PHY 102: General physics II (Electricity & Magnetism) (2 Units )

Course Contents

Forces in nature. Electrostatics (electric charge and its properties, methods of charging).
Coulomb’s law and superposition. Electric field and potential. Gauss’s law. Capacitance. Electric
dipoles. Energy in electric fields. Conductors and insulators. DC circuits (current, voltage and
resistance. Ohm’s law. Resistor combinations. Analysis of DC circuits. Magnetic fields. Lorentz
force. Biot-Savart and Ampère’s laws. Magnetic dipoles. Dielectrics. Energy in magnetic fields.
Electromotive force. Electromagnetic induction. Self and mutual inductances. Faraday and
Lenz’s laws. Step up and step down transformers. Maxwell's equations. Electromagnetic
oscillations and waves. AC voltages and currents applied to inductors, capacitors, and resistance.

STUDY SESSION 1- Forces in Nature

There are four universal or fundamental forces in nature. Without these forces, all matter in the
world will fall apart. Force as such is any pull or push that causes an object to alter its physical
state (in terms of motion or deformity). Newton defined a force as anything that causes an object
of mass ‘m’ to move with an acceleration ‘a’. Following are the four fundamental forces in
nature:

 Gravitational force

 Electromagnetic force

 Strong nuclear force

 Weak nuclear force

Gravitational Force

Why is the universe not filled with floating human beings and cows and cars and other such
things? Obviously, because the gravitational force of the earth holds us to the planet.
Gravitational force is the force responsible for holding planets in their orbits and this is possible
only because of their infinitely long-range.
What is Gravitational Force?

Gravitational force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the weakest of the four. It
is also the attractive force which arises from the gravitational interaction.

According to Newton’s law of gravity, it states that the gravitational force between two bodies is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

When considered for massive objects, like the sun, or giant planets, gravitational force is
considered to be strong as the masses of these objects are also large. On an atomic level, this
force is considered weak.

Gravitational Force Formula

Gravitational force can be represented as follows

where,

 Fg is the gravitational force

 G is the universal gravitational constant

 m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects in consideration

 r is the distance between the centres of the two objects in consideration

Gravitational Force of Earth

The gravitational force of the earth is 9.807 m/s2.

Gravitational Force Examples

 The revolving of the moon around the earth is due to gravitational attraction between
them.
  The formation of tides in the ocean is due to the gravitational force acting between the
earth and the moon.

Electromagnetic Force

Did you know that you have never truly ever touched anything in the world? You are matter, and
we know that all matter is made up of atoms. Atoms in turn has a dense nucleus, protons, neutron
and electrons. And where are these electrons? They occupy the outermost layer of an atom. Now
what is the charge on electrons? They have negative charges.

By their nature, all particles are only attracted to particles that have an opposite charge and repel
those with like charges.

Say you feel like holding a pen. The pen is a matter made of atoms filled with nuclei, neutrons,
protons and electrons spinning around the nucleus as well. By nature, the electrons that you are
made of and the electrons that make up your pen will repel each other. So technically, you never
truly touch anything!

These are electromagnetic forces. Why does a comb get charged when you continuously brush
your hair? Why are the subatomic particles held together? Because… Electromagnetic forces!

These have a long-range and the effect of their forces diminishes over distance due to the
shielding effect. However, sub-atomically, they have short-range and are considered strong
forces but still weaker than strong nuclear forces.

Strong Nuclear Forces

Out of the four fundamental forces, nuclear forces are the strongest attractive
forces. Electromagnetism holds matter together, but there was no explanation on how the nucleus
is held together in the atom. If we consider only electromagnetism and gravity, then the nucleus
should actually fly off in different directions. But it doesn’t, implying that there exists another
force within the nucleus which is stronger than the gravitational force and electromagnetic force.
This is where nuclear forces come into play. Strong nuclear forces are responsible for holding the
nuclei of atoms together.
Same charged protons attract each other due to Nuclear force[/caption]

This is the most dominant force in reactions and is so strong that it binds protons with similar
charges with the nucleus. It is mostly attractive in nature but can be repulsive sometimes. It has a
very short range of just 1 fm.

Weak Nuclear Forces

Weak force is the force existing between the elementary particles which are responsible for
certain processes to take place at a low probability.

Weak Nuclear Force Example

Weak nuclear forces are responsible for the radioactive decay, specifically the beta decay
neutrino interactions. It has a very short range (less than 1 fm) and this force is, as the name
suggests, weak in nature.

Properties of Weak Force

Following are the properties of weak force:

 Weak nuclear force is the only force which does not follow parity-symmetry.

 It is the only force that does not follow charge-parity symmetry.

 Weak nuclear force is responsible for the change in quark into other forms.

 Carrier particles with significant masses are responsible for the propagation of the weak
force.

STUDY SESSION 2 – ELECTROSTATICS

2.1 MEANING OF ELECTROSTATICS

Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of
stationary or slow moving electric charges. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that
electric charges exert on each other and are described by Coulomb’s law. It gains the power to
attract light bodies; and a body made attractive by rubbing is said to be electrified.

2.2 ELECTROSTATICS EXAMPLES

There are many examples of electrostatic phenomena:

 The attraction of the plastic wrap to your hand after you removes it from a package.

 The attraction of paper to a charged scale.

 The apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos.

