Solutions to

Quantum Field Theory for the Gifted Amateur

by Tom Lancaster & Stephen J. Blundell

Arjit Seth

January 18, 2019

Chapter 1

Lagrangians

1. Fermat’s principle of least time.

p p p p
x2 + h21 (l − x)2 + h22 x2 + h21 (l − x)2 + h22
t= + = +
v1 v2 c/n1 c/n2
dt x (l − x)
= p − p =0
dx 2
c/n1 x + h1 2 c/n2 (l − x)2 + h22
n1 sin θ = n2 sin φ

2. Practice with functional derivatives.

(a)
Z Z 
δH[f ] 1
= lim G(x, y)[f (y) + δ(y − z)] dy − G(x, y)f (y) dy = G(x, z)
δf (z) →0 

(b)

δI[f α ]
Z 
1 α α−1
= lim [f (x) + δ(x − x0 )] − f (x)α dx = α[f (x0 )]
δx0 →0 
1 1
δI[f 3 ]
Z Z 
1 3 2
∴ = lim [f (x) + δ(x − x0 )] dx − [f (x)]3 dx = 3[f (x0 )]
δf (x0 ) →0  −1 −1
δ 2 I[f 3 ] 3h 2
i
= lim [f (x0 ) + δ(x0 − x1 )] − f 2 (x0 ) = 6f (x1 )
δf (x0 )δf (x1 ) →0 

(c)
"Z  2 Z  2 #
δJ[f ] 1 ∂ ∂f
= lim [f (y) + δ(y − x)] dy − dy
δf (x) →0  ∂y ∂y
"Z  2 Z  2 #
1 ∂f 0 ∂f ∂2f
= lim + δ (y − x) dy − dy = 2 2
→0  ∂y ∂y ∂x

1
 Chapter 1. Lagrangians

3. Euler-Lagrange equations using functional derivatives and more.

Z   Z 
δG[f ] 1 ∂g(y, f ) ∂g(x, f )
= lim g(y, f ) + δ(y − x) dy − g(y, f ) dy =
δf (x) →0  ∂f ∂f (x)

4. Results on Dirac Delta functions.

δφ(x) φ(x) + δ(x − y) − φ(x)
= lim = δ(x − y)
δφ(y) →0 
 
δ φ̇(t) 1 d d
= lim [φ(t) + δ(t − t0 )] − φ̇(t) = δ(t − t0 )
δφ(t0 ) →0  dt dt

5. Derivation of the wave equation.

Z Z  2
1 ∂ψ
S = (T − V ) dt = ρ − T (∇ψ)2 dt
2 ∂t
"Z  2 Z  2 #
δS 1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ 2
= lim ρ [ψ + δ(t − t0 )] − T (∇[ψ + δ(x − y)]) dt − ρ − T (∇ψ) dt
δψ →0 2 ∂t ∂t
Z  
∂ ∂ψ
= ρ δ(t − t0 ) − T ∇δ(x − y)∇ψ dt = 0
∂t ∂t
s
2 1 ∂2ψ T
=⇒ ∇ ψ = 2 2 , v =
v ∂t ρ

6. Functional derivative of a Wick expansion term in the generating functional.

 Z 
1
Z0 [J] = exp − d4 x d4 y J(x)∆(x − y)J(y)
2
  Z 
δZ0 [J] 1 1
= lim exp − d4 x d4 y [J(x) + δ(x − z1 )]∆(x − y)[J(y) + δ(y − z1 )]
δJ(z1 ) →0  2
 Z 
1
− exp − d4 x d4 y J(x)∆(x − y)J(y)
2

2
Chapter 2

Simple harmonic oscillators

1. Commutators of ladder operators.

     
mω i i mω i i
[â, ↠] = x̂ + p̂ x̂ − p̂ − x̂ − p̂ x̂ + p̂
2~ mω mω 2~ mω mω
1
= ([x̂, p̂] + [x̂, p̂]) = 1
2i~

2. Perturbation theory and ladder operators. The perturbative term Ĥp = λŴ = λx̂4 . Its first-order
correction is:
 
(0) 1
En = En + hφn |Ĥp |φn i = n + ~ω + n λx̂4 n
2
   2
1 ~
= n+ ~ω + λ n (â + ↠)4 n
2 2mω
   2
1 ~
= n+ ~ω + λ hn|painf ul|ni
2 2mω

3. Fourier transform of x̂k .

r
1 X ˆ ikja ~  
x̂j = √ x̃k e ˆ
, x̃k = âk + â†−k
N k 2mωk
r r
1 X ~   h X 1  ikja 
x̂j = √ âk + â†−k eikja = √ âk e + â†k e−ikja
N k 2mωk Nm 2ωk
k

