Symbols also include logos and religious icons. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how
symbols and their meanings affect individual actions and social interactions in our everyday lives.
Through social interactions, our capacity for thought enables us to attach meanings to symbols and
virtually everything around us.

According to Macionis, symbolic interactionism was founded on the idea that our society is “nothing
more than a shared reality that people construct for themselves as they interact with one another.”
Furthermore, he says that society is created as we define our surroundings, decide what we think of
others, and shape our own identities. According to sociologist James Farganis, Blumer sees symbolic
interaction as a unique human process that requires an individual to understand the meaning of
something (a symbol or an action itself), as well as the action of others, and then shape an
appropriate response. This means that individuals always try to mesh their behaviors and actions
with those they are interacting with. Thus, our society and everything in it continue to undergo
change. According to symbolic interactionism, we are in an ongoing process of meaning-making.

To understand symbolic interactionism better, let us use the peace sign hand gesture and how it
affects our social interactions. We have learned that the symbol shown in Fig. 1 means "peace." If
we do this gesture in front of other people who also learned its meaning, they may interpret such a
gesture with the same meaning. Indeed, through continuous interaction and sharing of meaning,
symbols can gain a wider acceptance of their attached meanings. American sociologist George Ritzer
argues that groups and societies are shaped by action and interaction and the attached meanings to
these.

Unlike structural-functionalism, where a human being is part of a larger social structure or institution
that follows a certain set of functions, an individual under symbolic interactionism plays an active
role in constructing or reconstructing society. According to authors Ruth Wallace and Alison Wolf,
symbolic interactionism focuses on individuals' actions or reactions and how they attach meaning to
specific situations. They add that because of this, different individuals may attach different meanings
to a similar situation. For example, Facebook was initially considered as a tool to communicate with
friends and loved ones and reconnect with old acquaintances and even family members from other
places. However, as Facebook has become an integral part of our everyday lives, it has become more

37
than a communication tool. It also became a means of self-expression. However, it is also a tool for
cyberbullying and a means to spread misinformation and biased claims for some people.

Fig. 1. Peace sign hand gesture

Check Your Progress

What meaning does social media have in your life?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Blumer’s Three Basic Premises

According to Wallace and Wolf, Herbert Blumer is one of the key figures in the symbolic
interactionism approach. Blumer argued the importance of subjective experience and interpretation
in explaining human interactions. In his book Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method, he
theorized the three basic premises of symbolic interactionism.

1. Human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them.
For Blumer, consciousness or awareness of one's action is a key element in understanding a
meaningful action by an individual. According to Wallace and Wolf, Blumer believes that
how an individual acts toward a specific situation is dependent on how he or she thinks of it.
Let us use smoking as an example. This activity’s meaning would be one's perception of
smoking or what meanings are attached to it. Examples of such meanings would be health
hazards, closer friendships, and stress relief. The action would be whether to smoke or not
to smoke. An individual who sees smoking as beneficial is most likely to smoke. This person
views smoking as a means to relieve stress and to get closer to peers who are smoking. On
the other hand, someone who sees smoking as a health hazard is most likely to stray away
from the act itself or areas where people are smoking.
2. The meaning of things arises out of the social interaction one has with one's fellows.
According to Wallace and Wolf, meaning is a social product; it is created, not inherent in
things; it is not a given. Both symbols and meanings present in a society are socially
constructed and agreed upon through specific social interactions. Using the previous
example of smoking, an individual may view the said activity in a positive way if he or she
grew up in a family that allows smoking. For that person, smoking can be an acceptable
behavior. Later on, that same person may be influenced by his or her friends to smoke
because smoking was believed to make a person look "cool" in that group. As that person

38
 grew up and started working, he or she may be then persuaded to smoke during breaks
since it provides an opportunity to get closer to his or her bosses and gain a better standing
in their company. What one can observe here is how social interactions provide a basis for
the meaning that an individual attaches to it. The meanings of a symbol or an action may
vary depending on whom the individual interacts with.

Fig. 2. Smoking can have different meanings depending on the person or group of
individuals.

3. The meanings of things are handled and modified through an interpretative process used by
the person in dealing with things he or she encounters.

