Power System Representation

 Introduction to Single-line-Diagram

 Symbols used for PS components

 Introduction to per unit representation

 Advantages of PU system
Power System Representation
 Select the base values for unit system

 Compute per unit impedance values for power

 System components having different base values

 Explain the advantages of per unit system

representation.
 Single Line Diagram

 Per-Unit Normalization

3
Power System Representation

 Power systems are extremely complicated electrical

networks.

 Three phase networks –all devices are installed in all

three phases and each power circuits consists of
three conductors.

 A complete conventional diagram showing all the

connections is very complicated and impractical.

4
Power System Representation
Single Line Diagram:

 Three phase systems are designed as balanced system

and are generally operated as a balanced 3 phase
system.

 Single Line Diagrams (SLD) are concise way of

communicating the basic arrangement of power system
components.

 SLDs use a single line to represent all three phases

5
Power System Representation

Single Line Diagram:

 SLDs are also called One Line Diagrams.

 They show the relative electrical inter-connections of

generators, transformers, transmission and distribution
lines, loads, circuit breakers etc used in assembling the
power system.

6
Single Line Diagram
There is no universally accepted set of symbols used
for single line diagrams. Some of the symbols used are
shown below:

Generator or Motor

Transformer

3-winding Transformer
Auto-Transformer

7
Single Line Diagram (Symbols)

 Current Transformer(CT)

 Potential Transformer(PT)

 Disconnect (isolator) Switch

 Circuit Breaker

 Fuse

 Reactor

8
Single Line Diagram

Bus bar: Node in electrical circuit

(one bus for each phase)

 Buses: Aluminum or copper bars or pipes and can be

several meter long

 Buses in SLDs: Short straight lines perpendicular to

transmission lines and to lines connecting equipment to
the buses.

9
Bus bars

10
Single Line Diagram

11
Single Line Diagram

line bus-bar
Generator
Load

line

Next we can have a substation with 2 bus-bars and 4

transmission lines.
12
Per Unit Normalization
In power system electrical quantities such as power
,voltage, current, impedance and etc. are expressed as per
unit of a base or reference value.
Per-unit value is expressed by equation:

Per-unit quantity = Actual quantity

Base value of quantity

13
Per unit representation
• Due to cost and technical reasons, different operating
voltages, ratings of transformers, and different rating of
generators in the power system make the calculation much
difficult.

• Thus, it is essential to use per unit system of various

physical quantities such as power, voltage, current and
impedance.

• In the per unit system, different voltage levels disappear

and power network consisting of generators, transformers,
TLs, and loads reduces to a simple system.
14
Per unit representation
Per unit value is dimensionless and is represented as p.u
Quantity in P.U= actual quantities in any unit
base or reference value of
quantity quantity in the same unit

• A well chosen p.u can reduce the computational efforts,

simplify evaluation and facilitate the understanding of
system characteristics

15
 Per unit representation
• The selection of base quantities is also very important. Some
of the base quantities are chosen independently and arbitrary
while others follow automatically depending upon the
fundamental relationships between system variables

• Out of four power system quantities; power(VA), voltage(V),

current (A) and impedance(Ω) only two are independent

• The universal practice is to use machine rating power and

voltage as base values, and current and impedance are
calculated

16
Per Unit Normalization: Choice of Base Quantity
Two independent Base values are selected:
 V base – Voltage Base value
 S base -Complex power base value

17
Per Unit Normalization:

Convention for per Unit system:

 Value of Sb is same for the entire system

 Ratio of Vb on either side of a transformer is

selected to be same as the ratio of transformer
voltage rating

18
Per Unit Problems

A. Express in per-unit values the following voltages with

respect to a voltage base of 400kV. (i) 420kV, (ii)
395kV, (iii) 405kV

B. Using a base of 100MVA, express the following

apparent power flows in per-unit form. (i) 692MVA,
(ii) 1000MVA

19
 Numerical problems
1. Calculate the per-unit impedance of a 5kVA, 200/400V 50Hz
transformer having an equivalent series impedance of
(0.12+j0.32) ohms referred to the primary (low-voltage) side,
using first the primary referred values and then the secondary
referred values. Take the rated value of voltage as the voltage
base.

2. A generator is rated 500MVA, 22kV. Its Y-connected windings

have a reactance of 1.1 p.u. Find the ohmic value of the
reactance of the windings.

