SHS Q3 - Las Eval - Diss 11 W1 7

Disciplines and Ideas
In Social Sciences
Grade 11
Quarter 3
GOVERNMENT PROPERTY
NOT FOR SALE
Self-Learning Module
1
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL SCIENCES WITH NATURAL SCIENCES AND
HUMANITIES
Name of Learner _________________________________

Section _________________________________________ Q3W1 _________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies

 Differentiate the nature and functions of Social Science disciplines with the natural
sciences and humanities.
Key Concept
Defining Social Sciences as the Study of Society
The scientific study of organized human groups is a relatively recent development, but a vast
amount of information has been accumulated concerning the social life of human beings. This
information has been used in building a system of knowledge called Social Sciences about the
nature, growth and functioning of human societies.
Historical Background of Social Sciences
The history of the social sciences begun in the roots of ancient philosophy. In ancient
history, there was no difference between Mathematics and the study of history, poetry or politics,
only with the development of mathematical proof did there gradually arise a perceived difference
between “scientific” disciplines and others such as the “humanities” or “liberal arts.”
The Age of Enlightenment saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic
framework by which individuals understood what was “scientific”. In some quarters, the
accelerating trend of mathematical studies presumed a reality independent of the observer and
worked by its own rules. Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were
influenced by the Age of Revolution, such as the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution.
The Social Sciences developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the systematic
knowledge - bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the social improvement of a group of
interacting entities.
According to Stearns et al. (2000) In the period of 1760

 Some effort was spent on the study of man and society. Hobbes` Leviathan; Lock’s Two
Treatises on Government; Vico`s New Science; and Montesquieu Spirit of Laws were all
published in this period.
 The revival of interest in social science occurred in the middle of the 18th century.
 By the middle of 18th century, capitalism had begun to outgrow its early state and gradually
it became the dominant socio-economic system in western and northern Europe.
 In the second half of the 18th century, urbanization and population growth became
accelerated, and during this period slums, alcoholism, brutality of manners etc. developed
which were to become the targets of social reforms.
 In the other half of the 18th century, in response to the above there is a multiplication of
works with a scientific character.
 Auguste comte (1798-1853) invented the term sociology. He was the first to systematize and
give a complete analysis of the principles of the positive character of the Social Sciences.
 Montesquieu and Voltaire broke a new path for politics and history.
According to Stearns et al. (2000) 19th Century Development

 At the beginning of the 19th century, social science had attained in all the leading European
countries a firm and respectable position.
 In the 20th century we can also observe recurrent occasions when proposals for a
generalized social science were made.
 The contribution of Auguste Comte was accepted immediately; Emile Durkheim and the
sociologists of the late century and early century were influenced by him.
 Karl Marx gave the first general theory of social science.
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According to Stearns et al. (2000) 20th Century Development
 If we examine the course of development of the various social science disciplines, we find
that they follow overall, a pattern through which the older natural sciences also passed.
 At this stage, the social science has become institutionalized to a high degree. It has now
become a subject of research.
 Lawrence A. Kempton in his article “Social Sciences Today” states that social science as
science is very young and there is confusion with regards to its limits and boundaries.
 History moves into the humanities, economics becomes Mathematics, anthropology and
psychology ally themselves with biology and the geography is at home with physical
science.
 While in its initial period, it may have been the pre-occupation of a group of semi-amateurs,
philosopher, practical men in business and government, or gentleman of leisure; it now has
become a subject of research on the part of academic specialists.
 In the third and the most mature stage of discipline the battles over method have subsided,
the theoretical rivalries tend to be submerged in the efforts to elaborate propositions bridging
the differences and contributing towards the further progress of the discipline.
Definitions of Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, and Humanities Social Sciences Denhardt et
al. (2009)
Social Sciences
 A branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among
individuals within those societies. “Social sciences as those mental or cultural sciences
which deal with the activities of the individual as member of the group. The term social
sciences thus embrace all those subjects which deal with the relationship of man to the
society.
Natural Sciences
 A major branch of science that deals with the description, prediction and understanding of
natural phenomena, basically based on observational and empirical evidence.
Two Main Branches of Natural Science Denhardt et al. (2009)
Branches of Natural Science Description

1. Life Science/ Biological Science It studies life in all its forms, past and present.
This includes plants, animals, viruses and
bacteria, single-celled organisms, and even
cells.
2. Physical Science This is the systematic study of the inorganic
world, as distinct from the study of the organic
world, which is the province of biological
science.
a. Physics The science in which matter and energy are
studied both separately and in combination
with one another.
b. Astronomy The scientific study of celestial objects (such
as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and
phenomena that originate outside the Earth's
atmosphere (such as the cosmic background
radiation).
c. Chemistry The study of matter and its transformations and
the development of methods to manipulate
those
transformations to create new and useful forms
of
matter.
d. Earth Science The study of the Earth and its neighbors in
space. It is an exciting science with many
interesting and practical applications.
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Humanities
 Refers to the study of the ways in which the human experience is processed and
documented.
 Encompasses the field of philosophy, literature, religion, art, music, history and language.
Social Sciences and Natural Sciences

Things in Common
 Both sciences employ the scientific model in order to gain information.
 Both sciences use empirical and measured data evidence that can be seen and discerned by
the senses.
 Both sciences’ theories can be tested to yield theoretical statements and general positions.
Differences of Social Sciences and Natural Sciences

Social Sciences Natural Sciences
 Arose 300 years later  Started during the 16th and 17th century.
 Deals with subject (human being)  Deals with object.
 It is spontaneous, unpredictable and  Characterized by exactness, controlled
uncontrollable, as it deals with human variables, and predictability.
emotions and behavior.  Experimental Data
 Experiential Data  The typical method of science is doing
 Typically involves alternative methods repetitive and conventional laboratory
of observation and interaction with experiments.
people within community.  Closed System
 Open system
Social Science and Humanities

Things in Common
 Both the humanities and social science are concerned with human aspects like, law, politics,
linguistics, economics, and psychology as well as human lives and nature.
Differences of Social Science and Humanities
Social Sciences Humanities
 Influenced by and developed after the  Emerged in the 15th century.
French revolution and the Industrial  Humanities involved more of a
revolution. scientific approach.
 Social science deals with more  Deemed to be more philosophical and
scientific approach. concerned with heritage and the
 Involves application of an empirical, question of what makes us human. It
rational, and objective methodology comprises the application of an
(such as the use of validity and interpretative methodology.
reliability test) to present facts.
Functions of Social Sciences and Humanities
Social Sciences Humanities
 To analyze, explain, and possibly  To better appreciate the meaning and
predict and produce new knowledge of purpose of the human experience - both
factual information. broadly in the nature of the human
 To generate and produce new condition, as well as within each
knowledge or factual information. individual
Content Standards with Codes

The learners demonstrate an understanding of the emergence of the Social Sciences and the
different disciplines and key concepts and approaches in the Social Sciences.
Performance Standards
The learner shall be able to connect the disciplines with their historical and social
foundations interpret personal and social experiences using relevant approaches in the Social
Sciences and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the approach.
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Task 1: True or False
Instruction: Write TRUE if the statement is correct, then FALSE if it is incorrect.
1. Social sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were influenced by
the Age of Revolution.
2. Montesquieu invented the term sociology. He was the first to systematize and give a
complete analysis of the principles of the positive character of the social sciences.
3. The revival of interest in social science occurred in the late of the 18th century.
4. At the beginning of the 18th century, social science had attained in all the leading European
countries a firm and respectable position.
5. Lawrence A. Kempton in his article “Social Sciences Today” states that social science as
science is very young and there is confusion with regards to its limits and boundaries.
6. Voltaire gave the first general theory of social science.
7. The history of the social sciences begins in the roots of ancient philosophy.
8. Emile Durkheim and the sociologists of the late century and early century were influenced
by Auguste Comte.
9. In the 18th century stage, the social science has become institutionalized to a high degree.
10. By the middle of 18th century, capitalism had begun to outgrow its early state and gradually
it became the dominant socio-economic system in western and northern Europe.
Task 2: Fill in the Blank

Instruction: Write the correct word to the space provided to complete the following sentences.
Social Sciences Humanities Physics Astronomy Physical Science
Natural Science Life Science Chemistry Age of Earth Science
Enlightenment
1. The ____________ encompasses the field of philosophy, literature, religion, art, music,
history and language
2. The term ____________ thus embrace all those subjects which deal with the relationship
of man to the society
3. The ________________ studies life in all its forms, past and present
4. The _____________scientific study of celestial objects such as stars, planets, comets, and
galaxies.
5. The ________________ systematic study of the inorganic world, as distinct from the
study of the organic world, which is the province of biological science.
6. The ___________ is a science in which matter and energy are studied both separately and
in combination with one another.
7. _________________deals with the description, prediction and understanding of natural
phenomena, basically based on observational and empirical evidence
8. The _______________ study of matter and its transformations and the development of
methods to manipulate those transformations to create new and useful forms of matter.
9. The ________________ is an exciting science with many interesting and practical
applications.
10. The __________________ saw a revolution within natural philosophy, changing the basic
framework by which individuals understood what was “scientific”.
Task 3: Venn Diagram

Instruction: A: Compare and Contrast Social Science and Natural Science.
B: Compare and Contrast Social Science and Humanities
Social Natural Social

Humanities
Science Science Science
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Task 4: Essay
Instruction: Interpret the cartoon below showing the typical happenings in the life of our
Frontliners while battling COVID-19. Write your interpretations and thoughts on how these
cartoons are related to social sciences.
INTRODUCING THE DISCIPLINES WITHIN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Name of Learner _________________________________
Section _________________________________________ Q3W2 _________________