As cited by Wallace and Wolf, Blumer described this interpretative process as an act where a
person communicates and handles meanings through a process of talking to himself.
Individuals decide the meaning that they attach to things. Because an individual has the
capacity for thought, he or she undergoes an internal decision-making process (or
interpretative process) whenever he or she encounters a situation that questions the
meaning of his or her actions. This interpretative process takes into account the meanings
attached to an action or symbol and the probable action of others within that social
interaction. This helps the individual produce the most appropriate response. Thus,
meanings attached to an action or symbol can be retained or modified depending on the
outcome of the interaction. Let us again use smoking as an example. An individual, for
example, may have grown up in a family of non-smokers. Because of this, he or she has
assigned “harm” as the meaning of smoking. Let us say that this individual eventually met
friends who smoke. This group of friends may have, one day, tried to convince him or her
that smoking is relaxing. The individual will now be undergoing the process of “talking to
oneself.” He or she will deliberate on the meanings he or she has attached to smoking, as
well as the present situation where he or she is in, in deciding whether to smoke or not.

For Blumer, all three premises, especially the interpretative process, are integral to symbolic
interactionists. These explain how meanings are created from a specific situation.

Check Your Progress

Why do you think the meanings we attach to symbols change? Do you think socialization has
something to do with it? Why or why not? Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

39
Max Weber

According to Wallace and Wolf, there are a number of prominent figures under the field of symbolic
interactionism; some of them are Georg Simmel (1858–1918), George Herbert Mead (1863–1931),
Herbert Blumer, Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929), and Erving Goffman (1922–1982). However,
most sociologists have credited Max Weber for the origins of this approach, as its roots can be
traced to his original conception of sociology.

Max Weber (1864–1920) was a German sociologist and political economist considered by many as
one of the greatest social scientists of the twentieth century. According to Farganis, he was born to a
middle-class family in Germany; his father was a politician, while his mother was a devout
Protestant. He studied law in Heidelberg and later on in Berlin. This is also where he studied
economic and legal history. Some of his contributions to symbolic interactionism are believed to be
rooted in his concept of Verstehen or “interpretive understanding.”

According to Wallace and Wolf, for Weber, sociology is a “science which attempts the interpretive
understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and
effects (Wallace and Wolf, 1991: 238).” Interpretive or subjective understanding implies the need to
understand how an individual makes sense of an action or experience. Understanding this can help
to fully grasp the meaning behind the action or experience. For him, sociologists and other social
scientists who seek to understand a social experience or phenomenon must learn to put their feet in
the subject’s shoes.

Fig. 3. Max Weber, one of the main figures of symbolic interactionism

Another contribution of Weber to symbolic interactionism is his action theory. This emphasizes the
importance of subjective meaning, and it proved to be influential to symbolic interactionism as a
general approach in sociology.

In addition to this, Weber had other contributions to social science, especially in the field of
sociology. These contributions proved critical in promoting the discipline of sociology as it is known
today. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism offered insights on how religious ideas were
related to economic activities in 19th century Germany. In Politics as a Vocation, he described the
types of legitimate authority present in a society. Lastly, Economy and Society was considered his
monumental project because it consolidates all of his theories, his interpretation of society, and the
application of sociology in making sense of our social reality.

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Wrap-Up

• Symbolic interactionism is an approach that “sees society as the product of the everyday
interactions of individuals.”
• Symbols refer to social objects used to represent whatever people agree they shall
represent.
• According to authors Wallace and Wolf, meaning is a social product; it is created, not
inherent in things; it is not a given.
• According to Herbert Blumer, symbolic interactionism has three basic premises. These
premises center on the importance of meanings, how meanings are formed through social
interaction, and how individuals can interpret meanings on their own.
• Max Weber also believed in the importance of individual experiences in understanding an
action.

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 Unit 3: Dominant
Approaches and Ideas
in the Social Sciences

42
 Lesson 3.1 Psychoanalysis

Introduction
The prolonged lockdown measures brought by the pandemic have led to feelings of isolation and
distress, including among teenagers. One possible reason is not being allowed to go outside until the
latter part of 2020. Despite the long hours in front of gadgets and on social media, there remained the
longing to have face-to-face interactions with friends and go back to what was considered the typical
normal life. Yet, there is the reality that after the pandemic and this rollercoaster of experiences, our
minds will remain overly cautious of the actions we will take and the decisions we will make. This
cautiousness springs from certain processes and elements in our minds. They enable us to make
choices that will likely define our personality and, to some extent, explain our current mental state and
behavior. To better grasp how our mind makes such decisions affecting our personality, we will study
the concept of psychoanalysis in this lesson.