3
 Chapter 2. Simple harmonic oscillators

4. Ground state of the harmonic oscillator.

r  
mω i
x̂ + p̂ |0i = 0
2~ mω
i
hx|x̂|0i + hx|p̂|0i = 0
 mω 
~ d
x+ hx|0i = 0
mω dx
 
d mω
+ x hx|0i = 0
dx ~

This is easily solved by separation of variables. Attempting a series solution for practice:
∞
X
hx|0i = an xn
n=0
∞ ∞
X X mω
nan xn−1 + an xn+1 = 0
n=0 n=0
~
∞ ∞
X X mω
(n + 2)an+2 xn+1 + an xn+1 = 0
n=0 n=0
~
mω
an+2 = − an , a0 = A, a1 = 0
~(n + 2)
 
 mω  1  mω 2 4 1  mω 3 6
hx|0i = A 1 + − x2 + − x + − x + ...
2~ 2 2~ 6 2~
2
 
mωx
hx|0i = A exp −
2~
mωx2
 
A = 1/ exp −
2~
sZ
∞  mω   mω 1/4
A = 1/ exp 2 x2 =
−∞ 2~ π~
mωx2
 mω 1/4  
hx|0i = exp −
π~ 2~

4
Chapter 3

Occupation number representation

1. Practice with exponentials and ladder operators.

1 X i(p·x−q·y)  1 X i(p·x−q·y) 1 X ip·(x−y)
âp , â†q = = δ (3) (x − y)

e e δpq = e
V pq V pq V p

2. Ladder operator identities.

(a)
h
n i h
n
n i
â, ↠= â ↠− ↠â
h
n−1
n−1 †
i h †
n−1 h †
n−1 ii
= (1 + ↠â) ↠− ↠â â = â − â â, â†

(b)

m √ √
h0|ân ↠|0i = n! m! hn|mi
(c)
(d)
3. Three-dimensional harmonic oscillator.
r  
† mω i
âi = x̂i − p̂i
2~ mω
i mω      
h i i i i
âi , â†j = x̂i + p̂i x̂j − p̂j − x̂j − p̂j x̂i + p̂i
2~ mω mω mω mω
 
mω 1 i
= [x̂i , x̂j ] + 2 2 [p̂i , p̂j ] − ([x̂j .p̂i ] + [x̂i , p̂j ]) = δij
2~ m ω mω
p̂2i 1 p̂2i
 
† 1 2 2 i 1 2 2 ~ω
âi âi = + mω x̂i + [x̂i , p̂i ] = + mω x̂i −
2m~ω 2~ω 2~ ~ω 2m 2 2
3
X p̂2 3  
i 1 X † 1
Ĥ = + mω 2 x̂2i = ~ω âi âi +
i=1
2m 2 i=1
2
L̂i ≡ −i~ijk â†j âk

5
 Chapter 3. Occupation number representation

4. Slater determinant for fermions. Consider an n-particle state:

hp01 p02 p03 . . . p0n |pn pn−1 pn−2 . . . p1 i = h0|âp01 âp02 âp03 . . . âpn â†pn â†pn−1 â†pn−2 . . . â†p1 |0i

6
Chapter 4

Making second quantization work

1. Commutation relations of density field operators.

h i h i
ψ̂(x), ψ̂ † (y) = δ (3) (x − y), ψ̂(x), ψ̂(y) = 0
ζ ζ
† †
ρ̂(x)ρ̂(y) = ψ̂ (x)ψ̂(x)ψ̂ (y)ψ̂(y)
= −ζ ψ̂ † (x)ψ̂ † (y)ψ̂(x)ψ̂(y) + δ (3) (x − y)ψ̂ † (x)ψ̂(y)
= −ζ 2 ψ̂ † (x)ψ̂ † (y)ψ̂(y)ψ̂(x) + δ (3) (x − y)ψ̂ † (x)ψ̂(y)

So ζ = ±1 yields the same result regardless of bosons or fermions.

2. Single-particle density matrix in terms of ladder operators.
D E
ρ̂1 (x − y) = ψ̂ † (x)ψ̂(y)
1 X † −ip·x X 1 X −i(p·x−q·y) †
= âp e âq eiq·y = e âp âq
V p q
V pq

3. Hubble Hamiltonian. Solving its eigenvalue problem:

U −λ −t −t 0
ˆ = −t
|Ĥ − λI|
−λ 0 −t
=0
−t 0 −λ −t
0 −t −t U − λ
1h p i
λ1 = 0, λ2 = U, λ3,4 = U ± 16t2 + U 2
2
1
     
0 −1 √
−U ± 16t2 +U 2
−1 0  
ν1 =   , ν2 =  √4t
 0 , ν3,4 =  −U ± 16t2 +U 2 
   
1
4t
0 1 0

7
Chapter 5

Continuous systems

1. Explicit time dependence of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian.

 
dL ∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L d ∂L ∂L
= + q̇ + q̈ = + q̇ + q̈
dt ∂t ∂q ∂ q̇ ∂t dt ∂ q̇ ∂ q̇
 
dL ∂L d ∂L
= + q̇
dt ∂t dt ∂ q̇

The Hamiltonian is defined as the Legendre transformation with a canonical momentum p = ∂L/∂ q̇.
Therefore:
∂L d(L − pq̇) dH
= =−
∂t dt dt

2. Commutation relations of Poisson brackets.

X ∂A ∂B ∂A ∂B
{A, B}P B = −
i
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi
X ∂B ∂A ∂B ∂A
{B, A}P B = − = −{A, B}P B
i
∂qi ∂pi ∂pi ∂qi

3. Commutation relations of Hermitian operators. Since A and B are Hermitian, A = A† , B = B † .

† †
[A, B] = (AB − BA) = B † A† − A† B † = −[B, A]