3. The generator of Problem 2 is in a circuit for which the bases are

specified as 100MVA and 20KV. Starting with the per unit value
given in Problem 2, find the per unit value of the reactance of the
generator windings on the specified base.
20
Numerical problems
1. Calculate the per-unit impedance of a 5kVA, 200/400V 50Hz transformer
having an equivalent series impedance of (0.12+j0.32) ohms referred to
the primary (low-voltage) side, using first the primary referred values and
then the secondary referred values. Take the rated value of voltage as the
voltage base.
V 2 4002 2002
Z base = base Z base , HV = = 32 Z base , LV = =8
S base 5000 5000
(0.12 + j 0.32)
Z pu,LV = = (0.015 + j 0.04) p  u.
8

4002
Z eq , LV = (0.12 + j 0.32) 2
= (0.48 + j1.28)
200

(0.48 + j1.28)
Z pu , HV = = (0.015 + j 0.04) p.u
32

21
Numerical problems
2. A generator is rated 500MVA, 22kV. Its Y-connected windings have a
reactance of 1.1 p.u. Find the ohmic value of the reactance of the
windings.

Vph = VL / 3 = 22kV / 3 = 12.7 kV

2
Vbase (12.7 x103 ) 2
Z base = Z base = 6
= 0.3226
S base 500 x10

X ohm = X pu  Z base ; X ohm = 1.1 0.3226 = 0.3549

22
Numerical problems
3. The generator of Problem 2 is in a circuit for which the bases are
specified as 100MVA and 20KV. Starting with the per unit value given in
Problem 2, find the per unit value of the reactance of the generator
windings on the specified base.
2
S new  Vold 
X pu, new = X pu, old   
Sold  Vnew 
2
100  22 
X pu, new = 1.1  
500  20 
2
100  22 
= 0.2   = (1.1) 2 = 1.21
500  20 

X pu,new = 1.3  0.2  1.21 = 0.2662

23
Review of Phasors
Goal of phasor analysis is to simplify the analysis of
constant frequency ac systems

v(t) = Vmax cos(t + v)

i(t) = Imax cos(t + I)
Root Mean Square (RMS) voltage of sinusoid

1T Vmax
 v(t ) dt =
2
T0 2

24
Phasor Representation
Euler's Identity: e j = cos + j sin 

Phasor notation is developed by rewriting

using Euler's identity
v(t ) = 2 V cos( t + V )
v(t ) = 2 V Re e j ( t +V ) 
(Note: V is the RMS voltage)
25
Phasor Representation, cont’d
The RMS, cosine-referenced voltage phasor is:
V = V e jV = V V
j t jV
v(t ) = Re 2 Ve e
V = V cosV + j V sin V
I = I cos I + j I sin  I

26
Advantages of Phasor Analysis
Device Time Analysis Phasor
Resistor v(t ) = Ri (t ) V = RI
di (t )
Inductor v (t ) = L V = j LI
dt
1t 1
Capacitor 
C0
i (t ) dt + v(0) V =
jC
I

Z = Impedance = R + jX = Z 
R = Resistance (Note: Z is a
complex number but
X = Reactance
not a phasor)
X
Z = R +X
2 2
 =arctan( )
R 27
RL Circuit Example
V (t ) = 2 100cos( t + 30)
f = 60Hz
R = 4 X = L = 3
Z = 42 + 32 = 5  = 36.9
V 10030
I = =
Z 536.9
= 20 − 6.9 Amps
i(t) = 20 2 cos( t − 6.9)

28
 Complex Power
Power
p (t ) = v(t ) i (t )
v(t) = Vmax cos( t + V )
i (t) = I max cos( t +  I )
1
cos cos  = [cos( −  ) + cos( +  )]
2
1
p (t ) = Vmax I max [cos(V −  I ) +
2
cos(2 t + V +  I )]

29
Complex Power, cont’d
Average Power
1
p (t ) = Vmax I max [cos(V −  I ) + cos(2t + V +  I )]
2
1T
Pavg = 
T0
p (t )dt

1
= Vmax I max cos(V −  I )
2
= V I cos(V −  I )

Power Factor Angle =  =V −  I 30

Complex Power
S = V I  cos(V −  I ) + j sin(V −  I ) 
= P + jQ
= V I*
P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)
Q = Reactive Power (var, kvar, Mvar)
S = Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA)
Power Factor (pf) = cos
If current leads voltage then pf is leading
If current lags voltage then pf is lagging 31
Complex Power, cont’d
Relationships between real, reactive and complex power
P = S cos 

Q = S sin  =  S 1 − pf 2

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are  (power factor angle), Q and S ?
 = -cos −1 0.85 = −31.8
100kW
S = = 117.6 kVA
0.85
Q = 117.6sin(−31.8) = −62.0 kVar 32
Conservation of Power
 At every node (bus) in the system
 Sum of real power into node must equal zero
 Sum of reactive power into node must equal zero
 This is a direct consequence of Kirchhoff’s current law,
which states that the total current into each node must
equal zero.
 Conservation of power follows since S = VI*