DepEd Competency:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to analyze the psychodynamics of the person’s
personality in terms of the id, ego, and superego (HUMSS_DIS 11-IIIi-4).

Learning Objectives:
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
• Describe psychoanalysis.
• Distinguish and explain the interrelationship among the id, ego, and superego.
• Identify Sigmund Freud’s contribution to psychoanalysis.

Discover
While the previous lessons primarily focused on the external factors that influence behavior, this time
around, the emphasis lies on what can be found inside an individual’s mind. An individual's mind,

43
especially from the point of view of psychologists, can be analyzed to explain his or her behavior, the
way he or she makes sense of the world, how he or she makes decisions, and how his or her
personality develops. In this lesson, we will discuss psychoanalysis, a well-known psychological
approach utilized in understanding how our mind works in influencing our behavior and personality.

What Is Psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalysis, as an approach, subscribes to the idea that each of us has an unconscious part that
contains ideas, memories, desires, or thoughts that have been hidden or repressed because they are
psychologically dangerous or threatening to our self-concept. In other words, psychoanalysis focuses
on the unconscious mind, which is defined as a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no
awareness. Meanwhile, self-concept refers to how we know and see ourselves.

Developed in the early 1900s by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis focuses on how the unconscious part
of our minds influences a person’s idea of himself or herself, his or her overall development of
personality, or his or her concept of the self in general. This particular theory emphasizes
psychological concepts and methods in investigating unconscious mental activities. In turn, “gaining
access” to these unconscious mental activities has been considered important in addressing a
particular problem or disorder.

To further explain the notion of the unconscious, we need to understand first the conscious parts of
our minds. For Freud, conscious thoughts are composed of wishes, thoughts, and desires that we
[individuals] are aware of, or can recall, at any given moment. For instance, when a boy is asked
about who his “crush” is, he can readily think of the answer to that question or even visualize that
person. That is then considered part of his or her conscious thoughts. We can say that it is the part of
our brain that we are aware of; it helps us make sense of our everyday interactions and surroundings.
However, Freud sees the conscious mind and process as merely a small part of the total mental
activity.

On the other hand, the unconscious thoughts or unconscious forces refer to wishes, thoughts, or
desires that we automatically repress and cannot voluntarily access because of their disturbing or
threatening content. While these ideas may be repressed or hidden away inside our minds, Freud
stated that the unconscious might influence an individual’s behavior without even realizing it. It is

44
through the observation and confirmation of both unconscious forces and what Freud called as
unconscious motivation that the exploration of the unconscious mind must take place. Unconscious
motivation is the influence of repressed thoughts, desires, or impulses on conscious thoughts and
behavior.

It can be said that what made Freud’s psychoanalytic theory an innovation of its time was not the
theorizing alone but its prescribing of solutions in order to understand the complexity of the
unconscious mind. Through continuous observations of his patients with hysteria and neurosis, Freud
proposed certain techniques to unlock the unconscious mind. These techniques include free
association, dream interpretation, and Freudian slips. Free association is defined as the free-flowing,
uncensored talking that will provide clues to unconscious forces. Dream interpretation was also
utilized because Freud believed dreams are the purest forms of free association. Lastly, Freudian
slips unintentionally reveal unconscious thoughts or desires. All three techniques were critical in
unmasking the unconscious mind. In addition, all three share a common characteristic: they are least
controlled by conscious thoughts and processes.

Check Your Progress

Why do you think understanding the unconscious mind is important in analyzing your personality?
Explain your answer.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) has become a very famous scientist whose legacy is felt not only in
psychology but also in other disciplines. He is believed to be the first psychologist to construct a
comprehensive description of personality development. He is also known for his early analyses of
mental disorders and their subsequent practices of treatment. In the early 1900s, his works and
accomplishments were considered monumental and revolutionary.

Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia (in what is now the Czech Republic) to a middle-class Jewish
family. He graduated with a degree in medicine and had spent most of his life living in Vienna. Freud
started his career as a neurologist. However, he later got married and needed a career that he
considered more financially stable. He then worked at the Vienna General Hospital to support himself
and his marriage. His interactions with Jean-Martin Charcot, later on Josef Breuer, had influenced his
curiosity into treating or alleviating hysteria through clinical practices, which led to his ideas on
exploring the unconscious mind.