4. Investigating the non-relativistic limit of the relativistic free particle. This is easily found by Taylor expan-
sions of γ, then taking the low-velocity limit:
r
v2 1
L = −mc 1 − 2 ≈ −mc2 + mv 2
2
c 2
∂L
p= = γmv ≈ mv
∂v
mc2 v2
  
2 1 1
H = pv − L = γmv + = 1 − 2 mv + mc = γmc2 ≈ mc2 + mv 2
2 2
γ γ c 2

8
 Chapter 5. Continuous systems

5. Extremisation of the spacetime interval.

Z b r
b b b
v2
Z Z Z
dt
ds = 1 − 2 dt = = L dt
a a c a γ a
∂L2 2v
=
 2 ∂v c2
d ∂L ∂L2 2v̇
− = =0
dt ∂v ∂x c2
Since the acceleration is zero, the velocity is constant. Hence a straight world-line path does minimise the
interval.
6. Electromagnetic Lagrangian.
−mc2
L= + qA · v − qV
γ
∇L = q[∇(A · v) − ∇V ]
· ∇)v  · ∇)A
 + v × (∇ × A) + ( ×(
(∇(×(v) − q∇V ]
(
= q[
(A  + (v A(
= q[E + v × B], ∵ E = −q∇V, B = ∇ × A
mc2
 
∂L 2v
=− q − 2 = γmv
∂v 2
2 1 − vc2 c

d ∂L
0= − ∇L
dt ∂v
d
=⇒ (γmv) = q[E + v × B]
dt
7. Non-relativistic limit of the electromagnetic Lagrangian.
−mc2 1
L= + qA · v − qV ≈ mv2 + qA · v − qV
γ 2
∂L
p= = mv + qA
∂v
Finding the Hamiltonian is equivalent to finding the energy in terms of momentum:
H = p · v − L = mv2 + qA · v − L
1 1 p − qA
= mc2 + mv2 + qV = mc2 + (p − qA)2 + qV, v=
2 2m m
Adjusting the zero of the Hamiltonian by subtracting mc2 gives the well-known result.
8. Hunting for Lorentz invariants in electromagnetism.
αβγδ Fαβ Fγδ =

9. Deriving Maxwell’s equations. (0 = µ0 = c = 1) The first equation is:

∂µ F µ0 = J 0 = ρ
=⇒ ∇ · E = ρ

9
 Chapter 5. Continuous systems

The second equation is:

∂µ F µi = J i = J
∂E
=⇒ − +∇×B=J
∂t
The third equation is:

∂λ Fµ0 + ∂0 Fλµ + ∂µ F0λ = 0

∂B
=⇒ ∇ × E + =0
∂t
The fourth equation is:

∂λ Fµi + ∂i Fλµ + ∂µ Fiλ = 0

=⇒ ∇ · B = 0

10. Deriving the continuity equation of electromagnetism. Differentiating:

∂β ∂α F αβ = ∂β J β

Since mixed partial derivatives are symmetric and F αβ is antisymmetric, the operation obviously gives zero:

∂β ∂α F αβ = ∂β J β = 0

The second equality can be interpreted as a continuity equation akin to fluid mechanics with the charge
density ρ and the current density J:
∂ρ
+∇·J=0
∂t

10
Chapter 6

A first stab at relativistic quantum

mechanics

1. Massive scalar field Lagrangian.

1 2 1 1 1
L= (∂µ φ) − m2 φ2 = ∂µ φ∂ µ φ − m2 φ2
2 2 2 2
∂L 2 ∂L µ
= −m φ, =∂ φ
∂φ ∂(∂µ φ)
 
∂L ∂L
− ∂µ =0
∂φ ∂(∂µ φ)
∂ 2 + m2 φ = 0

∂L
π= = ∂ 0 φ = φ̇
∂ φ̇
1 1 2 1
H = π φ̇ − L = π 2 + (∇φ) + m2 φ2
2 2 2

11
Chapter 7

Examples of Lagrangians, or how to

write down a theory

1. Massive scalar field with a twist.

∞
1 2 1 2 2 X
L = (∂µ φ) − m φ − λn φ2n+2
2 2 n=1
∞
∂L X
= −m2 φ − λn (2n + 2)φ2n+1
∂φ n=1
∂L
= ∂µφ
∂(∂µ φ)
 
∂L ∂L
− ∂µ =0
∂φ ∂(∂µ φ)
∞
X
∂µ ∂ µ φ + m2 φ + λn (2n + 2)φ2n+1 = 0
n=1
∞
X
∂ 2 + m2 φ + λn (2n + 2)φ2n+1 = 0


n=1

12
 Chapter 7. Examples of Lagrangians, or how to write down a theory

2. Massive scalar field with a source.

1 2 1 2
L= [∂µ φ(x)] − m2 [φ(x)] + J(x)φ(x)
2 2
∂L
= −m2 φ(x) + J(x)
∂φ(x)
∂L
= ∂ µ φ(x)
∂(∂µ φ(x))
 
∂L ∂L
− ∂µ =0
∂φ(x) ∂(∂µ φ(x))
∂µ ∂ µ φ(x) + m2 φ(x) − J(x) = 0
∂ 2 + m2 φ(x) = J(x)