 Differentiate the nature and functions of Social Science disciplines with the natural
sciences and humanities.
Key Concept
Social science tells us how society works. It provides a deeper understanding about the
world beyond our immediate experience. It tells us that everything is interconnected, that the labor
of yesterday can be the fruits of today and that the actions of today will have an impact in the future
of humanity.
Social sciences consist of a variety of disciplines, subject areas, and methods, and there is no
reason to expect that these disciplines will eventually add up to a single unified theory of society.
Political science, sociology, history, anthropology, economics, geography, and area studies all
provide their own, largely independent, definitions of scope, research agenda, and research
methods. Furthermore, there is no grand plan according to which the disciplinary definitions jointly
capture all that is of scientific interest about the social.
Anthropology, Demography, Economics, Geography, History, Linguistics, Political Science,

Psychology, and Sociology are the nine social science disciplines.
Etymologies of Social Science Disciplines and Definitions

Social Science Etymologies Definitions
Disciplines
Anthropology “anthopos” (human), Scientific study of man or human being
“logos” (study of) and their societies in the past and
present
Demography “demos” (people), Study of human population and
“graphein” (description) dynamics
Economics “oikanomia” (household Study of what constitutes rational
management) human behavior in the endeavor to
fulfill needs and wants
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Geography “geo” (Earth), Deals with the study of the relationship
“graphein”(description) between the earth and people
Linguistics “lingua” (tongue, Study of languages and focuses on the
language) three aspects of language
History “histoire” (recorded and The study of the past and its records
documented events) about events.
Political Science “politika,” “polis” (affairs Deals with the system of governance
of the cities)
Psychology “psyche” (mind), Scientific study of the mind and
“logos” (study of) behavior
Sociology “socius” (people together, Study of groups - how they are formed,
associate), “logos” (study how they change, and how the group
of) impacts individual behavior
Function of Social Science Disciplines

Disciplines Functions
Anthropology Essentially to understand as many aspects of human life as can possibly
be studied, to record its findings, and contribute to both historical
understanding as well as to ascertain current states of the human
condition in an attempt to better understand and/or act upon those
findings. (Fethe, 2017)
Demography To know the population of a particular area.
To ascertain as to which factors are influencing the population of that
particular area.
To explain the factors relating to changes in population; and
To study the population trends based on the above three factors.
Economics The three most important functions of economics are as follows: Just as
feeding, digestion and growth are the vital processes of living beings
likewise, production, consumption and growth are the essentials of
economies. (Leaňo, 2012)
Geography To understand basic physical systems that affect everyday life (e.g.
earth-sun relationships, water cycles, wind and ocean currents). To learn
the location of places and the physical and cultural characteristics of
those places in order to function more effectively in our increasingly
interdependent world. (Bonnett, 2008)
Linguistics Refer to the general social uses of language, such as requesting objects
and activities, initiating social interactions, expressing personal feelings,
describing aspects of the world, requesting information, and pretending.
(Bernardez, 2013)
History A useful for work. Its study helps create good businesspeople,
professionals, and political leaders. The number of explicit professional
jobs for historians is considerable, but most people who study history do
not become professional historians. (Evans, 2001)
Political Science A social study concerning the allocation and transfer of power in
decision making, the roles and systems of governance including
governments and international organizations, political behavior, and
public policies. (Mortel et al. 2003)
Psychology According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to
study the nature, origin and destiny of the human soul. But soul is
something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we
cannot make scientific experiments in soul. (Kendra, 2020)
Sociology Can study society with a wide variety of focuses. From studying the
power elite, to the interaction of the economy, society and the
environment, to the examination of various rights movements, Sociology
examines the way different aspects of society behave and function. (San
Juan, 2011)
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Nature of Social Science Disciplines
Disciplines Nature
Anthropology  The nature of anthropology can be view from its historical
perspective because is a global discipline involving humanities,
social sciences and natural sciences.
 Its origins can be traced back to the Enlightenment in Europe and
North America in the 18th and early 19th centuries. As European
nations established colonies in the far corners of the globe and
Americans spread west and south into Indian lands, it became clear
that humanity was incredibly diverse.
 Anthropology started as a way for members of scientific communities
to objectively document and understand this diversity. These early
amateur anthropologists were largely inspired by curiosity about
unusual people and practices in the far corners of the globe.
 Anthropology is defined as a discipline in North America that
consists of four fields that focus on different but related subjects.
Archaeology, biological anthropology (or physical anthropology),
linguistic anthropology, and cultural anthropology are among the
topics covered (or social anthropology).
Demography  Today, the word is generally used to denote the study of phenomena
connected with human populations such as births, marriages, deaths,
migration, and the factors that influence them.
 Thus, demography is the scientific study of population to understand
the social consequences of population.
 The Nature of Demography contains a wealth of material that will
inspire innovative applications in the field.
o An up-to-date and authoritative textbook by one of the world's
leading demographers
o Creative use and critique of demography methods
o Comprehensive and innovative coverage of marriage,
migration, and economic demography
o Explanations that reach beyond mathematical formulas to
underlying theories of behavior
Economics  Economics is a science: Science is a well-organized branch of
knowledge that studies the causes and effects of economic agents.
Furthermore, economics aids in the integration of different sciences
such as mathematics, statistics, and other economic factors in order to
determine the relationship between price, demand, supply, and other
economic factors.
 Positive Economics: A positive science examines the
relationship between two variables without making a value
judgement, i.e. it states ‘what is.' It contains information about
the entire economy.
 Normative Economics: As a normative science, economics
makes value judgments, or decisions on what should be. It is
concerned with economic objectives and strategies to achieve
them.
 Economics is an art: Art is a discipline that expresses how things
should be accomplished to accomplish a specific goal. Production,
distribution, consumption, and economics are all branches of
economics that include general rules and laws capable of solving
various societal problems.
 As a result, economics is regarded as both a science and an art, i.e. a
science in terms of methods and an art in terms of implementation.
As a result, economics is concerned with both theoretical and
practical aspects of the economic challenges that we face on a daily
basis.
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Geography  Geography is concerned with the location of things. Since people first
observed variations between locations, geographers have been tasked
with determining the extent and causes of aerial distinction on the
global surface.
 We aim to understand these disparities in human distribution
patterns, human society's interrelationships with the physical world,
people's use of the Earth in time and space, and how these differences
are linked to people's cultures and economies through geography.
These, and other related themes, represent the effects of spatial
decisions and articulate major concerns of our time.
Linguistics  Prescriptive Linguistics is interested in describing the internal
structure of language.
 Descriptive Linguistics is interested in describing the internal
structure and external structure of language.
 An academic discipline a body of knowledge given to or received by
a disciple (student); a branch or sphere of knowledge, or field of
study, that an individual has chosen to specialize in.
 A field of science – a widely recognized category of specialized
expertise within science, embodying its own terminology,
nomenclature, and scientific journals.
 A social science – a field of academic scholarship that
 explores aspects of human societies related to the
 languages they speak.
History  Multisided: All aspects of the life of a social group are closely
interrelated and historical happenings cover all these aspects of life,
not limited only to the political aspect that had so long dominated
history.
 It traces the fascinating story of how man has developed through the
ages, how man has studied to use and control his environment and
how the present institutions have grown out of the past.
 The tracing of these relationships leads to the development of general
laws that are also compared and contrasted with similar happenings
in other social groups to improve the reliability and validity of these
laws.
 The general laws regulating historical happenings may not be
considered enough; attempts must be made to predict future
happenings based on the laws.
 Continuity and coherence are the necessary requisites of history:
History carries the burden of human progress as it is passed down
from generation to generation, from society to society, justifying the
essence of continuity.
 The causal relationships between the selected happenings are
unearthed that help in revealing the nature of the happenings and
framing of general laws.
 By selecting "innumerable biographies" and presenting their lives in
the appropriate social context and the ideas in the human context, we
understand the sweep of events.
 History is concerned with man in time: It deals with a series of events
and each event occurs at a given point in time.
 History is the study of man: History deals with man’s struggle
through the ages.
 History is concerned with man in space: The interaction of man on
the environment and vice versa is a dynamic one.
 Out of this arise the varied trends in the political, social, economic
and cultural spheres of man’s activities and achievements.
 It is time which affords a perspective to events and lends a charm that
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brightens up the past.
 Not only narration but also analysis: The selected happenings are not
merely narrated; the causal relationships between them are properly
unearthed.
Political Science  Politics is not only a mere institution of governance but also a
mechanism for achieving societal goals.
 Political Science is thus a study of the state in the past, present, and
future.
 Study of Political organization, political processes and political fun
 Study of Political Institutions and Political Theories.
 Study of several subfields: Political Theory.
Psychology  Psychology is the scientific study and practical application of
observable behavior and mental processes of organisms.
 Psychology differs from other social sciences such as: Sociology,
History, or Economics, because psychology specifically deals with
the study of an individual. The other social sciences will study
groups, or history.
 Psychology is less a science of reported findings, it attempts asks and
answers questions using observable behavior and what can be
determined as mental processes of the subject.
 The symbol for psychology is the Greek letter “psi” (Ø). The subject
matter of psychology is, affect, behavior, and cognition.
 The affect for psychology is the actual mental processes that make
up: moods, feeling, and emotional state.
Sociology  Sociology is a social science and not a physical science: All the
sciences are divided into two categories: natural sciences and social
sciences.
 Sociology is a general science and not a special social science: The
area of inquiry of Sociology is general and not specialized.
 Natural sciences study physical phenomena, whereas the social
sciences study social phenomena.
 Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science:
 Sociology is an abstract science and not a concrete science:
 Sociology is an independent science: Sociology is not treated and
studied as a branch of any other science like philosophy, history.
 Sociology is a generalizing and not a particularizing science:
Sociology does not study each and every event that takes place in
society.
 Sociology is both a rational and empirical science: Empiricism is the
approach that emphasizes experiences and the facts that result from
observation and experimentation.
 Sociology belongs to the family of Social science.
 As a science it is silent about questions of value. Social sciences like
Political Science, History, Economics, etc. Study human interaction,
but not all about human interactions. As a social science it
concentrates its attention on the man, his social behavior, activities
and social life. It simply means that Sociology is an abstract science,
not a concrete science. Sociology is a pure science, because it aims at
the acquisition of knowledge about human society, hot the utilization
of the knowledge.
 Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline.
 Social sciences include Economics, Political Science, and
Anthropology etc.
Conclusion:
 Thus, from the above discussion we come to know that the nature of
Sociology is independent, social, a categorical, pure, abstract, and
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generalizing; both are a rational and an empirical social science
The Methods of Creating History:
Methods Description
Positivism Embraces human agency in history. Uses sources to provide and
accurate and complete vision of the past. Also embraces and
empathetic approach towards people in the past.
Narrative – Chronology The creation of narratives of the past - analysis plays less role as
the role of accidents is most important.
Biography – Hagiography The “Great Men” method which creates chronological
narratives. Often look at the agency of one individual in history.
Dialectics – Analysis These are created which become orthodoxies. New theses then
arrive to challenge these - revisionism - and a synthesis is
produced from the old and the new. The synthesis becomes the
new thesis or paradigm and the process of clashes (dialectics)
repeats.
Meta – Narrative / Total Works of the Annales school are characterized by a multi -
History layered approach which seek to integrate long term, midterm
and short term factors in a “total history”. There is an effort to
explain large amounts of human history through the application
of theory and social sciences.
Negativism Rejects human agency in historical affairs. Rejects all sources.
Rejects the possibility of empathetic understanding of the past.
The School of Psychology
School of Proponents Description