Freud’s primary contribution to psychology is his psychoanalytic theory. It is believed to be widely

influential to those who venture into theories of personality, personality development, and therapeutic
methods. His method of treating certain mental disorders, which involves letting patients talk about
themselves and share their experiences and even dreams, has become a popular method throughout his
field. As mentioned by Spielman et al., Freud's contributions to clinical practice and historical
significance as an innovator of his time have made him an integral part of the historical movements
within psychology and its development as a discipline.

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Theory of Personality

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory assumes that there exists an ongoing conflict within an individual’s
mind—between the conscious and the unconscious.

According to the author Cynthia Vinney, this conflict arises from three separate components within
our minds that are interacting with one another, contributing to the development of an individual’s
personality. These three components are the id, ego, and superego. It should be noted that these
components are mere hypothetical constructs and do not actually exist inside our brains.

Before describing the id, ego, and superego

dynamics, we need to understand first what the
iceberg metaphor is. To understand how the id, ego,
and superego interact, we may compare it to an
iceberg (see fig. 3). The top layer of the iceberg,
which is exposed and readily observable, is like the
conscious part of our minds, while the layer directly
below it that is submerged yet visible is the
preconscious mind. The preconscious mind
contains anything that an individual could readily
pull into his or her conscious awareness. She added
that it also acts as a gatekeeper that guards the
information allowed to the conscious part of our
minds. Lastly, the larger layer below the surface that
is not readily observable is likened to the
unconscious mind.

In describing the three components, we often start with the id. The id refers to the first division of the
mind to develop. The id contains two biological drives—sex and aggression—that are the source of
all psychic or mental energy. The goal of the id is to pursue pleasure and satisfy an individual’s
biological drives. An individual is unaware of these biological drives; hence, the unconscious mind is
at work. Comparing it to the iceberg, it is found at the bottom part. The id operates based on the
pleasure principle, which functions in order to satisfy drives and avoid pain without concern for
moral restrictions or society’s regulations. To get a better picture of the id, it can be compared to a
spoiled child who behaves based only on his or her selfish desires and pleasures and without care
about what other people say as long as these are satisfied.

Following the id is the ego, which emphasizes logic and rationality and operates under the reality
principle. This means that it has contact with external reality. Unlike the id, it knows whether or not
an impulse or wish is appropriate or realistic. We are all born with the id as infants, but as we grow
up, we learn the reality of restrictions imposed on us by our parents and people surrounding us. The
ego manages the desires of the id and the imposed demands of the superego as it tries to evaluate
which actions are more appropriate given the reality. Looking at the iceberg again, a larger part of the
ego is readily observable. This, as explained by Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2011), pertains to the
information that an individual has gathered as he or she develops and adapts to his or her
environment. Meanwhile, the ego is perceived by Freud as responsible for making the final decision
about a situation. For Freud, it must satisfy the id's constant demands and pacify the superego's ideals
while being bound by reality constraints.

46
Freud theorized that the last component to develop is the superego. He added that the superego
represents the internalization of moral codes or the “conscience” that a child develops as he or she
learns more about his or her environment. The superego is Freud's third division of the mind, which
develops from the ego during early childhood. Its goal is to apply the moral values and standards of
one’s parents or caregivers and society in satisfying one’s wishes. Weiner added that the superego has
two specific functions. The first is to reward individuals if they follow morally or socially acceptable
behavior. The second is to punish actions disobeying the moral and social standards, thus leading to a
sense of guilt. The superego is described as a moral guardian who always tries to control the id’s
desires and impulses to avoid feeling guilty. Looking at the iceberg metaphor, the superego is both
within the conscious and unconscious minds since moral standards can impact the two divisions.

Now, it may be of interest to see how these three components interact within an individual’s mind.
Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2011) described a scenario wherein a student is torn if he or she has to
stay at home and review for an exam the next day or go to his or her friend’s house to party. On the
one hand, the id wants the person to go to his or her friend’s house and join the party. However, the
superego reminds him or her to stay put and prepare for the upcoming examination. Meanwhile, the
ego acts as a negotiator or a middleman and tries to balance the most appropriate solution to satisfy
both the id and superego. How the ego tackles such situations is dependent on how an individual
rationalizes or logically thinks of the situation. As an example, the student may proceed to go to the
party but only until 12 midnight so that he or she will still have time to review during the wee hours of
the morning.