3. Two coupled massive scalar fields.

1 2 1 1 2 1
2
L= (∂µ φ1 ) − m2 φ21 + (∂µ φ2 ) − m2 φ22 − g φ21 + φ22
2 2 2 2
∂L ∂L
= −m2 φ1 − 4gφ1 φ21 + φ22 = 0, = −m2 φ2 − 4gφ2 φ21 + φ22 = 0



∂φ1 ∂φ2
∂L µ ∂L
= ∂ φ1 , = ∂ µ φ2
∂(∂µ φ1 ) ∂(∂µ φ2 )
∂µ ∂ µ φ1 + m2 φ1 + 4gφ1 φ21 + φ22 = 0

∂µ ∂ µ φ1 + m2 φ1 + 4gφ2 φ21 + φ22 = 0

4. Introducing the conjugate momentum. Referring to Chapter 6’s solution:

∂L
Πµ = = ∂µφ
∂(∂µ φ)

13
Chapter 8

The passage of time

h i
1. Properties of a specific form of the time-evolution operator. Let Û (t1 , t2 ) = exp iĤ(t2 − t1 ) :
h i
Û (t1 , t1 ) = exp iĤ(t1 − t1 ) = 1
h i
Û (t3 , t2 )Û (t2 , t1 ) = exp iĤ(t3 − t1 ) = Û (t3 , t1 )
d h i     h i
i exp iĤ(t2 − t1 ) = i2 exp iĤt2 Ĥ exp −iĤt1 = Ĥ Û (t2 , t1 ), ∵ Û , Ĥ = 0
dt2
The time evolution operator is unitary, so Û −1 = Û † . Therefore:
h i
Û † (t2 , t1 ) = exp iĤ(t1 − t2 ) = Û (t1 , t2 )
h i h i
Û † (t2 , t1 )Û (t2 , t1 ) = exp iĤ(t1 − t2 ) exp iĤ(t2 − t1 ) = 1

2. Time-dependence of ladder operators.

Ek â†k âk
X
Ĥ =
k

â†k (t) = eiĤt/~ â†k (0)e−iĤt/~

dâ†k (t) i  iĤt/~ h i 
= e Ĥ, â†k (0) e−iĤt/~
dt ~
iEk  iĤt/~ h i  iE
k †
= e n̂k , â†k (0) e−iĤt/~ = â (t)
~ ~ k
dâ†k (t)
Z Z
iEk
†
= dt =⇒ â†k (t) = â†k (0)eiEk t/~
âk (t) ~

3. Time-dependence of an operator of the form X̂ = Xlm â†l âm .

X̂(t) = eiĤt/~ Xlm â†l âm e−iĤt/~

dX̂
=
dt

14
 Chapter 8. The passage of time

4. Hamiltonian of a spin-1/2 particle in a magnetic field.

z
dŜH 1h z y
i ωh z yi ω x

x
= ŜH , ω ŜH = Ŝ , Ŝ = −i~ŜH = −ω ŜH
dt i~ i~ H H i~
x
dŜH 1h x y
i ωh z yi ω z

z
= ŜH , ω ŜH = Ŝ , Ŝ = i~ŜH = ω ŜH
dt i~ i~ H H i~
Spin behaves like angular momentum.

15
Chapter 9

Quantum mechanical transformations

1. Generators of the translation operator.

Û (a) = exp[−ip̂ · a]
∂ Û (a)
= −ip̂ exp[−ip̂ · 0]
∂a a=0
1 ∂ Û (a)
=⇒ p̂ = −
i ∂a a=0

2. Generators of the Lorentz group for four-vectors.

sinh φ1 cosh φ1
 

0 0 0 1 0 0
1
1 ∂Λ φ 1 cosh φ1 sinh φ1 0 0 1 0 0 0
K= = = −i 
i ∂φ1 φ1 =0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 φ1 =0
0 0 0 0

and similarly for φi .

3. Infinitesimal Lorentz transformations. Going to the MCRF and composing boosts:

γv 1 γv 2 γv 3 1 v1 v2 v3
   
γ
γv 1 γ 0 0   1
Λµν = lim   = v 2 1 0 0 

2
v→0 γv
 0 γ 0  v 0 1 0
3 3
γv 0 0 γ v 0 0 1

For an infinitesimal counter-clockwise rotations, compose the matrices:

     
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
µ
0 1 θ3 0 0 1 0 −θ2 0 1 0 0 0 1 θ3 −θ2 
Λν =      =  
0 −θ3 1 00 0 1 0 0 0 1 θ1  0 −θ3 1 θ1 
0 0 0 1 0 θ2 0 1 0 0 −θ1 1 0 θ2 −θ1 1

16
 Chapter 9. Quantum mechanical transformations

Compose the boosts and rotation matrices:

Λµν = Λµν̄ Λν̄ν = Lz Rz Ly Ry Lx Rx

v1 v2 v3
 
1
v 1 1 θ3 −θ2 
Λµν = 
v 2 −θ3

1 θ1 
v 3 θ2 −θ1 1

Extracting the identity matrix, the general infinitesimal Lorentz transformation can be written as:

v1 v2 v3
   
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0  1 θ3 −θ2 
Λ=1+ω =  + v 2 0
3