Psychology
Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt and  Considered to be the first school of thought
Edward Titchener in Psychology.
 This outlook focused on breaking down
mental processes into the most basic
components.
 The focus was on reducing mental processes
down into their most basic elements.
 The structuralists used techniques such as
introspection to analyze the inner processes
of the human mind.
Functionalism John Dewey, James  A general psychological philosophy that
Rowland Angell, and considers mental life and behavior in
Harvey Carr. terms of active adaptation to the person’s
Founder: William environment.
James  A theory of the mind in contemporary
philosophy, developed largely as an
alternative to both the identity theory of
mind and behaviorism.
Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud  Studies the unconscious mind.
 This school of thought emphasized the
influence of the unconscious mind on
behavior.
 Freud believed that the human mind was
composed of three elements: the id, ego,
and superego.
Behaviorism John Watson and  Focuses on observable behavior.
B.F. Skinner  Suggests that all behavior can be
explained by environmental causes rather
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than by internal forces.
 Theories of learning including classical
conditioning and operant conditioning
were the focus of a great deal of research.
 An approach to psychology that combines
elements of philosophy, methodology,
and theory.
 Psychology should concern itself with the
observable behavior of people and
animals, not with unobservable events
that take place in their minds.
Cognitivism Jean Piaget  The school of psychology that studies
mental processes including how people
think, perceive, remember and learn.
 As part of the larger field of cognitive
science, this branch of psychology is
related to other disciplines including
neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer,  Studies the mind and behavior as a
Wolfgang Kohler, whole.
and Kurt Koffka  A school of psychology based upon the
idea that we experience things as unified
wholes.
 Means “form” or “configuration”.
 The whole is other than the sum of its
parts


Instruction: Write TRUE if the statement is correct, then FALSE if it is incorrect.
___________1. The function of anthropology is to study the mind of the human being.
___________2. One of the methods of creating history is Positivism.
___________3. The nature of Economics is to experiment behavior of the human being.
___________4. Structuralism is a Social Science Discipline.
___________5. William James is the Proponent of Functionalism.
___________6. Wilhelm Wundt is the Proponent of Structuralism.
___________7. Jean Piaget is the Proponent of Gestalt Psychology.
___________8. Sigmund Freud is the Proponent of Psychoanalytic.
___________9. John Watson is the Proponent of Behaviorism.
___________10. Max Wetheimer is the Proponent of Cognitivism.
Task 2: Identification
Instruction: Write the correct answer on the space provided before the number.
______________1. It is a term that came from the two words graphein and demos.
______________2. It deals with the study of the relationship between the earth and people.
______________3. It literally means study of mind.
______________4. It is a term that means recorded and documented events.
______________5. It is study of languages and focuses on the three aspects of language.
______________6. It is a term that means people together.
______________7. It is a term that means study of.
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______________8. It deals with the system of governance.
______________9. It is a term that means household management.
______________10. It is the study of man or human being and their societies in the past and
present.
Task 3: Concept Mapping

Instruction: Fill out a concept map showing the definition of social science as a study of society.
SOCIETY
Task 4: Essay
Instruction: Answer the question with your own insight.
1. Why do we need to know the nature and function of the different Disciplines of Social Sciences?
HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

Name of Learner _________________________________
Section _________________________________________ Q3W3&4 _________________
 Explain the major events and its contribution that led to the emergence of the social
science disciplines.
Key Concept
Major Event and Contribution of Social Science Disciplines
The different disciplines of social science have similarities despite of their differences.
Anthropology traces its roots to Ancient Greek historical and philosophical writings about
human nature and the organization of human society.
The Modern Economics, which is still being studied today, is the result of the efforts of
ancient or Preclassical (384 B.C - 1776), classical (1776 - 1871), Neoclassical (1871 - today) and
Islamic Economists.
Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago. The
main purpose of these early investigations was to map features and places observed as explorers
travelled to new lands. Currently, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations were beginning
to explore the places and spaces within and outside their homelands. The earliest evidence of such
explorations come from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that dates to
2300 BC.
People with a certain word choice, syntax, and pronunciation are revealed to be members of
a particular speech community; a group of people who share social conventions about language use.
Some features are noticeable (salient) and are recognized within the community as having a
13
particular social meaning. Other features are sociolinguistic indicators that can be associated with
certain social characteristics. Different speech communities may reflect subsets of the same
language called dialects.
From the late 1950s to mid-1980s, works in the history of Political Science stand out by
their sheer rarity. Earlier political scientists were rather (though not exceptionally) more historical
in their
disciplinary self - understanding.
Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental laboratory in Psychology at the University of
Leipzig, Germany. Credited with establishing psychology as academic discipline, Wundt’s students
include Emil Kraepelin, James McKeen Cattell, and G. Stanley Hall.
Although sociology has its roots in the works of philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and
Confucius, it is a relatively new academic discipline. It emerged in the early nineteenth century in
response to the challenges of modernity.
The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is based on historical population trends of two
demographic characteristics – birth rate and death rate - to suggest that a country’s total population
growth rate cycles through stages as that country develops economically.
Founder of Different Disciplines
Proponent Disciplines Year Description

Edward Anthropology 1832 - According to Oxford Dictionary of National
Burnett Taylor 1917 Biography, 2004
 English cultural anthropologist
 First to hold the chair in the subject at
Oxford University in the UK in 1896
 Coined the term “culture”
 Wrote “Researches into the Early History
of Mankind and the Development of
Civilization"
John Graunt Demography 1620–  English Demographer
1674
 Employed Bacon's approach and his own
experience with merchant bookkeeping to
analyze the London Bills of Mortality, or
death records, which had been kept since
1532.
 He showed that in sufficiently large
populations there was an excess of male
births, higher mortality in infancy than at
any other age except extreme old age, and
a longer female than male lifespan and
constructed a prototype of the life table
that later would be made rigorous by
Halley.
Adam Smith Economics 1723 -  Founder of Classical School
1790
 Constructed an explanation on how social
behavior is regulated.
 Saw a world where each person sought
their own self - interest but was
constrained by morality, markets and
14
government.
 Wrote “Wealth of the Nations” in 1776
Eratosthenes Geography 276 B.C  Greek geographer
– 194
B.C
 Became chief librarian at the Library of
Alexandria.
 Accepted the concept that the Earth is
round and calculated its circumference to
within 0.5 percent accuracy.
 Described the known areas of the world
and divided the earth into five climatic
regions.
 Prepared the earliest maps of the known
world
Ferdinand de Linguistic 1857 -  Swiss linguist
Saussure 1913
 Posited that linguistic form is arbitrary and
therefore that all languages function in a
similar fashion.
 Published “Memoire sur le systeme
primitifdes voyelles dans les langues indo-
europeenes.”
Herodotus History 484 B.C  Greek Historian
– 425
B.C
 Treated historical subjects as a method of
investigation.
 Collected historical materials
systematically and critically and arranged
them into a historical narrative.
 Wrote “Histories” which is the record of
ancient traditions and culture of Greece,
Asia and Africa
Aristotle Political 384 - 322  Political scientist
Science B.C
 Laid down the foundation of governance
and leadership.
 He said “man by nature is a political
animal”.
 He wrote “The Politics”.
Wilhelm Psychology 1832 -  German Psychologist
Wundt 1920
 Opened the Institute for Experimental
Psychology at the University of Leipzig in
Germany in 1879.
 Trained Psychology students to make
observations that were biased by personal
interpretation or previous experience and
used the results to develop a theory of
conscious thought.
 Wrote “Principles of Physiological
Psychology.”
Auguste Comte Sociology 1798 -  French sociologist
1857
 Coined the term “sociology”
 Advocated the application of scientific
method to social life and positivism.
 Wrote “Cours de Philosophie Positive”
published from 1830 - 1842 in five
volumes.
Historical Foundation of Each Discipline
15
Disciplines Historical Foundation
Anthropology  Traces its roots from natural history which is the study of
plants, animals and humans with reference to their history
and native environment.
 The discovery and contact to new civilizations by European
explorers and colonizers led to curiosity and questions of
who these people are, who their ancestors were, how they
are related to other people in other places, what makes them
distinct, what similarities they share with the rest, how they
conduct their way of life, and what culture they have in
terms of knowledge they possess, their beliefs, technology
that have, etc.
 It was in 19th century that the discipline began its formative
years as a social science.
Demography  The development of the discipline of demography is usually
traced to seventeenth-century England, especially among the
founders of the Royal Society.
 Historically, such measurements were not carried out for
demographic purposes but to assess military strength or the
tax base. Frequently, the data were not centralized, making
analysis difficult.
Economics  It was not considered a separate discipline until the
nineteenth century Greeks examined wealth accumulation
and inquiries on whether property should be in the hands of
private or public institutions.
 In medieval times (Middle Ages - 5th to 15th century),
scholars argued that it was a moral obligation of business to
sell goods at a just price.
 Changes in economic thought have always accompanied
changes in the economy, just as changes in economic
thought can propel change in economic policy.
Geography  People engaged in the study of geography because it
satisfies their natural curiosity about foreign places and
different ways of life.
 The Ancient Greeks made the first contribution to the
subject through measuring the earth using grids of
meridians.
Linguistic  It was the old Babylon who first created linguistics texts
called Sumerian.
 Hindus also created text called Vedas.
 The formal study of language began in India.
 It started with the formulation of 3,959 rules of Sanskrit
morphology.
 Early interest in language in the West was a part of
Philosophy, not a grammatical description.
History  Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, History was
often studied through a sacred or religious perspective.
 In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic
nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the
nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses
of social and intellectual forces.
 Recently, the field of digital history has begun to address
ways of using computer technology to pose new questions to
historical data and generate digital scholarships.
Political Science  It was once part of the many related fields of study like
history, philosophy, law and economics.
16
 The theoretical and practical study of the state and the
politics began way back to the time of the Ancient Greeks,
about 500 - 300 B.C
 The chieftain who headed a village was chosen from the
ranks of leaders with the power to make laws, judge and
execute laws.
 The chiefdom become a state
Psychology  It has its roots in Ancient Greek Philosophy such as
epistemology, metaphysics, religion and oriental philosophy.
 Over the centuries, psychology and physiology became
increasingly separated resulting to the two conceptions of
psychology that is phenomenological (experimental) and
mechanistic (physiological).
Sociology  The intellectual, scientific and industrial revolutions which
happened in Europe in the middle of the 19th century led to
the development of Sociology.
 The intellectual revolution opened new perspective in
society which offered the people new principles, ideals, and
beliefs changing their outlook in life and the way they
perceive themselves, their environment and relations with
fellow men.
 The revolutions in Europe brought rapid and radical changes
which resulted to social problems, issues and social unrest
prompting some individual to direct their attention and
investigation of social phenomena.