 The damage of electronic components during manufacturing.

 Photocopier & laser printer operation.

2.3 COULOMB’S LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

We begin with the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two point charges q1 and q2. It is
convenient to label one of these charges, q1, as a test charge, and call q a source charge. As we
develop the theory, more source charges will be added. If r is the distance between two charges,
then the force of electrostatic formula is:
2.4 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
Electric field lines are useful for visualizing the electric field. Field lines begin on positive
charge and terminate on negative charge. Electric field lines are parallel to the direction of the
electric field, and the density of these field lines is a measure of the magnitude of the electric
field at any given point.

We show charge with “q” and smallest unit charge is 1.6021 x 10-19 Coulomb (C). One electron
and a proton have same amount of charge.

STUDY SESSION 3 - COULOMB’S LAW

3.1 WHAT IS COULOMB’S LAW?

Coulomb’s Law provides one of the basic ideas about electricity in physics. This law takes a
look at the forces which are created between two charged objects. As the distance increases then
consequently there is a decrease in the forces and electric fields. The conversion of this simple
idea took place into a relatively simple formula.

COULOMB’S LAW FORMULA

Coulomb’s Law finds out the magnitude of the electrostatic force between the charges. The
unit of the electrostatic force is Newton (N).

Electrostatic force = (Coulomb constant) absolute value of (charge 1) (charge 2)/ (distance
between charges) 2.

Let two charged particles (also called point charges) have charge magnitudes q1 and q2 and
be separated by a distance r. The electrostatics force of attraction or repulsion between them has
the magnitude in which K is a constant:
  F = electrostatic force which exists between two point charges (N= kg.m/s2)
 K = Coulomb constant k = 4π£0 8.988×109N.m2/c2
 q1 = charge of the first point charge(C)
 q2 = charge of the second point charge(C)
 r = refers to the distance between the charges (m)
IN-TEXT QUESTION
There are two small charged spheres which are placed 0.300 m apart. The first contains a charge
of -3.00 µC (micro-Coulombs). The second contains a charge of -12.0 µC. Find out whether
these charged spheres attract or repel? Also find out the magnitude of the electrostatic force on
each sphere?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
The spheres certainly charges with the same sign. Therefore, the force between them is repulsive.
Furthermore, the direction of the force on each sphere certainly points away from the other. In
order to find the magnitude of the force, one must convert the charge on the particles to
Coulombs. The prefix “µ”, meaning “micro”, gives an indication that the number is scaled by 10-
, and so 1 µC = 10-6 C. The charge of the first sphere would be:
6

q1 = −3μC
q1= −3μC (10-6 C1μC)
q1= -3 ×10-6 C
The charge of the second sphere is:

q2 = −12μC
q2 = −12μC (10-6 C1μC)
q2 = -1.2 × 10-5 C
One can find the magnitude of the electrostatic force on each sphere by making use of the
Coulomb’s Law:

F = (8.988 × 109N.m2/c2) (−3×10−6C)(−1.2×10−5C)(300m)2

F = (8.988 × 109N) (0.4 × 10-9)
F 3.595 × 109-9N
F 3.595 × 100N
F 3.595N
Hence the magnitude of the force on each sphere happens to be 3.595N.

SOLVED EXAMPLE ON COULOMBS LAW FORMULA

Question: There are two small charged spheres which are placed 0.300 m apart. The first
contains a charge of -3.00 µC (micro-Coulombs). The second contains a charge of -12.0 µC.
Find out whether these charged spheres attract or repel? Also find out the magnitude of the
electrostatic force on each sphere?

Answer: The spheres certainly charges with the same sign. Therefore, the force between them is
repulsive. Furthermore, the direction of the force on each sphere certainly points away from the
other. In order to find the magnitude of the force, one must convert the charge on the particles to
Coulombs. The prefix “µ”, meaning “micro”, gives an indication that the number is scaled by 10-
, and so 1 µC = 10-6 C. The charge of the first sphere would be:
6

q1 = −3μC
q1= −3μC(10-6 C1μC)
q1= -3 ×10-6 C

The charge of the second sphere is:

so, q2 = −12μC
q2 = −12μC(10−6C1μC)
q2 = -1.2 × 10-5 C

One can find the magnitude of the electrostatic force on each sphere by making use of the
Coulomb’s Law:

F = k|q1q2|r2
F = (8.988 × 109N.m2/c2) (−3×10−6C)(−1.2×10−5C)(300m)2
F = (8.988 × 109N) (0.4 × 10-9)
F 3.595 × 109-9N
F 3.595 × 100N
F 3.595N
Hence the magnitude of the force on each sphere happens to be 3.595N.

STUDY SESSION 4 - ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

4.1 MEANING OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

An electric potential (also called the electric field potential, potential drop or the electrostatic
potential) is the amount of work needed to move a unit of charge from a reference point to a
specific point inside the field without producing acceleration. Typically, the reference point is
the Earth or a point at infinity, although any point can be used.

The diagram above shows the forces acting on a positive charge q located between two plates, A
and B, of an electric field E. The electric force F exerted by the field on the positive charge is F
= qE; to move the charge from plate A to plate B, an equal and opposite force (F′ = −qE) must
then be applied. The work W done in moving the positive charge through a distance d is W = F′d
= −qEd.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
What is electric potential?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
Electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit of charge from a reference point
to a specific point inside the field without producing acceleration.

