Lecture 5

Physical Realisation of Logic Gates

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Slide 1

Boolean Algebra as a Model of Logic Circuits?

Boolean Algebra is a good framework for describing the behaviour of logic circuits, but it is an abstraction. For a practical machine we need to use real voltages, (e.g. ~3.5v for one and ~0.5v for zero), and we need to consider time delays for the signals to propagate through the circuit. Boolean Logic is only an approximation to the way in which a digital circuit operates.
DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Physical Models
All physical models are approximate. For example Newtonian mechanics was thought to be exact until about 1900 when more accurate measurements showed that real planetary movements differed from the predicted ones. However, Newtonian mechanics is enormously useful --you dont need quantum theory to design a car!

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Time in Logic Circuits

We will see in this lecture that the most important deficiency of Boolean Logic is its inability to describe events happening at different moments in time. Later in the course we will discuss ways in which we can cope with the problems caused by timing.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

A more detailed model

We can introduce a more detailed model of the operation of logic circuits, and for this we need three components: The Resistor The Capacitor The Transistor

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The Resistor
This is a familiar device which is governed by Ohms Law: V = I R (V=Voltage, I=Current, R=Resistance)

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Procedural vs. Mathematical Models

Ohms law is a simple mathematical model expressed by an equation. For more complex devices, such as the transistor, it is possible to derive a mathematical equation, but it is much simpler to describe the behaviour of the device. Such a description is called a procedural model.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The transistor as a switch

The transistor may be thought of a a switch with the three terminals labelled: S : Source D : Drain G : Gate

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The rules
1.There is no connection between G and S or G and D 2.If the voltage between G and D (Vgd) is less than or equal to 0.5 volts there is no connection between S and D 3.If the voltage between G and D (Vgd) is greater than 2 volts S is connected directly to D
DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The Inverter Circuit

We can now build an inverter using a resistor and a transistor, but we need to define our Boolean States in terms of voltages: For example: V<=0.5volt is equivalent to Boolean 0 V>3volts is equivalent to Boolean 1

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The Invertor Case 1: Vin = 0.5volt

Since Vin=0.5 the input is a Boolean 0, and by the procedural rules, the switch is open; thus: I = 0 Vr = 0 (Ohm's law) Vout = 5v = Boolean 1

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The Invertor Case 2: Vin = 5volt

The input is 5v which we interpret as Boolean 1. By the procedural rules the switch is closed. Thus: Vout = 0 Vr = 5 I = 5/R (Ohm's law)

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The NOR gate

If both switches are open (input A and B both Boolean 0), the output is 5v (Boolean 1) If either switch is closed (either, or both, ie A and/or B at Boolean 1 value), the output is 0v (Boolean 0)

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The NAND gate

The output falls to 0v (Boolean 0) only when both switches are closed. If either opens it rises to 5v (Boolean 1)

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

AND and OR gates

We can construct an AND gate by connecting a NAND gate and an invertor together. Similarly we can construct an OR gate by connecting a NOR together with an invertor. These models, though simple are surprisingly close to the implementations used in practice.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Time rears its ugly head

Signal Propagation: it takes time for the transistor state to change. This is because electrons move through the transistor.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Goodbye to Boolean Algebra?

But Boolean Algebra does not incorporate a measure of time. Although the time delay does not seem very important, in practice it complicates logic circuit design. The larger the circuit and greater the difference in the number of gates in different paths the more reasoning about time becomes critical.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The synchronisation problem

This example is artificial, but illustrates how a false result (sometimes called a spike) can be caused by time delays.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Problem Break
Given that A and B have had their starting values for some time what output would you expect to result from the timing diagram given?

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Switch characteristics
Note that a transistor is not exactly a switch. For a proper switch: Switch Closed 0 resistance Switch Open resistance But in practice neither of these extremes are reached.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Practical transistor characteristic

In fact a transistor behaves more like a variable resistor:

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Input capacitance
Another feature of the real transistor is that it has a small capacitor connected between the gate and the drain. We can represent it schematically thus:

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

The effect of the capacitor

The capacitor has the effect of introducing a time delay. In fact, it is responsible for the time delay td that we talked about previously. To see why we need to introduce a model of the capacitor: I= C (dV/dt)

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Calculating the effect of the capacitor

Assume A is 0V 5 - V = IR (Ohm's law) V = 5 - IR I = C(dV/dt) Now we eliminate I to get: V = 5 - RC (dV/dt)

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Calculating the effect of the capacitor

Re arrange and integrate dV/(5-V) = (1/RC) dt - log (5-V) = t/RC + K If V=0 at t=0 it follows that K = -log(5) 5-V = exp(-t/RC + log(5)) = exp(-t/RC)exp(log(5)) = 5 exp(-t/RC) V = 5( 1- exp(-t/RC))

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Plotting the effect of the capacitor

From the previous slide: V = 5( 1- exp(-t/RC))

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Practical representation of a square wave

Notice that the voltage will never reach 1 or 0 There is a non-deterministic time interval which limits the speed that the computer can go

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

PMOS Transistors
The transistor we have discussed in this lecture is called the NMOS (Negative Metal Oxide Silicon) transistor. There is a dual type of transistor which operates in the opposite manner. If the voltage between G and D (Vgd) is less than or equal to 0.5 volts there is low resistance between S and D If the voltage between G and D (Vgd) is greater than 2 volts there is high resistance between S and D. It is called the PMOS transistor
DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

CMOS Circuits
In practice most integrated circuits do not use resistors but use a combination of NMOS and PMOS transistors. The technology is called CMOS (Complementary MOS). A CMOS inverter circuit has a PMOS transistor in place of the resistor. This means lower power consumption and faster switching.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Transistor economics
Moores Law ( 1965 ) Transistors per square inch doubles every 18 months

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05

Software Efficiency
May's Law (1985) Software efficiency halves every 18 months, compensating Moore's Law.

DOC112: Computer Hardware Lecture 05