33
Conversation of Power Example
Earlier we found
I = 20-6.9 amps

S = V I * = 10030  206.9 = 200036.9 VA

 = 36.9 pf = 0.8 lagging
SR = VR I * = 4  20 − 6.9 206.9
2
PR = 1600W = I R (Q R = 0)
SL = VL I * = 3 j  20 − 6.9 206.9
2
Q L = 1200 var = I X (PL = 0)
34
Power Consumption in Devices
Resistors only consume real power
2
PResistor = I Resistor R
Inductors only consume reactive power
2
Q Inductor = I Inductor X L
Capacitors only generate reactive power
2 1
QCapacitor = − I Capacitor X C XC =
C
2
VCapacitor
QCapacitor = − (Note-some define X C negative)
XC 35
Example

400000 V
I = = 4000 Amps
1000 
V = 400000 + (5 + j 40) 4000
= 42000 + j16000 = 44.920.8 kV
S = V I * = 44.9k20.8 4000
= 17.9820.8 MVA = 16.8 + j 6.4 MVA
36
Example, cont’d
Now add additional
reactive power load
and resolve

Z Load = 70.7 pf = 0.7 lagging

I = 564 − 45 Amps
V = 59.713.6 kV
S = 33.758.6 MVA = 17.6 + j 28.8 MVA

37
Power System Notation
Power system components are usually shown as
“one-line diagrams.” Previous circuit redrawn
17.6 MW -16.0 MW
28.8 Mvar -16.0 Mvar

59.7 kV 40.0 kV

17.6 MW 16.0 MW
slack
28.8 Mvar 16.0 Mvar

Generators are Transmission lines Arrows are

shown as circles are shown as a used to
single line show loads
38
Reactive Compensation
Key idea of reactive compensation is to supply reactive
power locally. In the previous example this can
be done by adding a 16 Mvar capacitor at the load
16.8 MW 16.0 MW
6.4 MVR 0.0 MVR

44.94 kV 40.0 kV

16.8 MW
16.0 MW
6.4 MVR
16.0 MVR
16.0 MVR

Compensated circuit is identical to first example with

just real power load
39
Reactive Compensation, cont’d
 Reactive compensation decreased the line flow from
564 Amps to 400 Amps. This has advantages
 Lines losses, which are equal to I2 R decrease
 Lower current allows utility to use small wires, or
alternatively, supply more load over the same wires
 Voltage drop on the line is less
 Reactive compensation is used extensively by utilities
 Capacitors can be used to “correct” a load’s power
factor to an arbitrary value.

40
Power Factor Correction Example
Assume we have 100 kVA load with pf=0.8 lagging,
and would like to correct the pf to 0.95 lagging
S = 80 + j 60 kVA  = cos −1 0.8 = 36.9
PF of 0.95 requires desired = cos −1 0.95 = 18.2
Snew = 80 + j (60 − Qcap )
60 - Qcap
= tan18.2  60 − Qcap = 26.3 kvar
80
Qcap = 33.7 kvar
41
Distribution System Capacitors

42
Definition of Reactive Power
p (t ) = Vmax cos(t + V ) I max cos(t +  I )
1
p (t ) = Vmax I max [cos(V −  I ) + cos(2t + V +  I )]
2
1
Vmax I max cos(2t + V +  I ) =
2
1
Vmax I max  cos(2t + 2 I )cos(V −  I ) − sin(2t + 2 I )sin(V −  I ) 
2
= P cos(2t + 2 I ) − Q sin(2t + 2 I )
p (t ) = P (1 + cos(2t + 2 I )) − Q sin(2t + 2 I )

43
PowerWorld Simulator Overview
 Used for power system analysis and visualization
 Runs in Windows
 Download free 42 bus educational version at
 http://www.powerworld.com/gloveroverbyesarma
 Image on right
shows the
problem 2.33
power
system (case)
Balanced Three-Phase () Systems
 A balanced three-phase () system has
 three voltage sources with equal magnitude, but with
an angle shift of 120
 equal loads on each phase
 equal impedance on the lines connecting the
generators to the loads
 Bulk power systems are almost exclusively 3
 Single-phase is used primarily only in low voltage,
low power settings, such as residential and some
commercial
45
Balanced 3 -- No Neutral Current

I n = I a + Ib + I c
V
In = (10 + 1 − + 1) = 
Z
S = Van I an
*
+ Vbn I bn
*
+ Vcn I cn
*
= 3 Van I an
*

46
Advantages of 3 Power
 Can transmit more power for same amount of wire
(twice as much as single phase)
 Torque produced by 3 machines is constant
 Three-phase machines use less material for same
power rating
 Three-phase machines start more easily than single-
phase machines