In the situation above or in similar situations, the conflict that arises in the mind is what Freud termed
as anxiety. Anxiety refers to an uncomfortable feeling that results from inner conflicts between the
primitive desires of the id and the moral goals of the superego. To relieve an individual from
situations leading to anxiety, Freud explained that the ego reduces such state through a variety of
mental processes known as defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms, as Freudian processes,
operate at unconscious levels and use self-deception or untrue explanations to protect the ego from
being overwhelmed by anxiety. Examples of defense mechanisms include rationalization, denial, and
repression.

In summary, in terms of personality development, the combination of the id, ego, and superego plays
an important role in constructing personality and self-concept under Freud’s psychoanalysis.
According to Vinney, dominance of one component will lead to difficulties. The dominance of the id
will lead to impulsiveness. The dominance of the superego can create a rigidly moralistic persona.
Lastly, the dominance of the ego may lead to an inflexible personality. This is why, as Vinney added,
a balance among the three components is important to have a healthy personality.

Check Your Progress

Think of an experience when you felt anxiety. Explain how your id, ego, and superego affected you
during that experience.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

47
Wrap-Up

• Psychoanalysis is an approach that states that our minds have an unconscious part that
contains ideas, memories, desires, or thoughts that have been hidden or repressed because
they are psychologically dangerous or threatening to our self-concept.

• The unconscious mind is the part of an individual’s mind that refers to a repository of
feelings and urges of which we have no awareness.

• The id refers to the first division of the mind to develop, which contains two biological
drives—sex and aggression—that are the source of all psychic or mental energy. Its goal is to
pursue pleasure and satisfy an individual’s biological drives.

• According to Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian, the ego refers to Freud’s second division of the
mind that develops from the id during infancy, with the goal of finding safe and socially
acceptable ways of satisfying the id’s desires and to negotiate between the id’s wants and the
superego’s prohibition.

• The superego refers to Freud’s third division of the mind that develops from the ego during
early childhood. Its goal is to apply the moral values and standards of one’s parents or
caregivers and society in satisfying one’s wishes.

48
 Lesson 3.2 Rational Choice Theory

Introduction

Life is full of choices. We make choices on what clothes to wear, what food to eat, and what jobs to
take. When we choose, we think about the choice that brings us the most benefit. What clothes will be
more comfortable? Which food will be more suitable to eat in hot weather? Which career is the most
profitable or most fulfilling?

Imagine the choices an individual makes in his or her life, then multiply those with each person in the
world today. Day in and day out, our choices can influence how other people behave and decide. We
may also make decisions that might be beneficial to us in some way but are detrimental to others.
Making choices is difficult. This is why it is important for us to think clearly when we make life
choices.

DepEd Competency

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to predict the social consequences of decision-making
based on scarcity (HUMSS_DIS 11-IVa-6).

Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Define rational choice theory.

• Explain how rational choice theory can be applied in understanding choices.
• Interpret personal and social experiences using rational choice theory.
• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of rational choice theory.

Discover

Have you ever considered what motivates and influences the choices we make? Imagine going to the
market to compare the prices of bangus among the different stalls. We might be more inclined to buy
from the stall that sells the cheapest bangus per kilo because it is the most economically beneficial
decision for us.

49
On the other hand, think of two police suspects under interrogation. Imagine that one suspect was
given the chance to be free. If he pinned the blame on the other suspect, the benefit of freedom
outweighed the cost of imprisoning the other suspect. In this example, the suspect is making a
decision based on the benefits and costs of his action.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory (RCT) assumes that individuals make decisions by

considering the costs, risks, and benefits of their choices. The theory was
proposed in the 18th century by the economist and philosopher Adam
Smith. He theorized that individuals carefully analyze their choices based
on what is good for them (self-interest). These choices are rational; this
means that individuals weigh in on the benefits and costs of their decisions
and choose one that most benefits them.

Rational choice theory has three key assumptions:

1. Individuals are motivated by personal goals and driven by their own desires.
2. Since resources such as money, time, and energy are finite, individuals must choose attainable
means to reach their goals and desires.
3. Social phenomena can be explained through rational individual actions.