Instruction: Write TRUE if the statement is correct, then FALSE if it is incorrect a separate sheet
of paper.
________1. Different speech communities may reflect subsets of the same language called dialects.
________2. People with a certain word choice, syntax, and pronunciation are revealed to be
members of a particular speech community.
________3. Sigmund Freud opened the first experimental laboratory in psychology at the
University of Leipzig, Germany.
________4. The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is based on historical population trends of
two demographic characteristics.
________5. The earliest evidence of such explorations come from the archaeological discovery of a
Sumerian clay tablet map that dates to back 2300 BC.
________6. Edward Burnett Taylor wrote “Researched into the Early History of Mankind and the
Development of Civilization”.
________7. Adam Smith collected historical materials systematically and critically and arranged
them into a historical narrative.
________8. Herodotus wrote “Wealth of the Nations” in 1776.
________9. Eratosthenes described the known areas of the world and divided the Earth into five
climatic regions.
________10. Charles Darwin wrote “Principles of Physiological Psychology.”
Task 2: Multiple Choice
Instruction: Write the correct answer a separate sheet of paper.
17
1. Who wrote “Researched into the Early History” of Mankind and the Development of
Civilization?
a. Aristotle c. Edward Burnett Taylor
b. Auguste Comte d. Herodotus
2. He wrote “Histories” which is the record of ancient traditions and culture of Greece, Asia
and Africa.
3. He wrote “The Politics”.
4. Who wrote the “Cours de Philosophie Positive” published from 1830 - 1842 in 5 volumes?
5. He wrote the “Principles of Physiological Psychology.”
a. Adam Smith c. Ferdinand de Saussure
b. Eratosthenes d. Wilhelm Wundt
6. Who wrote the “Wealth of the Nations” in 1776?
7. He published the “Memoire sur le systeme primitifdes voyelles dans les langues indo-
europeenes.”
8. He prepared the earliest maps of the known world.
9. It traces its roots from natural history which is the study of plants, animals and humans with
reference to their history and native environment.
a. Anthropology c. Psychology
b. Demography d. Sociology
10. In here people engaged in the study of this discipline because it satisfies their natural
curiosity about foreign places and different ways of life.
a. Economics c. History
b. Geography d. Linguistics
Task 3: Concept Mapping

Instruction: Create your own concept map that explains the major events and its contributions that
led to the emergence of the social science disciplines.
Task 4: Essay
1. What is your own insight regarding the major events and contribution of Social Sciences
Disciplines? Explain briefly your answer
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORIES
Name of Learner _________________________________

Section _________________________________________ Q3W5_________________
 Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science theories:
a. Structural-functionalism
b. Marxism
c. Symbolic Interactionism
Key Concept
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The Major Social Science Theories
The social sciences are not only composed of disciplines that showcase how it views and
studies every facet of society. The disciplines prove how social science is applicable and practical,
meaning that the social sciences are things that you can use every day to understand reality much
better. Without the
disciplines, the social sciences would not exist at all.
But the social sciences also have theoretical foundations and ideological thrusts. That is why
apart from the disciplines, the social sciences have what we call the dominant approaches and ideas
that are present within the different disciplines. These are the roots of a discipline, or better yet, the
very inspiration of the different social sciences. A particular approach or ideology has the capacity
to influence all of the disciplines, for the theory that each ideology provides encompasses all of the
disciplines and affects them in many ways. This module shall discuss different dominant
approaches and ideas that are present in today’s society, and how each of these approaches and
ideas play a role in the character and everyday living of society.
Functionalism
According to Vincent, 2001, Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees
society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the
individuals in that society. Functionalist sociologists like Parsons and Durkheim have been
concerned with the search for functions that institutions may have in society. However, another
functionalist sociologist R. Merton has adopted a concept of dysfunction – this refers to the effects
of any institution which detracts from the conservation of society. An example of a function which
helps maintain society is that of the family, its function is to ensure the continuity of society by
reproducing and socializing new members. Another institution which performs an important
function is religion functionalist sociologists believe that it helps achieve social solidarity and
shared norms and values, however it could be argued that it fails to do this as a result of increasing
secularization in recent years and therefore it creates a divide between members of society rather
than binding them together (moral glue).
Concepts of Structural – Functionalism
Concepts Description
Collective Conscience  Functionalists believe that without collective conscience/
and Value Consensus shared values and beliefs, achieving social order is impossible
and social order is crucial for the well-being of society.
 They believe that value consensus forms the basic integrating
principle in society. And if members of society have shared
values, they therefore also have similar identities, this helps
cooperation and avoids conflict.
 Value consensus also ensures that people have shared: Goals,
Roles and Norms. Norms can be described as specific
guidelines of appropriate behavior; for example, queuing
when buying things
Social Order  Functionalists believe that there are four main basic needs that
an individual requires in order to exist in society.
 They also believe that these four basic needs are essential for
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maintaining social order. They are food, shelter, money and
clothing.
Functionalism and  Durkheim believes that education transmits society’s norms
Education and values. Education brings together a mass and changes
them into a united whole which leads to social solidarity.
 Parsons (1961) believes that education leads to universalistic
values and that education performs a link between family and
the wider society which in turn leads to secondary
socialization.
 Education also allows people to train for their future roles in
society. Schools instill the value of achievement and the value
of equality of opportunity.
 Education helps match people with jobs suited to them.
Functionalism and  George Peter Murdock believes that the family provides four
Family vital functions for society: sexual, reproductive, economic,
and educational.
 The family is the primary point of socialization in that it
provides children with values and norms. Family also
stabilizes adult personalities.
 A family unit provides emotional security for each person in
the relationship.
Functionalism and  The media operate in the public interest by reflecting the
Media interests of the audience. It portrays public opinion.
 The media understands that society has a wide diversity of
culture and this is shown by the different amounts of stories it
covers.
Functionalism and  Durkheim shows us that there is such a thing as society, and
Crime and Deviance that it is this entity called society that creates crime and
deviance.
 Crime and deviance are socially constructed – they are not
natural, obvious, or theologically inspired categories.
 They are concepts that were brought into the world solely by
humankind.
 Moreover, Durkheim goes beyond this and shows us how
socially constructed definitions of crime and deviance are
linked into a wider social structure.
Marxism
Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which
examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and argues for
a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism.
Marxism posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the
bourgeoisie, or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a capitalist
economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.
Concepts of Marxism
Certain concepts are key to an understanding of Marxism, a political theory that has shaped world
politics for over 150 years. Key Marxist concepts are diametrically the opposite to capitalism, and
some believe have created a mentality of a society that is very much a ‘them and us’ one.
 Marxism believes that capitalism can only thrive on the exploitation of the working class.
 Marxism believes that there was a real contradiction between human nature and the way that
we must work in a capitalist society.
 Marxism has a dialectic approach to life in that everything has two sides.
 Marxism believes that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political
system.
 The profit difference between what goods are sold for and what they actually cost to make;
Marxism refers to as a “surplus profit”.
20
 Marxism believes that economic conflict produces class (rich, middle and poor) and
inherently class produces conflict.
 A Marxist analysis called ‘Polarisation of the Classes’ describes the historical process of the
class structure becoming increasingly polarised – pushed to two ends with noting in the
middle. It says that soon classes will disappear and be absorbed either into the bourgeoisie
or the proletariat.
 Capitalism largely shapes the educational system; without the education system the
economy would become a massive failure as without education we are without jobs and
employment which is what keeps society moving.
 Education helps to maintain the bourgeoisie and the proletariat so that there can workers
producing goods and services and others benefiting from it.
 Schools transmit an ideology which states that capitalism is just and reasonable. Ruling class
project their view of the world which becomes the consensus view (hegemony).
 Marxists believe that a key part in the control of the Proletariat is the use of alienation in all
aspects of society, including the family, the education system and the media. This provides
the Bourgeoisie with a supple mass of workers who do not mind working for the external
rewards of a constant wage.
 Marxists believe that deviance is any behavior that differs from the societal norm. It is seen
as deviant because as a society, we do not accept it.
 Deviance can vary from simply odd behavior to behavior that can harm society or is
considered dangerous or disrespectful.
 Neo-Marxism is based on ideas initially projected by Karl Marx. Marx believed that
economic power led to political power and that this is the key to understanding societies.
 Neo-Marxists believe the economic system creates a wealthy class of owners and a poor
class of workers. They also believe that certain social institutions such as churches, prisons
and schools have been created to maintain the division between the powerful and the
powerless.
Symbolic Interactionism
The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major
framework of
the sociological theory.
This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and build upon in the
process of social interaction. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's
assertion that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world
A social psychological theory developed from the work of Charles Horton Cooley and
George Herbert Mead in the early part of the twentieth century (the actual name of the theory comes
from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students).
According to this theory, people inhabit a world that is in large part socially construct.
Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism

The most important conceptual building block on which symbolic interactionists have based their
analysis of human conduct is the concept of the symbol, or, as Mead called it, the significant
symbol.
 Symbol is a vocal or other kind of gesture that has the same meaning and solicits the same
reaction between the one using it and to whom it is directed.
 Conventional Signs anything associated with some other thing or event, but it is produced
and controlled by the very organisms that have learned to respond to it.
 Natural Signs are those that show appropriateness with its use, that is, the sign is in its literal
form.
 Object is anything to which attention can be paid and towards which action can be directed.
 Tangible anything that can be seen by the naked eye and can be touched (physical).
 Intangible not having a physical appearance; cannot be touched or seen by the naked eye
(social).
 An act starts with an impulse, which occurs when people’s existing adjustment or line of
activity is disturbed.
 In perception, people begin to name or designate objects. Thus, gives direction to an act.
 In the manipulation stage, people take concrete steps to reach our goal.
21
 Finally, the act ends with consummation when people’s original adjustment or line of
activity is restored.
Principles of the Three Major Social Science Theories
Social Science Theory Principles
Structural - Functionalism  Societies should be examined holistically in an
interrelated system framework.
 Causation is reciprocal and, in many instances, multiple.
 Social systems are generally in a state of equilibrium.
 The functionalists are less interested in the history of a
society, but more concerned with social interaction.
 The functionalists attempt to find the interrelationships
between the compounds of social structure.
Marxism  Both Hegel and Marx have dealt with a basic question –
How is man to be reconciled with him and with the
world? Hegel was of opinion that mind of man passes
through history and finally comes to realize what is the
world.
 Both Hegel and Marx thought that man was the product
of self-knowledge and he goes on reconciling with the
world. But to Hegel the concept of self- knowledge is
associated with Spirit or Absolute Idea
 Marx has rejected it and has laid down the famous
doctrine of alienation. That is, he tries to understand
himself or the world around him through the alienation.
 The theory of alienation is the product of the alienated
labor. In fact, alienation occupies a very important place
in Marx’s theory.
 In capitalist economy there is a division of labor which
means that a labor produces a single or small part of an
article. The capitalist system has introduced this
division of labor to have better results.
 But its harmful consequence is with the passing away of
time man is gradually alienated from the whole
production system and finally the society.
 The general meaning of alienation is that it is the
“subjugation of man by his own work, which has
assumed the guise of independent things”.
 The entire economic process including production and
distribution is beyond the control of workers. They
work just like machine.
 In the opinion of Marx, since alienation is the greatest
evil of capitalist system the workers must be freed from
this evil.
 But he has warned us by saying that there is no scope of
freeing individuals from the curse of alienation because
it is an integral part of the capitalist system.
 If we go through Marx’s analysis, we shall find that the
only way of freeing man from alienation is the
establishment of communism or communist society.
Symbolic Interactionism  Human beings, unlike lower animals, are endowed with
the capacity for thought.
 The capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction.
 In social interaction, people learn the meanings and the
symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively
human capacity for thought.
 Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on
22
distinctively human action and interaction.
 People can modify or alter the meanings and symbols
that they use in action and interaction on the basis of
their interpretation of the situation.
 People can make these modifications and alterations
because, in part, of their ability to interact with
themselves, which allows them to examine possible
courses of action, assess their relative advantages and
disadvantages, and then choose one.
 The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make
up groups and societies
Instruction: Write TRUE if the statement is correct, then FALSE if it is incorrect on a separate
sheet of paper.
________1. Functionalists believe that there are four main basic needs that an individual requires to
exist in society.
________2. The family is the primary point of socialization in that it provides children with values
and norms.
________3. Marxism believes that capitalism is not only an economic system but is also a political
system.
________4. Marxists believe that deviance is any behavior that differs from the societal norm.
________5. Natural Signs are those that show appropriateness with its use, that is, the sign is in its
literal form.
________6. Causation is reciprocal and, in many instances, individual.
________7. One of the concepts or principles of Marxism is Social order.
________8. One of the concepts or principles of Symbolic interactionism is Consensus.
________9. One of the concepts or principles of Structural-Functionalism is Conventional Signs.
________10. Human beings, like lower animals, are endowed with the capacity for thought.
Task 2: Multiple Choice

Instruction: Write the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Which of the following defines Marxism?

a. Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism.
b. It is a theory in which class struggle is a central element in the analysis of social change
in Western societies.
c. Marxism is the system of socialism of which the dominant feature is public ownership of
the means of production, distribution, and exchange.
d. All of the above
2. Who viewed the structure of society in relation to its major classes and the struggle between
them as the engine of change in this structure?
a. Karl Marx c. Ralf Dahrendorf
b. Lenin d. None of the above
3. __________ begins analytically with a conception of the social space as a field of meanings,
values, norms, statuses, and class; where status has the joint meaning of formal positions (as
in authoritative roles) and the informal statuses of wealth, power, and prestige.
a. Class Conflict c. Social conflict
b. Class interest d. The Conflict Helix
23
4. Which of the following belong to the three classes related to sources of income as
distinguished by Marx?
a. Landowners whose main source of income is ground rent.
b. Owners of simple labor power or laborers whose main source of income is labor.
c. Owners of capital or capitalists whose main source of income is profit or surplus value.
d. All of the above
5. This is a criterion to which any collectively of human grouping with a similar relationship
would make a category not a class if subjective criteria are not included.
a. Capitalist criteria c. Objective criteria
b. Marxian criteria d. Subjective criteria
6. It is a vocal or other kind of gesture that has the same meaning and solicits the same reaction
between the one using it and to whom it is directed.
a. Language c. Symbol
b. Signs d. Objects
7. A/an __________ is anything that conveys meaning may it be an event, pattern, action, and
among others.
a. Language c. Symbol
b. Signs d. Objects
8. A __________ sign or symbol is anything associated with some other thing or event, but it is
produced and controlled by the very organisms that have learned to respond to it.
a. Conventional c. Public
b. Natural d. All of the above
9. Which fact belong to the impact of using symbol on human beings.
a. Symbols transform the very nature of the environment in which the human species live.
b. Symbols make it possible for the individual to be part of the very environment to which
he or she responds, thus it makes possible the development of self
c. Symbols make it possible for the behavioral dispositions, or attitudes, of one individual
to be reproduced in another person.
d. All of the above
10. Which of the following DOES NOT belong to the phases of acts?
a. Impulse c. Perception
b. Tangible d. Manipulation
Task 3: Photo Analysis
Instruction: Interpret the cartoon below showing what happened to the Philippines and how its
society was affected by the pandemic
Task 4: Essay
1. What is your own understanding on the social science theory like Structural-
functionalism, Marxism and Symbolic Interactionism?
24
STRUCTURAL - FUNCTIONALISM AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN EXAMINING SOCIO -
CULTURAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Name of Learner _________________________________
Section _________________________________________ Q3W6 _________________
b. Marxism
Key Concept
The Structural - Functionalism
The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It asserts that our lives are
guided by social structures, which are relatively stable patterns of social behavior. Social structures
give shape to our lives - for example, in families, the community, and through religious
organizations. And certain rituals, such as a handshake or complex religious ceremonies, give
structure to our everyday lives. Each social structure has social functions, or consequences for the
operation of society as a whole. Education, for example, has several important functions in a
society, such as socialization, learning. Functionalism also states that society is like an organism,
made up of different parts that work together. Thus, one of the key ideas in Structural Functionalism
is that society is made-up of groups or institutions, which are cohesive, share common norms, and
have a definitive culture.
What is Structural Functionalism?
In sociology and other social sciences, a school of thought according to which each of the
institutions, relationships, roles, and norms that together constitute a society serves a purpose, and
each is indispensable for the continued existence of the others and of society as a whole. In
structural functionalism, social change is regarded as an adaptive response to some tension within
the social system. When some part of an integrated social system changes, a tension between this
and other parts of the system is created, which will be resolved by the adaptive change of the other
parts.
Structural Functionalism in Theory