4.2 MEANING OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

The electric potential energy as the system of charges is termed as the total work done by an
external agent in bringing the charges from infinity to the present configuration without
undergoing any acceleration.

Electric potential energy is also defined as the total potential energy a unit charge will possess
if located at any point in the outer space.

Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity and possesses only magnitude and no direction. It is
measured in terms of Joules and is denoted by V. It has the dimensional formula of ML2T-3A-1.
Electric Potential

Denoted by V, ∆V, U, ∆U

Dimension: ML2T-3A-1

General Formula Voltage = Energy / charge

SI Unit Volt

There are two key elements on which the electric potential energy of an object depends.

 Its own electric charge,

 Its relative position with other electrically charged objects.

4.3 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FORMULA

A charge placed in an electric field possesses potential energy and is measured by the work done
in moving the charge from infinity to that point against the electric field. If two charges q1 and q2
are separated by a distance d, the electric potential energy of the system is;

U = 1/ (4πεo) × [q1q2/d]
If two like charges (two protons or two electrons) are brought towards each other, the potential
energy of the system increases. If two unlike charges i.e. a proton and an electron are brought
towards each other, the electric potential energy of the system decreases.

Method 1:
The electric potential at any point around a point charge q is given by:

V = k × [q/r]

Where,

 V = electric potential energy,

 q = point charge,

 r = distance between any point around the charge to the point charge,

 k = Coulomb constant; k = 9.0 × 109 N.

Method 2: Using Coulomb’s Law

The electrostatic potential between any two arbitrary charges q1, q2 separated by distance r is
given by Coulomb’s law and mathematically written as:

U = k × [q1q2/r2]

Where,

 U is the electrostatic potential energy,

 q1 and q2 are the two charges.

Note: The electric potential is at infinity is zero (as, r = ∞ in the above formula).

4.4 MEANING OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

In an electrical circuit, the potential between two points (E) is defined as the amount of work
done (W) by an external agent in moving a unit charge (Q) from one point to another.

Mathematically we can say that,

E = W/Q
 where,

 E = Electrical potential difference between two points,

 W = Work done in moving a change from one point to another,

 Q = Quantity of charge in coulombs.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
What is electric potential difference?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
Electric potential difference is defined as the amount of work done by an external agent in
moving a unit charge from one point to another.

SOLVED EXAMPLES ON ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Example 1: A particle of mass 40 mg and carrying a charge 5×10-9 C is moving directly towards
fixed positive point charge of magnitude 10-8 C. When it is at a distance of 10 cm from the fixed
point charge it has a velocity of 50 cm/s. At what distance from the fixed point charge will the
particle come momentarily to rest? Is the acceleration constant during motion?

Solution: If the particle comes to rest momentarily at a distance r from the fixed charge, from
conservation of energy we have,

1/2μ2 + 1/4πεo × [Qq/a] = 1/4πεo × [Qq/r]

Substituting the given data, we get;

⇒ 1/2 × 40 × 10-6 × 1/2 × 1/2 = 9 × 109 × 10-8 × 5 × 10-9 × [ 1/r – 1/(10 × 10-2)]

or, [1/r – 10] = (5×10-5)/(9×5×10-8) = 100/9

or, 1/r = 100/9 + 10 = 190/9 m

i.e., r = 4.7 × 10-2 m

Since, F = [1/4πεo] × [Qq/r2]

Therefore, acceleration = F/m ∝ 1/r2 i.e., acceleration is not constant during motion.
Example 2: A ball of mass 5 g and charge 10-7 C moves from point A whose potential is 500 V
to a point B whose potential is zero. What is the velocity of the ball at point A, if at point B; it is
25 cm per second?

Solution: Let u be the velocity of the ball at point A.

Work done on the charge by the field;

W = q × (VA – VB) = 10-7 × (500 – 0) = 5 × 10-5 J

This appears in from of the increased kinetic energy.

∴ W = 1/2 × mv2 – 1/2 mu2

5 × 10-5 = 1/2 × 5/1000 [(1/4)2 – u2]

2 × 10-2 = 1/16 – u2

or u2 = 1/16 – 1/50 = 17/400

u = 4.12/20 = 0.206 m/s = 20.6 cm/sec.

Therefore, u = 20.6 cm/sec.

Example 3: Let us say we have two charges of magnitude 1C and 2C placed at distance 2 metres
from each other. Calculate the electric potential between these two charges. (Take: k = 1)

Solution: Given that, the magnitude of charges are q1 = 1C and q2 = 2C. The distance between
these two charges is r = 2m.

The electric potential between these two charges is given by,

Ur = -[kqqo]/r

Substituting the given values in the above equation we get,

Ur = -1 J.

Example 4: How much work is required to be done, in order to bring two charges of magnitude
3C and 5C from a separation of infinite distance to a separation of 0.5 m?

Solution: ∆E = E0 – Eg

= 0 – [-(9 × 109 × 5 × 3)/0.5] = 27 × 1010.

Therefore, ∆E = 27 × 1010.

STUDY SESSION 5 - GAUSS’S LAW

5.1 MEANING OF GAUSS LAW

According to the Gauss law, the total flux linked with a closed surface is 1/ε0 times the charge
enclosed by the closed surface.
∮E .d s=1∈0q∮[Link]=∈0​1​q.