0 0 1 0 v −θ 0 θ1 
0 0 0 1 v 3 θ2 −θ1 0

The following tensors are indeed antisymmetric:

v1 v2 v3 0 −v 1 −v 2 −v 3
    
0 1 0 0 0
1 3 2 
v 0 θ −θ 0 −1 0 0  v 1 0 −θ3 θ2 
ω µν = ω µλ g λν = 
  
v 2 −θ3 1  = 
0 θ 0 0 −1 0  v 2 θ3 0 −θ1 
v 3 θ2 −θ1 0 0 0 0 −1 v 3 −θ2 θ1 0
v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3
    
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 3 2 1
0 −1 0 0 v 0 θ −θ  −v 0 −θ3 θ2 
ωµν = gµλ ω λν = 
  
0 0 −1 0 v 2 −θ3 = 
0 θ1  −v 2 θ3 0 −θ1 
0 0 0 −1 v 3 θ2 −θ1 0 −v 3 −θ2 θ1 0

4. Generators of the Poincaré group.

17
Chapter 10

Symmetry

1. Commutation relations between scalar field and its conjugate momentum.

Z
α α α
φ(x)T 0α − T 0α φ(x) d3 y
 
[φ(x), P ] = φ(x)P − P φ(x) =

2. Noether current of N -field system.

3. Energy-momentum tensor and momentum of the massive scalar field.

T µν = Πµ ∂ ν φ − g µν L
 
1 2 1
T 00 = Π0 ∂ 0 φ − g 00 (∂µ φ) − m2 φ2 = π φ̇ − L
2 2
1 2 1 2 1
= π + (∇φ) + m2 φ2
2 2 2
∂µ T µν = ∂µ [∂ µ ∂ ν φ − g µν L]
1
= ∂ 2 φ∂ ν φ − ∂ µ φ∂µ ∂ ν φ − ∂ ρ φ∂ ν ∂ρ φ + ∂ρ φ∂ ν ∂ ρ φ − 2m2 φ∂ ν φ

2
= ∂ 2 + m2 φ[∂ ν φ] = 0


Z Z
P i = T 0i d3 x = Π0 ∂ i φ − g 0i L d3 x

Z
= ∂ 0 φ∂ i φ d3 x

The Klein-Gordon equation, which is the equation of motion for scalar field theory, satisfies the divergence
of the energy-momentum tensor.

18
 Chapter 10. Symmetry

4. Energy-momentum tensor and momentum of the electromagnetic field.

1 1
L = − Fµν F µν = − [∂µ Aν ∂ µ Aν − ∂µ Aν ∂ ν Aµ ]
4 2
∂(∂µ Aν ∂ µ Aν )
= δµσ δνρ ∂ µ Aν + ∂µ Aν g ασ g ρβ δαµ δβν = 2∂ σ Aρ
∂(∂σ Aρ )
∂(∂µ Aν ∂ ν Aµ )
= δµσ δνρ ∂ ν Aµ + ∂µ Aν g αρ g σβ δαµ δβν = 2∂ ρ Aσ
∂(∂σ Aρ )
∂L
= −(∂ σ Aρ − ∂ ρ Aσ ) = −F σρ = Πσρ
∂(∂σ Aρ )
Tνµ = Πµσ ∂ν Aσ − δνµ L
1
T µν = g αν Tαµ = −F µσ ∂ ν Aσ + g µν Fαβ F αβ
4
X λµν = F µλ Aν = −F λµ Aν = X µλν
T̃ µν = T µν + ∂ν X λµν = T µν + ∂ν F µλ Aν

1
= −F µσ ∂ ν Aσ + g µν Fαβ F αβ +  F µλ ν
+ F µλ ∂λ Aν


∂λ A
4
1 1
[λ → σ] = F µσ (∂σ Aν − ∂ ν Aσ ) + g µν Fαβ F αβ = F µσ Fσν + g µν Fαβ F αβ
4 4
1 1
1
T̃ 00 = F 0σ Fσ0 + g 00 Fαβ F αβ = E 2 + B 2 − E 2 = E 2 + B 2


4 2 2
1 i0 αβ  i
T̃ i0 = F iσ Fσ0 + g Fαβ F = ijk Ej Bk = (E × B)

4

19
Chapter 11

Canonical quantization of fields

d3 p
Z Z
1
1. Commutation relations of quantum field position operators. Let ≡ :
(2π)3/2 (2Ep )1/2 p

h i Z Z
âp e−ip·x + â†p eip·x âq e−iq·y + â†q eiq·y



φ̂(x), φ̂(y) =
p q
Z Z
âq e−iq·y + â†q eiq·y âp e−ip·x + â†p eip·x



−
q p
Z Z 3
d q 1
d3 p âp , â†q e−ip·x eiq·y + â†p , âq eip·x e−iq·y
   

= 3 1
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2

d3 q
Z Z
1  
= d3 p 3 1 δ (3) (p − q)e−ip·x eiq·y − δ (3) (q − p)eip·x e−iq·y
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2