First, let us look at the history of structural functionalism. During the 19 th century, the world was
becoming a much smaller space. Trains and steamships had linked the world in a way no one had
thought possible. While many Europeans were starting to think of themselves as superior, due to
their more 'advanced' culture, a French philosopher, named Emile Durkheim, noticed this and
started to think that society was made up of building blocks that were focused on a common goal. If
people stopped agreeing on those common goals, then society would disintegrate. However, as long
as most people agreed, society would be fine.
25
In structural functionalism, individual institutions work together in service of the whole.
For example, this image of a circular flow of money through an economy demonstrates how
something that almost everyone can agree on, education, is made into a goal. Of course, this only
worked as long as everyone was focused. If one group disagreed on where society is going, then the
whole thing falls apart.
These social bonds are very important.
However, structural functionalism had a serious problem. It was too far removed from actual
society. It assumed that these blocks were homogenous, all wanting the same thing. Also, it thought
that all motivation was a zero-sum game, meaning that there had to be winners and losers. After all,
if you increase funding for the police department, that money had to come from somewhere, right?
This all neglects that groups can have different starting points and different motivations. For a two-
person dog catching team, an extra $50,000 in funding is a big deal, while for a forty-person police
department, it is relatively minor. To put that into real world terms, structural functionalism
assumed that all of society's groups are always equal, which is simply not the case. Just turn on the
news or watch any political debate and you will see that many groups of society are anything but
equal.
The method of functionalism was based on fieldwork and direct observations of societies. In the
structural functionalism approach, society, its institutions and roles, was the appropriate thing to
study. Cultural traits supported or helped to preserve social structures.
Functionalism emphasizes the importance of the economy for any society, and the income and self-
fulfillment that work often provides. Conflict theory highlights the control of the economy by the
economic elite, the alienation of work, and various problems in the workplace.
The structural-functional approach is based on the view that a political system is made up of several
key components, including interest groups, political parties and branches of government.
The structural-functional approach is derived from earlier uses of functionalism and systems models
in anthropology, sociology, biology, and political science.
Structural functionalism became popular around 1960 when it became clear that ways of studying
U.S. and European politics were not useful in studying newly independent countries, and that a new
approach was needed.
Structural-functionalism assumes that a bounded (nation-state) system exists, and studies structures
in terms of their function(s) within the system.
For structural functionalists the question to be answered is what does a structure (guerrilla
movement, political party, election, etc.) do within the political system (of country x)? The goal is
26
to find out what something actually does in a political system, as opposed to what it is supposed to
do.
Thus, structural functionalists would not waste time studying constitutions in Third World countries
if they found that the constitutions [structures] had little impact on political reality.
Almond claimed that certain political functions existed in all political systems. On the input side he
listed these functions as: political socialization, political interest articulation, political interest
aggregation, and political communication. Listed as outputs were rule-making, rule implementation,
and rule adjudication.
Other basic functions of all political systems included the conversion process, basic pattern
maintenance, and various capabilities (distributive, symbolic, etc.). Structural functionalists argued
that all political systems, including Third World systems, could most fruitfully be studied and
compared on the basis of how differing structures performed these functions in the various political
system.
Structural functionalism is based on a systems model. Conceptually, the political process can be
depicted as follows:
For analytical purposes the political system is considered to be the nation-state, and the environment
is composed of the interactions of economic, social, and political variables and events, both
domestic and external.
The idea is that there are a number of actors in the national political system (political parties,
bureaucracies, the military, etc.) and that the actions of all these actors affect each other as well as
the system.
The political analyst must determine the importance of these actors in a particular political system.
This is done by analyzing the functions performed by the various actors. Any changes in the system
also affect all the actors. The feedback mechanisms allow for constantly changing inputs, as actors
react to
outputs.
Structural functionalists, like systems analysts, have a bias toward systemic equilibrium, (i.e. toward
stability). Such a bias tends to make this approach conservative, as stability, or evolutionary change,
is preferred [and more easily analyzed], to radical, or revolutionary change.
A problem which arises with this system-based model is that the nation state's boundaries are often
permeable in the real world, rather than being the neatly bounded nation-state conceptualized by
structural functionalists.
In other words, in the real world it is usually difficult to state exactly what the boundaries are,
leading to some conceptual difficulties. For example, some international actors are only
intermittent, such as the U.S. when it intervenes directly in Haitian or Panamanian politics. Should
U.S. military forces be considered a part of the Panamanian or Haitian political systems?
The parts of society that Spencer referred to were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and
behaviors focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare,
religion, and the economy.
Some Social Behaviors
Behaviors Concepts
Ritualism Occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by
27
society but forfeits the achievement of the goals.
Retreatism Involves the rejection of both the culturally prescribed goals as well
as the conventional means of attaining them.
Conformity Occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the
cultural goals socialized into him
Rebellion A combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a
substitution of other goals and means.
Talcott Parson (1902 - 1979) was an American sociologist and functionalist who attempted to
develop and perfect a general analytic model suitable for analyzing all types of collectivities. He
was concerned with how elements of society were functional for a society as well as social order.
His five pattern variables are considered as five dichotomies to draw out the contrasting values to
which individuals orient themselves in social interactions.
Talcott Parson’s Five Pattern Variables of Role-definition

Pattern Variables of Role- Concepts
definition
1st - Affectivity vs. Dilemma: deciding whether to express one’s own orientation in
Affective terms of immediate gratification (affectivity)or whether to
Neutrality renounce immediate gratification in favor of moral interests
(affective neutrality).
2nd - Self orientation vs. One’s role orientation is either in terms of his/her own interests or
Collectivity orientation in terms of the interests of a group.
3rd - Universalism vs. Dilemma: There is an issue on whether to react to a certain social
Particularism interaction “based on a general norm” or reacting “on the basis of
someone’s particular relationship to you”.
4th - Achievement vs. Achievement- orientation places an importance on the
Ascription performance and emphasizes individual achievement while
Ascription-orientation refers to the innate qualities of individuals.
5th - Specificity vs. This refers to the nature of social contracts and how extensive or
Diffuseness how narrow are the obligations in any interaction. Specificity, is
when the definition of a role is in specific terms while diffuseness
is when role obligations are extended outside the defined role -
expectations.
General Conceptual Diagram

The diagram below is a general conceptual diagram of Structural functionalism. It shows that all of
the different organizations and institutions in society are interdependent. When one institution in
society changes, other institutions accommodate that change by changing as well, though the
ultimate effect is to
slow overall change.
28
Specific Conceptual Diagram
Below is a chart depicting how deviance is functional for society and how society responds to
deviance. A "deviant" individual commits an act that is deemed by the rest of society as
criminal, because it leads to public outrage and punishments. Because a large portion of society
respond to the action as though it is deviant, this draws a boundary between what is and is not
deviant. Thus, deviance actually helps to indicate what is not deviant, or the function of
labelling behaviors or ideas as deviance is to insure that most people do not engage in those
behaviors.

The learner shall be able to connect the disciplines with their historical and social foundations
interpret personal and social experiences using relevant approaches in the Social Sciences and
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the approach.

sheet of paper.
1. Several decades ago, some sociologists thought that all of society interacts like this, where each
part of society had a specific task. They called this framework structural functionalism.
2. If people stopped agreeing on common goals, then society would disintegrate.
3. The method of Marxism was based on fieldwork and direct observations of societies.
4. The structural-functional approach is based on the view that a political system is made up of
several key components, including interest groups, political parties and branches of government.
5. The parts of society that Parson referred to be the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and
behaviors focused on meeting social needs.
6. Structural functionalism became popular around 1990 when it became clear that ways of
studying U.S. and European politics were not useful in studying newly independent countries.
7. Talcott Parson was concerned with how elements of society were functional for a society as well
as social order.
29
8. Structural functionalists, like systems analysts, have a fair toward systemic equilibrium, (i.e.
toward stability)
9. For analytical purposes the political system is considered to be the nation-state, and the
environment is composed of the interactions of economic, social, and political variables and
events, both domestic and external.
10. A normal individual commits an act that is deemed by the rest of society as criminal, because it
leads to public outrage and punishments.
Task 2: Completion of Words

Instruction: Fill each box with the correct letter to form the correct answer. Do it in a separate
sheet of paper.
1. An approach in sociology that views society as a complex system whose parts work together
to promote solidarity and stability.
S R U T R L N T O A I M
2. A French philosopher noticed and started to think that society was made up of building
blocks that were focused towards a common goal.
E I E D R H M
3. Occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but forfeits the
achievement of the goals.
R T A I M
4. A combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals
and means.
R E L N
5. Involves the rejection of both the culturally prescribed goals as well as the conventional
means of attaining them.
R R A I M
6. Occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the cultural goals socialized
into him.
C N O M T
7. An American sociologist and functionalist who attempted to develop and perfect a general
analytic model suitable for analyzing all types of collectivities.
T L O T P R O
8. Places an importance on the performance and emphasizes individual achievement.
A H E E E T R E T T O
9. It refers to the innate qualities of individuals.
S R P I N O I N A I N
10. When role obligations are extended outside the defined role - expectations.
D F U E E S