For example, A point charge q is placed inside a cube of edge ‘a’. Now as per the Gauss law, the
flux through each face of the cube is q/6ε0.

The electric field is the basic concept to know about electricity. Generally, the electric field of
the surface is calculated by applying Coulomb’s law, but to calculate the electric field
distribution in a closed surface, we need to understand the concept of Gauss law. It explains
about the electric charge enclosed in a closed or the electric charge present in the enclosed closed
surface.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
What is Gauss law?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
Gauss law is the total flux linked with a closed surface is 1/ε0 times the charge enclosed by the
closed surface.

5.2 GAUSS LAW FORMULA

As per the Gauss theorem, the total charge enclosed in a closed surface is proportional to the
total flux enclosed by the surface. Therefore, If ϕ is total flux and ϵ0 is electric constant, the total
electric charge Q enclosed by the surface is; Q = ϕ ϵ0

The Gauss law formula is expressed by;

 ϕ = Q/ϵ0

Where,
 Q = total charge within the given surface,

 ε0 = the electric constant.

The Gauss Theorem

The net flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net charge in the volume
enclosed by the closed surface.

Φ = → E.d → A = qnet/ε0

In simple words, the Gauss theorem relates the ‘flow’ of electric field lines (flux) to the charges
within the enclosed surface. If there are no charges enclosed by a surface, then the net electric
flux remains zero.

This means that the number of electric field lines entering the surface is equal to the field lines
leaving the surface.

The Gauss theorem statement also gives an important corollary:

The electric flux from any closed surface is only due to the sources (positive charges) and sinks
(negative charges) of electric fields enclosed by the surface. Any charges outside the surface do
not contribute to the electric flux. Also, only electric charges can act as sources or sinks of
electric fields. Changing magnetic fields, for example, cannot act as sources or sinks of electric
fields.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
State gauss law formula
IN-TEXT ANSWER
ϕ = Q/ϵ0

 Q = total charge within the given surface,

 ε0 = the electric constant.

5.3 APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS LAW

1) In the case of a charged ring of radius R on its axis at a distance x from the centre of the ring.
E = 14π∈0qx(R2+x2)3/24π∈0​1​(R2+x2)3/2qx​. At the centre, x = 0 and E = 0.

2) In case of an infinite line of charge, at a distance ‘r’. E = (1/4 × πrε0) (2π/r) = λ/2πrε0. Where λ
is the linear charge density.

3. The intensity of the electric field near a plane sheet of charge is E = σ/2ε0K where σ = surface
charge density.

4. The intensity of the electric field near a plane charged conductor E = σ/Kε0 in a medium of
dielectric constant K. If the dielectric medium is air, then Eair = σ/ε0.

5. The field between two parallel plates of a condenser is E = σ/ε0, where σ is the surface charge
density.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
How is Gauss law related to Coulomb’s law?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
One of the fundamental relationships between the two laws is that Gauss law can be used to
derive Coulomb’s law and vice versa. We can further say that Coulomb’s law is equivalent to
Gauss’s law meaning they are almost the same thing. While this relation is discussed extensively
in electrodynamics we will look at a derivation with the help of an example.

Let’s take a point charge q. Now if we apply Coulomb’s law the electric field generated is given
by:

E = kq/r2

where k=1 /4πϵ0. If we take the sphere of the radius (r) that is centred on charge q. Now for the
surface S of this sphere, we will have:

At the end of the equation, we can see that it refers to Gauss law. All in all, we can determine the
relation between Gauss law and Coulomb’s law by deducing the spherical symmetry of the
electric field and by performing the integration.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
How is electric flux related to Gauss law?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
When we talk about the relation between electric flux and Gauss law, the law states that the net
electric flux in a closed surface will be zero if the volume that is defined by the surface contains
a net charge.
To establish the relation we will first take a look at the Gauss law.

If we take the Gauss’s law it is represented as:

ΦE = Q/εo

Here,

 ΦE = electric flux through a closed surface S enclosing any volume V.

 Q = total charge enclosed within V,
 εo = electric constant.

Meanwhile, the electric flux ΦE can now be defined as a surface integral of the electric field. It is
given as:

ΦE = ∫∫ E . dA

Here,

 E = electric field.
 dA = vector representing an infinitesimal element of area of the surface.

Notably, flux is considered as an integral of the electric field. This relation or form of Gauss’s
law is known as the integral form.

SOLVED PROBLEMS ON GAUSS LAW

Problem 1:

A uniform electric field of magnitude E = 100 N/C exists in the space in X-direction. Using the
Gauss theorem calculate the flux of this field through a plane square area of edge 10 cm placed
in the Y-Z plane. Take the normal along the positive X-axis to be positive.

Solution:
The flux Φ = ∫ E. cosθ ds.

As the normal to the area points along the electric field, θ = 0.

Also, E is uniform so, Φ = E.ΔS = (100 N/C) (0.10m) 2 = 1 N-m2.

Problem 2:

A large plane charge sheet having surface charge density σ = 2.0 × 10-6 C-m-2 lies in the X-Y
plane. Find the flux of the electric field through a circular area of radius 1 cm lying completely in
the region where x, y, z are all positive and with its normal making an angle of 600 with the Z-
axis.