Rational choice theory can be applied in every aspect of society. For example, it can be used to
understand how businessmen and entrepreneurs buy, sell, and trade goods to gain profit. Rational
choice theory is also used in the field of political science to analyze voting behaviors and government
policies.

Tragedy of the Commons

The activity that you did in the Explore part shows the tragedy of the commons. It explains the
difficulty of making a choice for one’s benefit, at the cost of another individual, especially when the
resource is scarce and limited. When individuals keep consuming for their own personal gain without
any restrictions, they may deplete the resources of their group, leaving none for others.

If you were to recall your role as farmers in that activity, you needed to sustain your family’s
resources by letting your sheep graze. Likewise, there were other farmers who also needed to sustain
their own family. The resource, which was the grazing land, was finite and may be depleted. If each
family were to decide based on their personal benefits, then the resources would be depleted more
quickly. This is why it is also important to calculate the risks alongside the benefits of our decisions.
If one farmer group’s sheep were allowed to graze for an unlimited amount of time, then the pasture
would diminish quickly.

Check Your Progress

Why is it important to cooperate with other groups or individuals when making rational choices?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

Consider this visual representation of the different scenarios in the tragedy of the commons. It shows
how long the grazing land will last depending on whether or not the two farmer groups limit their
grazing time.

50
The table shows that the farming land will last longest when both farmer groups limit their grazing
time. This shows that if both parties want the land to last, they must cooperate and limit their grazing
time. Another implication of this table is that the absence of regulations in obtaining resources and
benefits may result in their depletion. Given the tragedy of the commons, the farming land will
diminish in five years if both farmer groups do not limit their grazing time. As a result, the farmers’
families may not have enough resources to survive in the future.

The Prisoner’s Dilemma

Another situation similar to the tragedy of the commons is the prisoner’s dilemma. In this situation,
two prisoners, both of whom are suspects in a crime, have been separated and unable to communicate.
Each of the two prisoners is given the option to confess or remain silent with the following
consequences:

• If Prisoner A confesses but Prisoner B remains silent, Prisoner A goes free while Prisoner B
gets eight years in prison.
• On the other hand, if Prisoner B confesses but Prisoner A is silent, then Prisoner B goes free
while Prisoner A gets eight years in prison.
• If both prisoners confess that each of them is guilty, they both serve five years in prison.
• If both prisoners remain silent, there would not be solid evidence against each of them,
making both of them serve only one year in prison.

51
The key to understanding the prisoner’s dilemma is to remember that one prisoner will benefit if he or
she betrays the other prisoner. However, if both of them confess, they will spend more time in prison.
If both remain silent, they will spend less time in prison than if they both confess. Remember that they
cannot communicate. There is no way for them to agree whether to confess or not. Similar to the
tragedy of the commons, the prisoner’s dilemma shows us that a choice based on one’s individual best
interest may not always be the most rational one.

Thus, a decision based on rational choice theory is not always the best choice. Moreover, research
studies in economics and psychology show that people are not rational when they make decisions
(Levin & Milgrom 2004, 2). That is, we do not carefully analyze the benefits and costs of our own
choices. More often, we make decisions based on shortcuts or emotions that are not even clear to us
(Kahneman 2011). For example, you might have chosen a black shirt not because of a careful analysis
of pros and cons but because you feel sad.

Wrap-Up

• Rational choice theory (RCT) possesses the following characteristics: ○ Individuals are
motivated by personal goals and driven by their own desires. ○ Individuals must choose
attainable means to reach their goals and desires. ○ Social phenomena can be explained
through rational individual actions.
• When making decisions in society, benefits must be considered in the context of risks and
costs.
• Since resources are finite and excessive consumption may deplete these resources, limits must
be placed.
• The tragedy of the commons and the prisoner’s dilemma can explain situations wherein one
can receive more benefits when excessively consuming a scarce resource at the cost of other
individuals.
o The failure of parties to cooperate will result in undesirable consequences for both.
o Cooperation and implementing limits or regulations will benefit both parties in the long
term.

52
 Lesson 3.3 Institutionalism

Introduction

Society shapes the way we live. Think of how our family traditions, school rules, and government
laws keep a sense of order in our homes, classrooms, and in our country. Each aspect of social life is
regulated and facilitated by what we call our institutions. These may come in the form of
governments, schools, religion, and even our families.