47
Three-Phase - Wye Connection
 There are two ways to connect 3 systems
 Wye (Y)
 Delta ()

Wye Connection Voltages

Van = V  
Vbn = V   −
Vcn = V   +

48
Wye Connection Line Voltages
Vcn Vab
Vca
-Vbn
Van
Vbn (α = 0 in this case)
Vbc
Vab = Van − Vbn = V (1 − 1 + 120)
= 3 V  + 30 Line-to-line
voltages are
Vbc = 3 V  − 90
also balanced
Vca = 3 V  + 150 49
Wye Connection, cont’d
 Define voltage/current across/through device to be
phase voltage/current
 Define voltage/current across/through lines to be line
voltage/current
j
VLine = 3 VPhase 130 = 3 VPhase e 6

I Line = I Phase
S3 = 3 VPhase I Phase
*

50
Delta Connection For the Delta
phase voltages equal
line voltages

For currents
Ica Ic Ia = I ab − I ca
= 3 I ab  − 
Ib I b = I bc − I ab
Iab
Ibc Ic = I ca − I bc
Ia
S3 = 3 VPhase I Phase
*
51
Three-Phase Example
Assume a -connected load is supplied from a 3
13.8 kV (L-L) source with Z = 10020
Vab = 13.80 kV
Vbc = 13.8 −0 kV
Vca = 13.80 kV

13.80 kV
I ab = = 138 − 20 amps
 
I bc = 138 − 140 amps I ca = 1380 amps
52
Three-Phase Example, cont’d
I a = I ab − I ca = 138 − 20 − 1380
= 239 − 50 amps
I b = 239 − 170 amps I c = 2390 amps

S = 3  Vab I ab
*
= 3  13.80kV  138 amps
= 5.7 MVA
= 5.37 + j1.95 MVA
pf = cos 20 =  lagging
53
Delta-Wye Transformation
To simplify analysis of balanced 3 systems:
1) Δ-connected loads can be replaced by
1
Y-connected loads with ZY = Z 
3
2) Δ-connected sources can be replaced by
VLine
Y-connected sources with Vphase =
330

54
Delta-Wye Transformation Proof

From the  side we get

Vab Vca Vab − Vca
Ia = − =
Z Z Z
Vab − Vca
Hence Z =
Ia
55
Delta-Wye Transformation, cont’d
From the Y side we get
Vab = ZY ( I a − I b ) Vca = ZY ( I c − I a )
Vab − Vca = ZY (2 I a − I b − I c )
Since Ia + I b + I c = 0  I a = − I b − I c
Hence Vab − Vca = 3 ZY I a
Vab − Vca
3 ZY = = Z
Ia
1
Therefore ZY = Z
3 56
Three Phase Transmission Line

57
Per Phase Analysis
 Per phase analysis allows analysis of balanced 3
systems with the same effort as for a single phase
system
 Balanced 3 Theorem: For a balanced 3 system with
 All loads and sources Y connected
 No mutual Inductance between phases

58
Per Phase Analysis, cont’d
 Then
 All neutrals are at the same potential
 All phases are COMPLETELY decoupled
 All system values are the same sequence as sources. The
sequence order we’ve been using (phase b lags phase a
and phase c lags phase a) is known as “positive”
sequence; later in the course we’ll discuss negative and
zero sequence systems.

59
Per Phase Analysis Procedure
To do per phase analysis
1. Convert all  load/sources to equivalent Y’s
2. Solve phase “a” independent of the other phases
3. Total system power S = 3 Va Ia*
4. If desired, phase “b” and “c” values can be
determined by inspection (i.e., ±120° degree phase
shifts)
5. If necessary, go back to original circuit to determine
line-line values or internal  values.

60
Per Phase Example
Assume a 3, Y-connected generator with Van = 10
volts supplies a -connected load with Z = -j1
through a transmission line with impedance of j0.1
per phase. The load is also connected to a
-connected generator with Va”b” = 10 through a
second transmission line which also has an impedance
of j0.1 per phase.
Find
1. The load voltage Va’b’
2. The total power supplied by each generator, SY and
S

61
Per Phase Example, cont’d

First convert the delta load and source to equivalent

Y values and draw just the "a" phase circuit 62
Per Phase Example, cont’d

To solve the circuit, write the KCL equation at a'

1
(Va' − 10)(−10 j ) + Va' (3 j ) + (Va' −  − )(− j) = 
3
63
Per Phase Example, cont’d
To solve the circuit, write the KCL equation at a'
1
'
(Va − 10)(−10 j ) + Va (3 j ) + (Va
' '
−  − )(− j) = 
3
10
(10 j + 60) = Va' (10 j − 3 j + 10 j )
3
Va'
= 0.9 − volts Vb = 0.9 − volts
'

Vc' = 0.9 volts '

Vab = 1.56 volts

64
Per Phase Example, cont’d
*
 Va − Va 
'
Sygen = 3Va I a* = 3Va   = 5.1 + j 3.5 VA
 j 0.1 
 ' *
V "
− Va
Sgen = 3Va"  a  = −5.1 − j 4.7 VA
 j 0.1 

65