Solution:
The electric field near the plane charge sheet is E = σ/2ε0 in the direction away from the sheet. At
the given area, the field is along the Z-axis.

The area = πr2 = 3.14 × 1 cm2 = 3.14 × 10-4 m2.

The angle between the normal to the area and the field is 600.

Hence, according to Gauss theorem, the flux = E .ΔS E.ΔS = E.ΔS cos θ = σ/2ε0 × pr2 cos 60º

=2.0×10−6C/m22×8.85×10−12C2/N−m2×(3.14×10−4m2)122×8.85×10−12C2/N−m22.0×10−6C
/m2​×(3.14×10−4m2)21​ = 17.5 N-m2C-1.

STUDY SESSION 7 - CAPACITORS

7.1 MEANING OF CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITOR

Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. It is measured in farads i.e. a

capacitor with a larger capacitance will store more charge. A capacitor is a component that
stores charge until it gets full and then releases it in a burst. A capacitor is a device that stores
electrical energy in its Electric Field and returns energy to the circuit whenever required.
Capacitors are used everywhere as a fast battery and found in almost all electronic devices or
circuits.

There are many reasons why you might want to do that. You might store charge in a capacitor in
case you lose external power, so that the device doesn't die instantly, allowing recovery
processes to complete. You might want a circuit to get a regular 'pulse' of energy every x amount
of time. But, whatever the reason, capacitors come in all kinds of sizes, holding anything from
tiny amounts of energy to huge amounts. Capacitors are measured in coulombs

IN-TEXT QUESTION
What is a capacitor?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
A capacitor is a component that stores charge until it gets full and then releases it in a burst.

7.2 CAPACITANCE EQUATIONS

The definition of capacitance is given by this equation: capacitance C, measured in farads, equals
charge Q, measured in coulombs, divided by voltage V, measured in volts.

Equation that defines capacitance

For example, if you connect a 12V battery to a capacitor, and that battery charges the capacitor
with 4 coulombs of charge, it must have a capacitance of 4/12, which is 0.33 farads.

If the capacitor had a higher capacitance, it would store more charge when connected to the same
battery. Because of this equation, we can see that capacitance is, therefore, measured in
coulombs per volt. So, it represents how many coulombs of charge will be stored in a capacitor
per volt you put across it.
Okay, but what physically makes a particular capacitor actually have a different capacitance?
What decides how much charge it stores? Well, that's based on the actual physical characteristics
of the capacitor. So, we have another equation for capacitance that looks like this:

Equation based on physical characteristics of capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, a simple capacitor that is just two parallel plates
separated by a distance, d, is equal to the relative permittivity of the material between the places,
K, multiplied by the permittivity of free space, epsilon-zero, which is always equal to 8.854 *
10^-12, multiplied by the area of the plates, A, measured in meters squared, divided by the
distance between the places, d, measured in meters.

Most of that is pretty self-explanatory, but K, the relative permittivity of the so-called 'dielectric'
material between the plates is generally either equal to 1 or larger. If there's nothing between the
plates, K = 1; if it's air between the plates, then K is pretty much still equal to 1; and if it's a
different material, it will be a number greater than one, depending on the exact material.

7.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAPACITORS

1) Electrolytic Capacitor.

2) Mica Capacitor.

3) Paper Capacitor.

4) Film Capacitor.

5) Non-Polarized Capacitor.
 6) Ceramic Capacitor.

7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CAPACITOR

There are three basic factors of capacitor construction determining the amount of capacitance
created. These factors all dictate capacitance by affecting how much electric field flux (relative
difference of electrons between plates) will develop for a given amount of electric field force
(voltage between the two plates):

1) PLATE AREA: Greater plate area gives greater capacitance; less plate area gives less
capacitance. Therefore, as the area of the plates increase, capacitance increases.

Explanation: Larger plate area results in more field flux (charge collected on the plates) for a
given field force (voltage across the plates).

2) PLATE SPACING: Further plate spacing gives less capacitance; closer plate spacing
gives greater capacitance. So, as the distance between the plates decreases, capacitance
increases.

Explanation: Closer spacing results in a greater field force (voltage across the capacitor divided
by the distance between the plates), which results in a greater field flux (charge collected on the
plates) for any given voltage applied across the plates.

3) DIELECTRIC MATERIAL: Greater permittivity of the dielectric gives greater

capacitance; less permittivity of the dielectric gives less capacitance.

Explanation: Some materials offer less opposition to field flux for a given amount of field force.
Materials with a greater permittivity allow for more field flux (offer less opposition), and thus a
greater collected charge, for any given amount of field force (applied voltage).

IN-TEXT QUESTION
What are the three factors affecting capacitors?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
Three factors affecting capacitors are: (a) Area of the plates, (b) Distance between plates and (c)
Dielectric materials
7.5 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Several capacitors may be connected together in a variety of applications. Multiple connections

of capacitors act like a single equivalent capacitor. The total capacitance of this equivalent single
capacitor depends both on the individual capacitors and how they are connected. There are two
simple and common types of connections, called series and parallel, for which we can easily
calculate the total capacitance. Certain more complicated connections can also be related to
combinations of series and parallel.