Instruction: Interpret the picture that show functionalism
30
Task 4: Essay
1. Explain the importance of Structural-Functionalism for Socio-cultural, economics and

politics.
MARXISM AND SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN
EXAMINING SOCIO - CULTURAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Name of Learner _________________________________
Section _________________________________________ Q3W7 _________________
b. Marxism
Key Concept
Marxism and Symbolic Interactionism Theories
Marxism is complicated by the fact that Marx is by no means the only influence on this
critical school. Indeed, given the various sorts of political movements that have been inspired by
this thinker (socialism, Trotskyism, communism, Leninism, Stalinism, Maoism, radical democracy,
etc.), one despairs
at trying to provide a fair and lucid introduction.
Add to that the fact that Marx himself changed his mind on various issues or sometimes
expressed opinions that appear mutually exclusive, and one is faced with a rather high hurdle.
Nonetheless, there are a number of Marxist thoughts and thinkers that have been especially
influential on recent scholarly developments (particularly in literary, cultural, and political studies).
In short, the goal of this section of the Guide to Theory, as with any of the sections, is not to
give an exhaustive account of this critical school but, rather, to give a sense for the major concepts
influencing this approach while attempting to stay conscious of the various ways that individual
terms have been contested over the last number of decades.
Marxism Theory
Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx, which
examines the effect of capitalism on labor, productivity, and economic development and argues for
a worker revolution to overturn capitalism in favor of communism.
Marxism posits that the struggle between social classes, specifically between the
bourgeoisie, or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers, defines economic relations in a capitalist
economy and will inevitably lead to revolutionary communism.
Marxism is both a social and political theory, which encompasses Marxist class conflict
theory and Marxian economics. Marxism was first publicly formulated in the 1848 pamphlet, the
"Communist Manifesto," by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which lays out the theory of class
struggle and revolution. Marxian economics focuses on the criticisms of capitalism, which Karl
Marx wrote about in his 1859 book, "Das Kapital."
Marx’s class theory portrays capitalism as one step in the historical progression of economic
systems that follow one another in a natural sequence. They are driven, he posited, by vast
impersonal forces of history that play out through the behavior and conflict among social classes.
According to Marx, every society is divided among a number of social classes, whose members
have more in common with one another than with members of other social classes.
31
Following are elements of Marx's theories on how class conflict would play out in a capitalist
system.
 Capitalist society is made up of two classes—the bourgeoisie, or business owners, who
control the means of production, and the proletariat, or workers, whose labor transforms raw
commodities into valuable economic goods.
 Ordinary laborers, who do not own the means of production, such as factories, buildings,
and materials, have little power in the capitalist economic system. Workers are also readily
replaceable in periods of high unemployment, further devaluing their perceived worth.
 To maximize profits, business owners have an incentive to get the most work out of their
laborers while paying them the lowest possible wages. This creates an unfair imbalance
between owners and the laborers whose work they exploit for their own gain.
 Since workers have little personal stake in the process of production, Marx believed they
would become alienated from it and resentful toward the business owner and their own
humanity.
 The bourgeoisie also employ social institutions, including government, media, academia,
organized religion, and banking and financial systems, as tools and weapons against the
proletariat with the goal of maintaining their position of power and privilege.
 Ultimately, the inherent inequalities and exploitative economic relations between these two
classes will lead to a revolution in which the working class rebels against the bourgeoisie,
seizes control of the means of production, and abolishes capitalism.
Karl Marx is, along with Freud, one of a handful of thinkers from the last two centuries who
has had a truly transformative effect on society, on culture, and on our very understanding of
ourselves. Although there were a few critics claiming an end to Marxist thought (and even an end to
ideology) after the fall of the communist system in the former Soviet Union, Marxist thought has
continued to have an important influence on critical thought, all the more so recently after the rise
of globalization studies. As protests at recent G7 and IMF meetings make clear, the school can also
still have important political effects.
Louis Althusser represents an important break in Marxist thought, particularly when it
comes to the notion of ideology. His Lacan-inspired version of Marxism significantly changed the
way many Marxists approached both capitalism and hegemony after the Second World War.
Fredric Jameson is surely the most influential contemporary Marxist thinker in the United
States. His own alterations of and dialogue with Althusserian and Lacanian thought have
established him as an important influence on the rise of globalization studies, an important critical
school of the last few years. In particular, he has attempted to make sense of the continuing staying
power of capitalism and the ways that capitalism has transformed since Marx wrote his critiques in
the nineteenth century, addressing such issues as multi-national (or "late") capitalism, the power of
the media, and the influence of postmodernity on Marxist debate. The lattermost issue is explored in
the Jameson modules under Postmodernism.
A class is a group of people who share similar characteristics specifically with regard to
their socioeconomic status.
Socioeconomic status refers to a person’s standing with regard to his/her access to resources,
monetary capability, income status, occupation, and living situation.
Variables that Determine Class from a Marxian Perspective
1. Conflicts over the distribution of economic rewards between the classes
2. Easy communication between the individuals in the same class positions so that ideas and
action programs are readily disseminated.
3. Growth of class consciousness in the sense that members of the class have a feeling of
solidarity and understanding of their historic role.
32
4. Profound dissatisfaction of the lower class over its inability to control the economic
structure of which it feels itself to be exploited victim.
5. Establishment of a political organization resulting from the economic structure, the
historical situation, and maturation of class consciousness.
Two Types of People According to Karl Marx
1. Proletariat is consisting of the working or labor class.
2. Bourgeoisie is consisting of the management class; those who own the means of production.
The Three Sources of Income
1. Owners of simple labor power or laborers whose main source of income is labor.
2. Owners of capital or capitalists whose main source of income is profit or surplus value.
3. Landowners whose main source of income is ground rent.
The Three Levels of Culture Model
1. Infrastructure - population, basic biological need, and resources (labor, equipment,
technology, etc.).
2. Structure - pattern of organization (government, education, production regulation, etc.).
3. Superstructure - social institutions (law, religion, politics, art, science, superstition, values,
emotions, traditions, etc.).
In Marx’s analysis labor power is the only commodity which can produce more value than it
is worth, and for this reason it is known as variable capital. Other commodities simply pass their
value on to the finished commodities, but do not create any extra value. They are known as constant
capital.
Profit, then, is the result of the labor performed by the worker beyond that necessary to
create the value of his or her wages. This is the surplus value theory of profit.
However, even if the labor theory of value is considered discredited, there are elements of
his theory that remain of worth. The Cambridge economist Joan Robinson, in An Essay on Marxian
Economics, picked out two aspects of particular note.
First, Marx’s refusal to accept that capitalism involves a harmony of interests between
workers and capitalists, replacing this with a class based analysis of the worker’s struggle for better
wages and conditions of work, versus the capitalist’s drive for ever greater profits.
Second, Marx’s denial that there is any long-run tendency to equilibrium in the market, and
his descriptions of mechanisms which underlie the trade-cycle of boom and bust. Both provide a
salutary corrective to aspects of orthodox economic theory.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism is a social psychological theory developed from the work of
Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead in the early part of the twentieth century (the
actual name of the theory comes from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students). According to this
theory, people inhabit a world that is in large part socially constructed.
Examples of Symbolic Interactionism in Everyday Life
The way you perceive the world is unique. Based on your interactions with words, ideas,
and events, different objects, or words, can have different meanings to you. Explore different
examples of symbolic interactionism at play in society.
When looking at a complex theory, it’s always best to start simply. Some symbols are easy
to recognize and hold concrete meanings within societies. While some can be subjective, a few
symbols you recognize through your interactions with them are:
1. An image of a stick figure with a dress means woman.
2. An image of a stick figure without a dress means man.
3. A drawing of a heart means love.
4. A bald eagle means freedom and America.
33
5. A stick figure sitting in a chair with a large wheel means handicapped.
6. Putting your thumb up means yes.
7. Putting your thumb down means no.
8. Skull and crossbones mean danger.
9. A balance symbolizes justice.
10. The lone t shape symbolizes a cross, spirituality, or religion.
11. Water holds the meaning of rebirth, vitality, or cleansing.
Examples in Society
Societies are full of symbolic interactionism. And your interactions are different based on
the society in which you live. Additionally, many symbolic interactionism examples seen
throughout society can be subjective, based on your experiences with that particular symbol. Check
out a few different society examples of symbolic interactionism.
Philippine Flag
A horizontal flag bicolor with equal bands of royal blue and crimson red, with a white,
equilateral triangle at the hoist. In the center of the triangle is a golden-yellow sun with eight
primary rays, each representing a province of the Philippines. At each vertex of the triangle is a
five-pointed, golden-yellow star, each of which representing one of the country's three main island
groups— Luzon, Visayas (though originally referring to Panay) and Mindanao. The white triangle
at the flag represents liberty, equality, and fraternity. A unique feature of this flag is its usage to
indicate a state of war if it is displayed with the red side on top, which is effectively achieved by
flipping the flag upside-down.
Gender
Gender can be understood through symbolic interactionism because gender is a sociological
construct. For example, for the symbols attached to “males” and “females”, actions and looks are
based on what is believed is true from your interactions rather than what is objectively true. For
example, women might be seen as weaker than men. A man wearing a dress might be seen as
feminine. These problematic attributes lead to inequality and biases such as women getting paid less
than men in the workforce.
Colorism
Race and ethnicity is another area where symbolic interactionism comes into play. This can
definitely be seen through the issue of colorism. In colorism, people of the same racial identification
are treated differently based on the lightness or darkness of their skin. For example, a study by
Lance Hannon on colorism demonstrated lighter-skinned Latinos "looked" smarter according to
Caucasians.
Relationship Roles
Symbolic interactionism plays a big role in family and relationships. Your understanding of
a word or event changes based on interactions with it. For example, if you have a great relationship
with your wife, the word wife will be positive. However, if your relationship with your wife is
rocky, the meaning behind the word and what a wife symbolizes changes.
Rainbow
Societies’ meanings behind symbols can change and morph with time. One example of this
is the meaning of a rainbow. The rainbow has been seen as a Christian symbol of hope but another
meaning of rainbow is now associated with the LGBTQ community.
Meaning behind Symbolic Interaction
The way you see the world colors your understanding of it. Look no further than symbolic
interactionism to see how this is true. Interested to explore more about behaviors, check out operant
conditioning examples.
Operant Conditioning Examples
34
Operant conditioning is a learning process whereby deliberate behaviors are reinforced
through consequences. It differs from classical conditioning, also called respondent or Pavlovian
conditioning, in which involuntary behaviors are triggered by external stimuli.
With classical conditioning, a dog that has learned the sound of a bell precedes the arrival of
food may begin to salivate at the sound of a bell, even if no food arrives. By contrast, a dog might
learn that, by sitting and staying, it will earn a treat. If the dog then gets better at sitting and staying
in order to receive the treat, then this is an example of operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning and Timing
The core concept of operant conditioning is simple: when a certain deliberate behavior is
reinforced, that behavior will become more common. Psychology divides reinforcement into four
main categories:
 Positive reinforcement
 Negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction
Timing and frequency are very important in reinforcement.
A continuous reinforcement schedule (commonly abbreviated CRF) provides reinforcement
for all noted behaviors. That is, every time the behavior occurs, reinforcement is provided.
An intermittent reinforcement schedule (commonly abbreviated INT) reinforces some target
behaviors but never all of them. Think of it like a slot machine. You will not win on every pull of
the lever, but you do win sometimes, and that reinforces the behavior of pulling the lever.
Examples of Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement describes the best-known examples of operant conditioning: receiving a
reward for acting in a certain way.
1. Many people train their pets with positive reinforcement. Praising a pet or providing a treat
when they obey instructions -- like being told to sit or heel -- both helps the pet understand
what is desired and encourages it to obey future commands.
2. When a child receives praise for performing a chore without complaint, like cleaning their
room, they are more likely to continue to perform that chore in the future.
3. When a worker is rewarded with a performance bonus for exceptional sales figures, she is
inclined to continue performing at a high level in hopes of receiving another bonus in the
future.
Examples of Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is a different but equally straightforward form of operant conditioning.
Negative reinforcement rewards a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, rather than adding
a pleasant one.
1. An employer offering an employee a day off is an example of negative reinforcement.
Rather than giving a tangible reward, they reduce the presence of something undesirable;
that is, the amount of time spent at work.
2. In a sense, young children condition their parents through negative reinforcement.
Screaming, tantrums and other "acting out" behaviors are generally intended to draw a
parent's attention. When the parent behaves as the child wants, the unpleasant condition - the
screaming and crying - stops. That is negative reinforcement.
3. Negative reinforcement is common in the justice system. Prisons will sometimes ease
regulations on a well-behaved prisoner, and sentences are sometimes shortened for good
behavior. The latter in particular is classic negative reinforcement: the removal of something
undesirable (days in prison) in response to a given behavior.
Examples of Punishment
In psychology, punishment doesn't necessarily mean what it means in casual usage. Psychology
defines punishment as something done after a given deliberate action that lowers the chance of that
action taking place in the future. Whereas reinforcement is meant to encourage a certain behavior,
punishment is
35
meant to discourage a certain behavior.
1. An employee who misses work may suffer a cut in wages. The loss of income (an undesired
consequence) constitutes the punishment for missing work (an undesired behavior).
2. A sharp "No!" addressed to a pet engaging in unacceptable behavior is a classic example of
punishment. The shout punishes the pet, conditioning it to avoid doing wrong behavior in
the future.
3. Punishments are commonly used in lab experiments. Most often, a lab animal is punished
for a given behavior with a mild electric shock.
Just as there are examples of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, there are also
examples of positive punishment (like the ones above) and negative punishment. With the latter, a
positive situation is removed when an undesired behavior is performed. For example, a parent may
take a favorite toy away from a child who is misbehaving.
Examples of Extinction
Psychology defines extinction as the loss of conditioning over time when the conditioning stimuli
are no longer present. Over time, an animal (or person) will become less conditioned unless the
stimuli that conditioned them in the first place is reapplied.
1. An employee punished once for missing work, then never again, may become more likely to
miss work later on because they no longer expect to be punished for absence.
2. Animals often test the limits of their conditioning. For instance, a cat punished with a spray
bottle every time it climbs on a counter may come near the counter or jump on the counter
when it believes no one is around. If no punishment occurs, the cat is likely to keep jumping
on the counter because the conditioning against it is extinct.
3. In school, if a student receives a gold star for an excellent test score but does not receive
more gold stars in subsequent tests, he may become increasingly unmotivated to perform
well in future tests. The operant conditioning of the positive behavior (doing well on a test)
is becoming extinct.
B.F. Skinner and Conditioning
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was a psychologist and researcher credited with establishing the
principles of operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner began with Thorndike's law of effect, which states
that behaviors that cause satisfactory results will be repeated. Skinner considered satisfaction to be
insufficiently specific to measure and set out to design a means of measuring learned behaviors.
The operant conditioning chamber, popularly known as a Skinner box, was his solution. He
kept his test subjects, primarily pigeons and rats, in circumstances that allowed him to closely
observe their behavior. He would isolate the animal and every time the animal performed a defined
behavior, like pushing a lever, it'd be rewarded with food. When the animal began to reliably push
the lever, he'd know it had been conditioned.
Skinner's work took that first principle and applied it to human behavior, representing the
school of psychology called behaviorism. Behaviorism defined much of psychology for the second
half of the 20th century but is currently being combined with other psychological perspectives.
Operant Conditioning and You
It can be uncomfortable to talk about human behavior in the clinical language of
psychology. That said, operant conditioning describes a simple phenomenon that happens in every
part of life. It's just one of the mechanisms by which people learn. It's vital to understand how that
mechanism works to make sure it works best for you.
36
Theoretical Model of Symbolic Interactionism
Other sociologists study government and power by relying on the framework of symbolic
interactionism, which is grounded in the works of Max Weber and George H. Mead.
Symbolic interactionism, as it pertains to government, focuses its attention on figures,
emblems, or individuals that represent power and authority. Many diverse entities in larger society
can be considered symbolic: trees, doves, wedding rings. Images that represent the power and
authority of the United States include the White House, the eagle, and the American flag. The Seal
of the President of the United States, along with the office in general, incites respect and reverence
in many Americans.
Symbolic interactionists are not interested in large structures such as the government. As
micro-sociologists, they are more interested in the face-to-face aspects of politics. In reality, much
of politics consists of face-to-face backroom meetings and lobbyist efforts. What the public often
sees is the front porch of politics that is sanitized by the media through gatekeeping.
Symbolic interactionists are most interested in the interaction between these small groups
who make decisions, or in the case of some recent congressional committees, demonstrate
the inability to make any decisions at all. The heart of politics is the result of interaction
between individuals and small groups over periods of time. These meetings produce new
meanings and perspectives that individuals use to make sure there are future interactions.