d3 p 1  −ip·(x−y)
Z 
ip·(x−y)
= 3 e − e = 0, p 7→ −p
(2π) 2Ep

2. Commutation relations of quantum field position operator and its conjugate momentum.
h i Z Z
φ̂(x), Π̂0 (y) = âp e−ip·x + â†p eip·x (−iEq ) âq e−iq·y − â†q eiq·y



p q
Z Z
− (−iEq ) âq e−iq·y − â†q eiq·y âp e−ip·x + â†p eip·x



q p
Z Z 3
d q Eq
d3 p âp , â†q e−ip·x eiq·y + âq , â†p eip·x e−iq·y
   

=i 3 1
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2
d3 q
Z Z
i Eq  
= d3 p 3 1 δ (3) (p − q)e−ip·x eiq·y + δ (3) (q − p)eip·x e−iq·y
2 (2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2
Z 3
i d p 
−ip·(x−y) ip·(x−y)

= 3 e + e = i δ (3) (x − y), p 7→ −p
2 (2π)

20
Chapter 12

Examples of canonical quantization

1. Complex scalar field theory.

Ĥ = ∂ 0 ψ̂ † ψ̂ + ∂ 0 ψ̂ ψ̂ † + ∇ψ̂ † · ∇ψ̂ + m2 ψ̂ † ψ̂
Z  Z  
= (iEq ) â†q eiq·x − b̂q e−iq·x âp e−ip·x + b̂†p eip·x
q p
Z  Z  
+ (−iEq ) âq e−iq·x − b̂†q eiq·x â†p eip·x + b̂p e−ip·x
q p
Z   Z  
+ (iq) â†q eiq·x − b̂q e−iq·x · (ip) âp e−ip·x − b̂†p eip·x
q p
Z  Z  
+ m2 â†q e−iq·x + b̂q eiq·x âp e−ip·x + b̂†p eip·x
q p
Z Z 3
d q iEq  
= d3 p 3 1 â†q âp ei(q−p)·x − b̂q b̂†p e−i(q−p)·x
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2

d3 q −iEq
Z Z  
+ d3 p 3 1 âp â†q ei(q−p)·x − b̂†p b̂q e−i(q−p)·x
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2
3
p·q  †
Z Z
d q † −i(q−p)·x

d3 p 3 1 âq âp ei(q−p)·x
+ b̂q b̂p e
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2
d3 q
Z Z
1 
† † −i(q−p)·x

+ m2 d3 p 3 1 âq â p e i(q−p)·x
+ b̂q b̂ p e
(2π) (4Ep Eq ) 2

2. Commutation relations of complex scalar fields.

(a)
h i Z  Z  
ψ̂(x), ψ̂ † (y) = âp e−ip·x + b̂†p eip·x â†q e−iq·x + b̂q eiq·x
p q
Z  Z  
† −iq·x
− âq e + b̂q e iq·x
âp e−ip·x + b̂†p eip·x
q p

21
 Chapter 12. Examples of canonical quantization

(b)
3. Commutation relations of Noether charges for two scalar fields.

(a)
 0   
φ1 cos α − sin α φ1
=
φ02 sin α cos α φ2
h i
Q̂N , φˆ1 = −iDφˆ1 = iφˆ2

(b)
h i
Q̂N , φˆ2 = −iDφˆ2 = −iφˆ1

(c)
h i 1 h i i h i i 1
Q̂N , ψ̂ = √ Q̂N , φˆ1 + √ Q̂N , φˆ2 = √ φˆ2 + √ φˆ1 = ψ̂
2 2 2 2
 0   
φ1 cos α − sin α φ1
=
φ02 sin α cos α φ2
h i h i
Q̂N , φˆ1 = −iDφˆ1 = iφˆ2 , Q̂N , φˆ2 = −iDφˆ2 = −iφˆ1
h i 1 h i i h i i 1
Q̂N , ψ̂ = √ Q̂N , φˆ1 + √ Q̂N , φˆ2 = √ φˆ2 + √ φˆ1 = ψ̂
2 2 2 2

4. Using Noether’s theorem to derive the number-phase uncertainty relation. Note: Dθ̂ = ±1. Substituting:
h i
Q̂N , θ̂ = −iDθ̂ = i
Z  Z
ρ(x, t) d3 x, θ(x, t) = d3 x [ρ, θ] = i

22
 Chapter 12. Examples of canonical quantization

5. Equations of motion of non-relativistic complex scalar field theory.

 
∂L ∂L ∂L
− ∂µ = − ∂µ Πµψ = 0
∂ψ ∂(∂µ ψ) ∂ψ
∂L
= −V (x)ψ † (x), Π0ψ = iψ †
∂ψ
1 2 †
∂0 Π0ψ = i∂0 ψ † , ∂i Πiψ = − ∇ ψ
2m
1
∴ i∂0 ψ † − ∂i ∂ i ψ † − V (x)ψ † (x) = 0
2m
1 2
=⇒ i∂0 ψ † = Ĥψ † , Ĥ = − ∇ + V̂
2m
∂ψ 1 2
V = 0 =⇒ i =− ∇ ψ
∂t 2m
1 00
iT 0 (t)X(x) = − X (x)T (t)
2m
T0
= −iE =⇒ T (t) = Ae−iEt
T √
X 00 + 2mEX = 0 =⇒ X(x) = Beipx + Ce−ipx , p = 2mE
T (t)X(x) = Aei(px−Et) + Be−i(px−Et)