CAPACITORS IN SERIES

Figure 1(a). Shows a series connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. As for any
capacitor, the capacitance of the combination is related to charge and voltage by C=Q/V

Note in Figure 1 that opposite charges of magnitude Q flow to either side of the originally
uncharged combination of capacitors when the voltage V is applied. Conservation of charge
requires that equal-magnitude charges be created on the plates of the individual capacitors, since
charge is only being separated in these originally neutral devices. The end result is that the
combination resembles a single capacitor with an effective plate separation greater than that of
the individual capacitors alone.

Figure 1(b). Larger plate separation means smaller capacitance. It is a general feature of series
connections of capacitors that the total capacitance is less than any of the individual
capacitances.
Figure 1. (a) Capacitors connected in series. The magnitude of the charge on each plate is Q.

(b) An equivalent capacitor has a larger plate separation d. Series connections produce a total
capacitance that is less than that of any of the individual capacitors.

We can find an expression for the total capacitance by considering the voltage across the
individual capacitors shown in Figure 1. Solving C=Q/V for V gives V=QC. The voltages across
the individual capacitors are thus V1=QC1, V2=QC2, and V3=QC3

The total voltage is the sum of the individual voltages:

V = V1 + V2 +V3.

Total capacitance CS for series capacitance, consider that:

V=QCS=V1+V2+V3

Entering the expressions for V1, V2, and V3, we get

QCS=QC1+QC2+QC3

Canceling the Qs, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in series CS to be

1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3+…,

Where “…” indicates that the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in
series. An expression of this form always results in a total capacitance CS that is less than any of
the individual capacitances C1, C2, … as Example 1 illustrates.

Total capacitance in series: 1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3+…

Example 1.

Find the total capacitance for three capacitors connected in series, given their individual
capacitances are 1.000, 5.000, and 8.000 µF.

Solution:

Entering the given capacitances into the expression for 1CS. Gives 1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3

1CS=11.000μF+15.000μF+18.000μF=1.325μF
Inverting to find CS yields CS=1.325μF=0.755μF

CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

Figure 2(a) shows a parallel connection of three capacitors with a voltage applied. Here the total
capacitance is easier to find than in the series case. To find the equivalent total capacitance Cp,
we first note that the voltage across each capacitor is V, the same as that of the source, since they
are connected directly to it through a conductor. (Conductors are equipping potentials, and so the
voltage across the capacitors is the same as that across the voltage source.) Thus the capacitors
have the same charges on them as they would have if connected individually to the voltage
source. The total charge Q is the sum of the individual charges: Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3.

Figure 2. (a) Capacitors in parallel. Each is connected directly to the voltage source just as if it
were all alone, and so the total capacitance in parallel is just the sum of the individual
capacitances. (b) The equivalent capacitor has a larger plate aralelea and can therefore hold more
charge than the individual capacitors.

Using the relationship Q = CV, we see that the total charge is Q = CpV, and the individual
charges are Q1 = C1V, Q2 = C2V, and Q3 = C3V. Entering these into the previous equation gives

CpV = C1V + C2V + C3V.

Canceling V from the equation, we obtain the equation for the total capacitance in parallel
 Cp: Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ….

Total capacitance in parallel is simply the sum of the individual capacitances. (Again the “…”
indicates the expression is valid for any number of capacitors connected in parallel.) So, for
example, if the capacitors in Example 1 were connected in parallel, their capacitance would be

Cp = 1.000 µF + 5.000 µF + 8.000 µF = 14.000 µF.

The equivalent capacitor for a parallel connection has an effectively larger plate area and a larger
capacitance, as illustrated in Figure 2b.

Total capacitance in parallel Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + …

Example 2. A Mixture of Series and Parallel Capacitance

Find the total capacitance of the combination of capacitors shown in Figure 3. Assume the
capacitances in Figure 3 are known to three decimal places (C1 = 1.000 µF, C2 = 3.000 µF, and
C3 = 8.000 µF), and round your answer to three decimal places.

Solution:

Since C1 and C2 are in series, their total capacitance is given by 1CS=1C1+1C2+1C3

Entering their values into the equation gives

1CS=1C1+1C2=11.000μF+15.000μF=1.200μF

Inverting gives CS = 0.833 µF.

This equivalent series capacitance is in parallel with the third capacitor; thus, the total is the sum

Ctot=CS+CS =0.833μF+8.000μF =8.833μF

7.6 ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR

Energy stored in a capacitor is electrostatic or electrical potential energy and is thus related to
the charge Q and voltage V between the capacitor plates. A charged capacitor stores energy in
the electrical field between its plates. As the capacitor is being charged, the electrical field builds
up.

The energy stored in a capacitor can be expressed in three ways:

 Ecap=QV2=CV22=Q22C

where Q is the charge, V is the voltage, and C is the capacitance of the capacitor. The energy is
in joules for a charge in coulombs, voltage in volts, and capacitance in farads.

7.7 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

A capacitor is equivalent to an Open-Circuit to Direct Current, R = ∞, because once the
Charging Phase has finished, no more Current flows through it i.e. DC-Circuits - Direct Current
Circuit

A Capacitor consists of two Conducting Plates separated by an Insulating Material or Dielectric.

Figure 1 and Figure 2 are the basic structure and the schematic symbol of the Capacitor
respectively.

Figure 1: Basic structure of the Capacitor

Figure 2: Schematic symbol of the Capacitor

When a Capacitor is connected to a circuit with Direct Current (DC) source, two processes,
which are called "charging" and "discharging" the Capacitor, will happen in specific conditions.