However, there is another form of institution that is integrated in our social lives. Our habits, norms,
and beliefs, when shared together with a group, also become institutions in themselves. The social
transmission of norms, rules, and beliefs contributes to how members of various institutions, such as
government officials (e.g., senators and the military), the medical community, and the academe,
enforce regulations in their respective organization.

As a result, people are subject to observe them. The same is also true for the trends, traditions, and
beliefs that we have in our society. For instance, in the Filipino community, more than 86% of the
population are Christians. Institutionalism, which is the study of the origins, effects, and potential for
the reform of institutions, may be our springboard to answer questions such as “how do certain
governments or religions gain influence in society?” and “how can we improve the institutions that we
have today?”

DepEd Competency

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to examine the constitutive nature of informal and formal
institutions and their actors and how it constrains social behavior (HUMSS_DIS 11-IVb-7).

Learning Objectives

In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:

• Interpret personal and social experiences using relevant approaches in the social sciences.
• Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the approach.
• Define institutionalism as a lens for students to understand society.

53
Discover

Think of how our society acts like a human body: There are various parts that serve a role in keeping
society functional. Hence, individuals, as part of society, behave according to their roles. How
individuals perform these roles are dictated by institutions. However, there are instances in which
individuals as a collective can also shape institutions.

For social progress to continue, it is important that we assess and examine the institutions that we
have today. It has been said that institutions bear within them equally the most dangerous form of
social control as well as the most certain method of human liberation, which can address the
inequalities in today’s society.

Characteristics of Institutions

Looking back to the questions discussed in the previous activity, we can see that customs, rules, and
beliefs guide much of our lives. For example, we have been taught that education is important, and so
we go to school and try to graduate. We are taught to have faith in God, and so we pray and join a
religion. We learn that it is important to help our family, and so we give assistance when relatives
need help. These rules have been passed down to us by our parents, teachers, and anyone who taught
us how to fit in society. Our interactions with people taught us these rules for living. These rules, in
turn, make our lives well-regulated and predictable. Where do these rules for living come from? They
are endorsed by institutions.

Institutions are “organization or other formal social structure that governs a field of action” (Rojas
2018). An example of a social institution is education. A social institution is an organization, which
means that it has members with their own roles to fulfill all in the service of reaching a goal. You are
a member of the educational institution as well as your teachers, your school head, and even the
education secretary. The educational institution governs a field of action, which is transmitting
knowledge and skills to people. As a student who is part of the educational institution, you learn how
to value certain things such as passing and getting high grades. You also learn conventions and rules
on how to act, which are required in your role as a student. You learn that you have to listen to
teachers, that you have to study, and that you must submit requirements in order to prove that you
have learned. Institutions are, by nature, purely made by humans through a series of social
interactions.

The sociologist Max Weber mentioned that as institutions gain more members, they also gains more
legitimacy. This means that as institutions are followed over time, they become part of a society’s
tradition. For some people, it makes sense to follow a certain institution just because it has been part
of tradition for a long time.

When one observes society through institutionalism, it is important to understand how socially-
integrated habits, customs, and conventions are formed. Let us study these concepts one by one.

Habits are repeated actions that become recognized by a self-conscious individual and are then
internally represented. This simply means that these actions become a part of that individual’s
identity. Examples of these are exercising every morning, allocating time for studying, or even just
checking your belongings before you leave the house.

Customs are habits that are shared within a group. This integrates a social aspect in our habits. For
example, some communities, usually Western cultures, may look down upon people who chew loudly

54
while eating. On the other hand, in some Eastern cultures, not chewing with your mouth open is a sign
of disrespect to those who prepared the food.

Conventions are any procedures that are agreed upon by society. One example of this is language. It is
a convention because the meanings of the words and the grammatical structures must be agreed upon
by speakers of a certain language for them to be successfully communicated. Another example of a
social convention is religion. For example, there are various denominations found in Christianity,
such as Roman Catholic Church, Baptist Church, Protestantism, Eastern Orthodox Church, etc.
Groups of people have agreed on various interpretations of religious texts and phenomena, hence the
plurality of Christian denominations. Laws are also another example. A society may have rights that
must be protected to ensure moral and social stability. Hence, society agrees upon laws and upholds
them in day-to-day life.