The learner shall be able to connect the disciplines with their historical and social foundations
interpret personal and social experiences using relevant approaches in the Social Sciences and
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the approach.

sheet of paper.
1. Marxism is a social, political, and economic philosophy named after Karl Marx.
2. Marxism posits the struggle between social classes, specifically between the bourgeoisie or
capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers.
3. Marxist thought has continued to have an important influence on critical thought, all the
more so recently after the rise of globalization studies.
4. Karl Marx is surely the most influential contemporary Marxist thinker in the United States.
5. Louis Althusser provided a two-stage argument for the labor theory of value.
6. Marx claims that no previous theorist has been able adequately to explain how capitalism as
a whole can make a profit.
7. Capitalism is distinctive. Jameson argues that it involves not merely the exchange of
commodities, but the advancement of capital in the form of money.
8. Althusser’s own solution relies on the idea of exploitation of the worker.
9. The cost of the commodity is determined in the same way as the cost of every other such as
in terms of the amount of socially necessary labor power required to produce it.
10. Profit is the result of the labor performed by the worker beyond what is necessary to create
the value of his/her wages.
Task 2: Statement Analysis

Instruction: Write PR if the statement refers to the Positive reinforcement, NR for Negative
reinforcement, PU for Punishment, and EX if it refers to Extinction. Write your answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Telling another adult how proud you are of your child’s behavior while your child is
listening.
37
2. In school, if a student receives a gold star for an excellent test score, but does not receive
more gold stars in subsequent tests, he may become increasingly unmotivated to perform
well in future tests.
3. A teacher can eliminate that night’s homework if kids study hard and accomplish a lot in
class.
4. Implementing more rules and restrictions when a teen misses curfew.
5. If your children cleaned their room without being asked, you could take them to the
playground as a reward.
6. A teen answers his phone in the classroom, interrupting the teacher. The teacher takes away
his phone for the rest of the day.
7. You are encouraging your child to put away their school things when they come home and
you see that your child hangs up their coat but forgets to put their lunchbox on the counter.
8. Adding extra sensitivity training to employees who offend or harass someone at work.
9. Imagine you sleep in the same room with someone who snores loudly. It keeps you awake
every night, and you are exhausted. You buy a pair of earplugs and try sleeping while
wearing them.
10. Offering a special activity, like playing a game or reading a book together.

Instruction: Interpret the picture that show Symbolic Interactionism
Task 4: Essay
1. Explain the importance of Marxism and Symbolic Interactionism for Socio-cultural,
economics and politics.
Prepared by:
38
Gerard Maria D. Lacanlale
Secondary School Teacher III
39

SHS Q3 - Las Eval - Diss 11 W1 7

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Disciplines and Ideas

Name of Learner _________________________________

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Historical Background of Social Sciences

According to Stearns et al. (2000) In the period of 1760

According to Stearns et al. (2000) 19th Century Development

Two Main Branches of Natural Science Denhardt et al. (2009)

Branches of Natural Science Description

Social Sciences and Natural Sciences

Differences of Social Sciences and Natural Sciences

Social Science and Humanities

Content Standards with Codes

Task 2: Fill in the Blank

Task 3: Venn Diagram

Social Natural Social

INTRODUCING THE DISCIPLINES WITHIN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Anthropology, Demography, Economics, Geography, History, Linguistics, Political Science,

Etymologies of Social Science Disciplines and Definitions

Function of Social Science Disciplines

The Methods of Creating History:

The School of Psychology

School of Proponents Description

Content Standards with Codes

Task 1: True or False

Task 3: Concept Mapping

HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

Founder of Different Disciplines

Proponent Disciplines Year Description

Historical Foundation of Each Discipline

Content Standards with Codes

Task 1: True or False

Task 3: Concept Mapping

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORIES

Name of Learner _________________________________

Concepts of Symbolic Interactionism

Task 2: Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following defines Marxism?

Structural Functionalism in Theory

Talcott Parson’s Five Pattern Variables of Role-definition

General Conceptual Diagram

Content Standards with Codes

Task 1: True or False

Task 2: Completion of Words

Task 3: Photo Analysis

1. Explain the importance of Structural-Functionalism for Socio-cultural, economics and

Content Standards with Codes

Task 1: True or False

Task 2: Statement Analysis

Task 3: Photo Analysis

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