In Figure 3, the Capacitor is connected to the DC Power Supply and Current flows through the
circuit. Both Plates get the equal and opposite charges and an increasing Potential Difference, vc,
is created while the Capacitor is charging. Once the Voltage at the terminals of the Capacitor, vc,
is equal to the Power Supply Voltage, vc = V, the Capacitor is fully charged and the Current
stops flowing through the circuit, the Charging Phase is over.

Figure 3: The Capacitor is charging

A Capacitor is equivalent to an Open-Circuit to Direct Current, R = ∞, because once the

Charging Phase has finished, no more Current flows through it. The Voltage Vc on a Capacitor
cannot change abruptly.

When the Capacitor disconnected from the Power Supply, the Capacitor is discharging through
the Resistor RD and the Voltage between the Plates drops down gradually to zero, Vc = 0, Figure
4.

Figure 4: The Capacitor is discharging

In Figures 3 and 4, the Resistances of RC and RD affect the charging rate and the discharging rate
of the Capacitor respectively.

Time Constant (τ) is the product of Resistance R and Capacitance C. Time Constant (τ)
characterizes the rate of charging and discharging of a Capacitor.

What happens when a capacitor is charging and discharging?

Charging
As soon as the switch is closed in position 1 the battery is connected across the capacitor, current
flows and the potential difference across the capacitor begins to rise but, as more and more
charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the current and the rate of rise of potential difference
both fall. (See Figure 3). Finally no further current will flow when the p. d. across the capacitor
equals that of the supply voltage - Vo. The capacitor is then fully charged.

Discharging
As soon as the switch is put in position 2 a 'large' current starts to flow and the potential
difference across the capacitor drops. (See Figure 4). As charge flows from one plate to the other
through the resistor the charge is neutralized and so the current falls and the rate of decrease of
potential difference also falls. Eventually the charge on the plates is zero and the current and
potential differences are also zero - the capacitor is fully discharged. Note that the value of the
resistor does not affect the final potential difference across the capacitor – only the time that it
takes to reach that value.

Note: The bigger the resistor, the longer the time taken.

IN-TEXT QUESTION

What is called Time Constant (τ)?

IN-TEXT ANSWER
Time Constant (τ) is the product of Resistance R and Capacitance C which characterizes the rate
of charging and discharging of a Capacitor.
7.8 USES OF THE CAPACITORS
1) Energy storage

Capacitors have been storing electrical energy. However, they provide enough power for
electronic devices to use when they need additional power or during temporary power outages.
Examples are: car audio systems, flash circuit of a camera etc.

2) Power factor correction

It is used in electric power distribution. Capacitors come as a three-phase Electrical load. Its
purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like Induction motor, electric motors,
and transmission lines to make the pressure appear to be mostly resistive.

3) Power Conditioning

Capacitors allow AC signals to pass but block DC signals when they are charged in order to
condition the amount of power supplies.

4) Used in sensors

Capacitors measure a variety of things, like fuel levels, mechanical strain, air humidity, fabric
charge and Mechanical charge, as sensors to determine the capacitance of a device. Every minute
changes in the material between the plates are enough to the capacitance of the device.

5) Coupling

Capacitors can let AC pass through yet block DC in a process called Capacitor Coupling. It is
used in the case of a loudspeaker. Speakers work by converting an alternating current into sound,
but they could be damaged by any direct current that reaches them. A capacitor prevents the
direct current from damaging the speakers.

6) Tuning

Variable capacitors are used when tuning circuits on radio systems by connecting them to an LC
oscillator. The capacitor charges and discharges into a coil of wire, generating a magnetic field.
Once the capacitor is fully discharged, the magnetic field falls while, recharging the capacitor.
Charging and discharging current take place at regular intervals, but it can be changed by altering
the capacitor. If the frequency of these intervals is equal to the frequency of a nearby radio
station, the amplifier in the radio strengthens this signal, and you will hear the broadcast.

7) Used in Pulsed power and weapons

Capacitors are used to supply massive pulses of current for many pulsed power applications.
These include electromagnetic forming, pulsed lasers, Marx generators, pulse forming networks,
particle accelerators, and fusion research. Large capacitor banks are energy sources for the
exploding-bridge wire detonators or slapper detonators in specialty weapons. Experimental work
is underway using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic amour and
electromagnetic rail guns or coil guns.

8) Decoupling

A decoupling capacitor decouples one part of a circuit from another. Noise caused by other
circuit elements is avoided through the condenser, reducing the effect they have on the rest of the
course. It is applied between the ground and the power supply. An alternative name is bypass
capacitor since it bypasses the power supply or other high impedance components of a circuit

9) Used as a timing element

Capacitors can be used in a time-dependent course because their charging and discharging
happen at regular intervals. It can be connected to any light-emitting diode or loudspeaker
system. Further, any flashing light that you see or steady beeping likely uses a timing capacitor.

10) Signal Processing

Capacitors have found many advanced applications in IT. Dynamic Random Access Memory
devices use capacitors to show binary information as 1s and 0s. The device can read one value
when the capacitor is charged and another when discharged. Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)
use capacitors in an analog form. Capacitors are also used together with inductors to tune circuits
to particular frequencies, an effect exploited by radio receivers, speakers, and analog equalizers.