6. Noether current for non-relativistic complex scalar field theory.

0
JN = iΨ† (iΨ) + iΨ(−iΨ† )
Z h i
QNc = Ψ̂Ψ̂† − Ψ̂† Ψ̂ d3 x
"Z #
d3 p d3 q d3 q d3 p
Z Z Z Z
−ip·x
= 3
d x 3 âp e 3 − â†q eiq·x
3 â†q eiq·x
3 âp e
−ip·x
(2π) 2 (2π) 2 (2π) 2 (2π) 2
Z Z Z 
1 3 3 3 † i(p−q)·x † −i(p−q)·x
3 d x d p d q â â
p q e − âq pâ e
(2π)
Z Z
= d3 p d3 q âp â†q δ 3 (p − q) − â†q âp δ 3 (q − p)

Z
= d3 p âp , â†p = p
 

So momentum is conserved, naturally.

7. Transformation of the complex scalar field.

23
Chapter 13

Fields with many components and

massive electromagnetism

1. Angular momentum form of internal symmetries.

(a) J~ represents the Levi-Civita tensor as a vector of matrices.
Z
~ˆ N = d3 p † J~Â
Q c

(b) The inverse transformations and resultant computations are as follows:

1   i  
â1 = √ b̂−1 − b̂1 , â2 = − √ b̂−1 + b̂1 , â3 = b̂0
2 2
2
Q̂Nc =
Z   Z  
Q̂3Nc = −i d3 p â†1p â2p − â†2p â1p = d3 p b̂†1p b̂1p − b̂†−1p b̂−1p
     
0 −1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 i
Jb̂1 = √ 1 0 −1, Jb̂2 = − √ 1 0 1, Jb̂3 = 0 0 0 
2 0 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 −1

2. Lorentz boosting and circular polarization.

(a)
(b)
(c)
3. Projection tensors.

4. Playing with projection tensors.

24
Chapter 14

Gauge fields and gauge theory

1. Quantizing the electromagnetic field tensor.

2. The spin of the photon.
(a)
(b)

25
Chapter 15

Discrete transformations

1. Gamma decay of a pion.

2. Classification of physical quantities.
(a) Magnetic flux: Vector.
(b) Angular momentum: Pseudovector.
(c) Charge: Scalar.
(d) Scalar product of vector and pseudovector: Pseudoscalar.
(e) Scalar product of two vectors: Scalar.
(f) Scalar product of two pseudovectors: Scalar.

3. Representations of spinors.
(a) R(x̂, θ)
(b) R(ŷ, θ)
(c) R(ẑ, θ)

26
Chapter 16

Propagators and Green’s functions

1. Green’s function for a particle in an infinite potential well.

(a) The Schrödinger equation is:

P̂ 2 ~2 d2
hx|Ĥ|ψi = hx| + V̂ (x)|ψi = hx|− + V̂ (x)|ψi = E hx|ψi
2m 2m dx2
2 2
~ d ψ(x)
+ [E − V (x)]ψ(x) = 0
2m dx2 √
V = 0 =⇒ ψ(x) = Aeikx + Be−ikx , k = 2mE/~
ψ(0) = ψ(a) = 0 → B = −A
nπ
=⇒ A sin(ka) = 0 =⇒ k =
a
Z a
2
|ψ(x)| dx = 1
−a
r
2  nπx 
∴ ψn (x) = sin
a a

(b)

~2 k 2 ~2 n2 π 2
En = =
2m 2ma2
G (n, t2 , t1 ) = θ(t2 − t1 )e−iEn (t2 −t1 )
+

(c) Let t2 = t and t1 = 0, then taking the Fourier transform with a damping factor:
Z ∞
G+ (n, ~ω) = θ(t)e−iEn t ei(~ω+i)t dt
−∞

+ i
G (n, ~ω) =
~ω − En + i

27
 Chapter 16. Propagators and Green’s functions

2. Green’s function in the energy expression.

(a)

G+
0 (x, t, y, 0) = θ(t) hx(t)|y(t)i

= θ(t) hx|e−iĤt |yi

X X
= θ(t) eiEn t hx|ni hn|yi = θ(t) φn (x)φ∗n (y)e−iEn t
n n
Z
G+
0 (x, y, E) = G+
0 (x, t, y, 0) dt
Z ∞ X
= θ(t) φn (x)φ∗n (y)e−iEn t eiEt dt
−∞ n
Z ∞X
= φn (x)φ∗n (y)e−i(E−En )t dt
0 n

Using a damping factor e−t to ensure convergence, then switching the order of summation and
integration:
XZ ∞
G+0 (x, y, E) = φn (x)φ∗n (y)ei(E−En +i)t dt
n 0
X iφn (x)φ∗ (y)
n
=
n
E − En + i

(b) The integral definition of the Heaviside step function is:

Z ∞
dz e−izt
θ(t) := i
−∞ 2π z + i

Substituting this into the original expression and changing the order of integration:
−iEp t
G+
0 (p, t, 0) = θ(t)e
Z ∞Z ∞
i
G+
0 (p, E) = ei(E−Ep −z)t dt dz
−∞ 0 2π(z + i)
Z ∞
i i
= δ(E − Ep − z) dz =
−∞ (z + i) E − Ep + i

28
 Chapter 16. Propagators and Green’s functions

3. Green’s function for the harmonic oscillator.

(a) The one-dimensional harmonic oscillator with the corresponding forcing function f (t) has the following
differential equation:
∂2
m A(t − u) + mω02 A(t − u) = F̃ (ω)e−iω(t−u)
∂t2
Using operator methods to solve the differential equation:
−1
D2

F̃ (ω) −iω(t−u) d
AP (t − u) = 1 + 2 e , D=
ω0 mω02 dt
"∞   # ∞ 
2k 2k
F̃ (ω) iωu X iD −iωt F̃ (ω) −iω(t−u) X ω
= e e = e
mω02 ω0 mω02 ω0
k=0 k=0
 
F̃ (ω) −iω(t−u) 1 F̃ (ω)
= e =− e−iω(t−u)
mω02 1 − ω 2 /ω02 m(ω 2 − ω02 )
Therefore the solution is:
F̃ (ω)
A(t − u) = c1 cos ω0 (t − u) + c2 sin ω0 (t − u) − e−iω(t−u)
m(ω 2 − ω02 )

(b) The differential equation that satisfies the Green’s function is:

∂2
 
m 2 + mω0 G(t, t0 ) = δ(t − t0 )
2
∂t
Taking the Fourier transform, rearranging and then taking its inverse:
Z ∞
0
0
2 2
−m(ω − ω0 )G(ω, t ) = δ(t − t0 )eiωt dt = eiωt
−∞
∞ 0
dω e−iω(t−t )
Z
1
G(t, t0 ) = −
m −∞ 2π ω 2 − ω02
Using the previous result to verify the solution:
Z
A(t) = G(t, t0 )f (t0 ) dt0
Z ∞Z ∞
1 F̃ (ω) iωt0
=− 2 − ω2
e dω dt0
2πm 0 −∞ ω 0

(c) Taking the Laplace transform of the differential equation form of the Green’s function:
eus
G(s, u) =
m(s2 + ω02 )
Using convolution to find the inverse:
Z t
1 1
G+ (t, u) = δ(k − u) sin ω0 (t − k) dk = sin ω0 (t − u)
mω0 0 mω0

29
 Chapter 16. Propagators and Green’s functions

(d) The trajectory is:

4. Green’s function of the Klein-Gordon equation.

(a) Taking the three-dimensional Fourier transform:

Z Z
2 2 −iq·x 3
δ 3 (x)d3 x


∇ + k Gk (x)e d x=
V V
1
G̃k (q) = 2
k − q2

(b) The Fourier transform of G+

k (x) with a damping factor is:

∞
ei(|k|+i)|x| −iq·x 3
Z
G̃+
k (q) = − e d x
−∞ 4π|x|
1 1 ∞
Z Z
=− |x|e−i(|q| cos θ−|k|−i)|x| d|x| d(cos θ)
2 −1 0
Z ∞h
i i
=− ei|q||x| − e−i|q||x| ei(|k|+i)|x| d|x|
2|q| 0
 
1 1 1
= −
2|q| (|k| + |q| + i) (|k| − |q| + i)
1
= 2 2
|k| − |q| + 2|k|i?

(c)

30
Chapter 17

Propagators and fields

1. Retarded field propagator for a free particle.

31
Chapter 18

The S-matrix

32
Chapter 19

Expanding the S-matrix: Feynman

diagrams

33
Chapter 20

Scattering theory

34
Chapter 21

Statistical physics: a crash course

35
Chapter 22

The generating functional for fields

36
Chapter 23

Path integrals: I said to him, ‘You’re

crazy’

1. Physicist’s treatment of operators.

2. Path integral derivation of Wick’s theorem.
(a) Let
∞
r
ax2
Z  
2π
I(a) = −2 exp − dx = −2
−∞ 2 a

Differentiating under the integral sign:

∞
r
ax2
Z  
2π
I 0 (a) = x2 exp − dx =
−∞ 2 a3

37
 Chapter 23. Path integrals: I said to him, ‘You’re crazy’

(b)
∞
r
ax2
Z  
n n 2π
Jn (a) = (−2) 2 exp − dx = (−2) 2

−∞ 2 a
k n+1 √
d Jn (a) (−1/2)! 1

k
= (−2) 2 π a− 2 −k
da (−1/2 − k)!
n/2
  n+1
d Jn (a) n+1 √ Γ(1/2) −( n+1 ) in π 2 2
= (−2) 2 π a 2 =
Γ 1−n Γ 1−n



dan/2 a
Z ∞  22 2
ax
xn exp − dx √  n/2
n −∞ 2 in π 2
hx i = Z ∞ =
ax2 1−n
 

Γ 2 a
exp − dx
−∞ 2

0

 ∀ n ∈ 2Z+ + 1
n/2
= −n/2
Y


 a (2k − 1) ∀ n ∈ 2Z+
k=1
n n
d J2n (a) 1 Y
∴ = (2k − 1)
dan an
k=1

38