What each group agrees to represent becomes conventional, and the conventions that become more
represented in society become institutions. Hence, to institutionalize something means reinforcing
certain agreed–upon habits, customs, beliefs, laws, and conventions in society. Just like how habits
make certain actions a part of an individual’s identity, the process of institutionalization makes a
habit, a belief, a custom, or a convention a part of a society’s collective identity.

Institutions may have different backgrounds with different authorities to implement the act of
institutionalization. For example, in Islam, the imam is considered a religious authority. The role of
the imam is to uphold the beliefs held in Islam and reinforce them to the Islamic community by
facilitating religious traditions. In school, our teachers are not only communicators of information;
they also uphold the identity of the school to the students. That is why observing the school’s rules is
also a means of social control and establishing collective identity.

Check Your Progress

What is the relationship between habits and institutions? Give one example to show this relationship.

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Understanding how habits and customs lead to conventions and institutions is essential for
institutionalism because these three concepts are the points where individuals can trace the influence
of a certain institution in their lives. Let us view various examples of how institutions are formed in
today’s society.

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Institutionalism in Religion

How does religion as an institution shape our lives? Religion unites its members through shared
values and customs, regulates and provides order by forbidding certain behaviors, and provides
meaning and sense to people’s lives (Macionis 2017). For example, on October 4, 2020, the Vatican
released the long-awaited encyclical of Pope Francis, which is called Fratelli tutti. This document was
written as the Church’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which has wrought sickness, fear, and
death in the lives of people all over the world. Pope Francis mentions that people should aspire
towards fraternity and social friendship, especially in a time of unrest and separation such as the
pandemic.

The encyclical document is an address to the Christian community to reinforce the shared values of
the Church and to provide meaning in the midst of a pandemic.

Religion, as an institution, also functions to guide and regulate its members’ behavior. For example,
as part of the Roman Catholic institution, the members are required to follow the commandments and
doctrines. It requires its members to attend Mass every Sunday. It asks participation in activities such
praying the rosary and novenas. It also provides social control on behavior by forbidding actions such
as lying and stealing. One can say that religion as an institution provides regularity and order in
people’s lives.

Institutionalism in Families

Sometimes, institutions do not have formal and explicit conventions, customs, and habits that guide
behavior. Unlike the institution of government, for example, that have rules written down in the form
of laws, informal institutions rely on widely shared and implied understanding of what is the proper
and normal way to behave. For example, among families, it is often an unspoken rule that the eldest
child has to support the education of his or her younger siblings. Though there is no law or doctrine
that explicitly dictates this, many families still follow this rule.

The family is an important social institution. It is the first social institution that a person comes into
contact with and is influential for teaching values, beliefs, and norms to younger generations. Most of
what you believe to be Filipino values have been taught by your family. As with any institutions, each
member has his or her roles to play. Attached to these roles are expectations that guide how we should
behave. For example, in Filipino culture, mothers are expected to be directly involved in caring for
their children. Most Filipino mothers use this expectation as a guide on how they behave and interact
with their children. Their habits might involve cooking for their children or washing their clothes. If
shared by many mothers, these habits can be considered as conventions for how a mother should care
for her children.

As role expectations guide behavior, the same expectations also constrain it. Thus, a mother might
have difficulty engaging in activities outside her role as a mother in the family. For example, she
might find it hard to juggle the expectations of being an employee and being a mother at the same
time. Thus, social institutions, as much as they give order, also impose limits on our lives.

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Wrap-Up

• Institutionalism is the study of the origins, effects, and potential for the reform of institutions.
• Institutions are made by humans through a series of social interactions.
• In analyzing a certain social phenomenon, institutionalism offers three key points:
o habits – repeated actions that become recognized by a self-conscious individual and
are then internally represented by him or her
o customs – habits that are shared within a group
o conventions – procedures that are agreed upon by society
• Institutions become more widespread in society as relevant habits, customs, and conventions
become more and more represented by various sectors of society.
• Institutions reinforce habits, norms, and beliefs that are part of the collective identity of a
particular group or organization.
• There are authorities that implement and uphold norms, beliefs, trends, regulations, and laws
in society. Various authorities exist in different sectors, such as in economics, culture,
politics, and religion.

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