11) Smoothing

Many household appliances use direct current electricity through the use of a capacitor. A
capacitor can change AC to DC by “smoothing” the current. Take AC as a single line moving in
a twisting motion constantly. A capacitor will charge as this line nears the peak. Once fully
discharged, it will start to charge again, so that the output current never has time to fully dip and
operates as if it were direct current.

IN-TEXT QUESTION

State five uses of the capacitors

IN-TEXT ANSWER
Uses of capacitors are: Energy storage, Pulsed power and weapons, Power conditioning, Power
factor correction, Signal processing, Sensors, Smoothing, Timing, Tuning, coupling and
decoupling

WORKING EXAMPLES

Example 1

Consider two plates separated by d=1.5 cm , where the electric field between them is 100 V/m,
and the charge on the plates is 30.0 µC. What is the capacitance?

Solution:

The Capacitance is: C =Q/V

2.0E-5 F

Example 2

Consider a capacitor made of two 0.05 m2 plates separated by 0.5 mm. If the capacitance is 3.0 nf,
what is the relative permeability, k, of the material between the plates?

Solution:
 3.4

Example 3

A capacitor has a charge of 3.0 nC when the voltage across the capacitor is 12 V. What is the
energy stored in the capacitor?

Solution:

The energy is:

18 E-9 J

STUDY SESSION 8 - OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCE

8.1.0 OHM’S LAW

8.1.1 OHM’S LAW DEFINITION

Most basic components of electricity are voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm’s law shows a
simple relation between these three quantities. This relationship between voltage, current, and
resistance was discovered by German scientist Georg Simon Ohm. The formula for Ohm’s law
is V=IR

Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points.
Ohm’s law states that the voltage or potential difference between two points is directly
proportional to the current or electricity passing through the resistance, and directly proportional
to the resistance of the circuit.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
What is ohm’s law?
IN-TEXT ANSWER
Ohm’s law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. It shows a simple relation between
three components of electricity i.e. voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R).

8.1.2 OHM’S LAW FORMULA

V (voltage)

I (current)

Slope = V/ I = R

Voltage= Current× Resistance

V= I×R
V= voltage, I= current and R= resistance

The SI unit of resistance is ohms and is denoted by Ω

This law is one of the most basic laws of electricity. It helps to calculate the power, efficiency,
current, voltage, and resistance of an element of an electrical circuit.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
State ohm’s law formula
IN-TEXT ANSWER
V= I×R i.e. Voltage= Current× Resistance

8.1.3 APPLICATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law helps us in determining voltage, current or impedance or resistance of a linear electric
circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. It also makes power calculation simpler.

How do we find the unknown values of resistance?

It is the constant ratio that gives the unknown values of resistance,

Factor that affect the Resistance of a wire

For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and the area of cross-
section A. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. At a given temperature the
resistance.

Resistance of a wire depends on:

(i) the cross sectional area (A),

(ii) length of the wire, and

(iii) temperature

where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material of wire. The
specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

Resistivity of a wire

If ‘r’ is the radius of the wire, then the cross-sectional area, A = πr². Then the specific resistance
or resistivity of the material of the wire is,

IN-TEXT QUESTION
Find the resistance of an electrical circuit that has voltage supply of 10 Volts and current of
5mA.

IN-TEXT ANSWER
V = 10 V, I = 5 mA = 0.005 A
R=V/I
= 10 V / 0.005 A
= 2000 Ω = 2 Kω

8.2.0 RESISTANCE

8.2.1 RESISTORS DEFINITION

Resistors are one of the important blocks of electrical circuits. They are made up of the mixture
of clay or carbon, so they are not only good conductors but good insulators too. Most of the
resistors have four color bands. The first and second bands reveal the first and second digits of
the value respectively. The third band is used to multiply the value digits and the fourth band
tells us the tolerance. If there is no fourth band, it is assumed that the tolerance is plus or minus
20%.

IN-TEXT QUESTION
Define resistors
IN-TEXT ANSWER
Resistors are one of the blocks of electrical circuits. They are made up of the mixture of clay or
carbon, so they are not only good conductors but good insulators too.
8.2.2 RESISTANCE IN SERIES

A series generally means connected along a line, or in a row, or in an order. In electronics, series
resistance means that the resistors are connected one after the other and that there is only one
path for current to flow through.

Source: Spark Fun

Laws of Series Circuits

 Individual resistance add up to the total circuit resistance

 Current through the circuit is the same at every point.

 Individual voltages throughout the circuit add up to the total voltage.

8.2.3 RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL

There are many different ways to organize a parallel circuit. In the practical world, most of the
wiring is done in parallel so that the voltage to any one part of the network is the same as the
voltage supplied to any other part of it.
Laws of Parallel Circuits

 The reciprocals of all the individual resistances add up to the reciprocal of the total circuit
resistance.
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 …

 Voltage through the circuit is the same at every point.

 Individual current draws throughout the circuit add up to the total current draw.

SOLVED EXAMPLE

Question: Find the resistance of an electrical circuit that has voltage supply of 10 Volts and
current of 5mA.

Solution: R = V / I

V = 10 V, I = 5 mA = 0.005 A

= 10 V / 0.005 A

= 2000 Ω = 2 kΩ