Chemistry101

Chapter1

INTRODUCTIONTOCHEMISTRY
Chemistryisthesciencethatdealswiththematerialsoftheuniverse,andthechangesthey undergo. Materialsoftheuniversecanbeofseveralforms: Gas: air,oxygen Liquid: water,gasoline,vinegar,orangejuice, Solid: rocks,charcoal,tablesalt,sugar,wood,bakingsoda Someexamplesof changes: Burningofcharcoal charcoal+oxygen carbondioxide Burningofgasoline gasoline+oxygen carbondioxide+watervapor Fermentationofgrapejuice glucose ethylalcohol+carbondioxide (inwater)(inwater) Souringofwine ethylalcohol+oxygen aceticacid (inwater)(fromair) (inwater)

Chemistry101

Chapter1

SCIENTIFICMETHOD
isageneral,overallphilosophyofapproachtothestudyofnature aformalstatementofthestepsthatanyofusfollowaswelogically approachaproblem

EXPERIMENTS

Observationofnatural phenomenacarriedoutin acontrolledmannersothatthe theresultscanbeduplicatedand rationalconclusionsobtained

RESULTS HYPOTHESIS
Atentativeexplanationofsome regularityofnature

FURTHEREXPERIMENTS
devisedbasedonhypothesis

NEGATIVERESULTS
Leadtomodificationor rejectionofhypothesis andformulationofnew hypothesis

POSITIVERESULTS
Supporthypothesis

THEORY Followsafterresultsconsistently supportahypothesis

Atestedexplanationofbasic naturalphenomena

FURTHEREXPERIMENTS NATURALLAW
Astatementthatsummarizesfacts thatcomefrommanyexperiments
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Chapter1

LAWOFCONSERVATIONOFMASS
AntoineLavoisier(17431794) studiedchemicalchanges pioneeredtheuseofbalancesinchemicalresearch weighedthesubstancesbeforeandafterachemicalchange studiedtheprocessofburning(combustion) SHOWEDTHATWHENAMATERIALBURNS,ACOMPONENTOFAIR(HECALLEDIT OXYGEN)COMBINESCHEMICALLYWITHTHEMATERIAL.

Examples:
1. Mercuryisheatedinairtoform mercuricoxide Mercury + Oxygen > 200.6g ? > 200.6g ? > 200.6g + 16.0g > MercuricOxide moreorlessthan200.6g? 216.6g 216.6g

2. Whensugarisheateditformscarbon andwatervapor.Willthecarbonweighmoreorless thanthesugar? sugar > 34.2g 34.2g carbon 14.4g 14.4g + water(g) ? 19.8g

THETOTALMASSREMAINSCONSTANTDURINGACHEMICALCHANGE

MASSvs.WEIGHT MASS
Thequantityofmatterinanobject Independentoflocationonearth Measuredingrams(g)orkilograms(kg) Measuredonabalance(massing) Commonlyusedinchemicallaboratory Sometimesmistakenlyreferredtoas weight

WEIGHT
Theforceofgravityexertedonanobject Dependsonlocationonearth(thecloserto thecenteroftheearth, themoretheobject weighs) MeasuredinNewtons(N) Measuredwithaspringscale(weighing)

Chemistry101

Chapter1

PHYSICAL&CHEMICALPROPERTIES
Thecharacteristicsofasampleareitsproperties.

PHYSICALPROPERTIES
Apropertythatcanbeobserved withoutchangingthechemical identityofthesampleofmatter Examples: Physicalstate(solid,liquid,gas) Odor Color Meltingpoint Boilingpoint Density Specificheat

CHEMICALPROPERTIES
Apropertythatreferstotheabilityofa substancetoformdifferentsubstances Examples: Charcoalburnsinair Ironrusts Grapejuiceferments Winesours Alcoholisflammable

Examples: Identifyeachofthefollowingpropertiesasphysicalorchemical: 1. Oxygenisagas 2. Heliumisunreactive 3. Waterhasahighspecificheat 4. Gasolineisflammable 5. Sodiumissoftandshiny

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Chapter1

PHYSICAL&CHEMICALCHANGES PHYSICALCHANGES
Achangeintheformofmatterbut notinitschemicalidentity

CHEMICALCHANGES(REACTIONS)
Achangeinwhichoneormorekindsof matteraretransformedintoanewkind ofmatterorseveralnewones Examples: Souringofwine Rustingofiron Burningofalcohol Explosionofafirecracker Electrolysisofwater

Examples: Freezingofwater Boilingofwater Meltingofice Evaporationofalcohol Sublimationofdryice

PhysicalChanges

ChemicalChanges

Examples: Identifyeachofthefollowingchangesasphysicalorchemical: 1. Cookingfood 2. Mixingsugarintea 3. Carvingwood 4. Burninggas 5. Foodmolding

Chemistry101

Chapter1

CLASSIFICATIONOFMATTER
I. II. ByPhysicalState ByChemicalConstitution

I.CLASSIFICATIONOFMATTERBYPHYSICALSTATE

Solids
Fixedvolume Fixedshape Maintaintheirshape Arerigid Incompressible

Liquids
Fixedvolume Nofixedshape Flow Arefluid Incompressible

Gases
Nofixedvolume Nofixedshape Flow Arefluid Compressible

NOTE:
1. 2. Thethreeformsofmatter(solid,liquid,gas)arereferredtoasstatesofmatter Thisclassificationisnotverymeaningful,sincethemajorityofthedifferentformsof mattermay existinallthreephysicalstates,dependingonconditions. Example: watercanexistas: 0 1.solidwater(ice)atverylowtemperatures(below0 C) 0 0 2.liquidwater(between0 Cand100 C 0 3.gaseouswaterorwatervapor (above100 C) Theterm vaporisusedtorefertothegaseousstateofaformof matterthatexistsasasolidoraliquidatroomtemperature(250C)

Chemistry101

Chapter1

II.CLASSIFICATIONOFMATTERBYCHEMICALCONSTITUTION

MATTER
canbeseparatedbyphysicalprocesses

SUBSTANCES
(filtration,distillation,chromatography) Formsofmatterwithconstant compositionandfixedproperties

MIXTURES
Formsofmatterwithvariable compositionPropertiesdepend oncomposition.

canbeseparated

ELEMENTS
bychemicalchanges Substancesthatcannot bedecomposedbyany chemicalreactioninto simplersubstances Examples:H,O,C,N,Na Cl,Hg,Al,I,Au,Pb,Cu Ag,P,He,Mg,Fe

COMPOUNDS
Substancescomposed oftwoormore elementschemically combined. Examples:water, sugar,carbondioxide, ammonia,glucose, sodiumchloride

HOMOGENEOUSHETEROGENEOUS (samethroughout) (differentthroughout) SOLUTIONS soil,orangejuice

Solid: bronze,brass Liquid:wine,vinegar Gaseous:air

Chemistry101

Chapter1

MEASUREMENT
Isthecomparisonofaphysicalquantitywithaunitofmeasurement. Example: Themassofthesamepennyismeasuredby3differentstudentsonthesamebalance: m1 =3.11g m2=3.12g m3=3.13g

Themassofthepennyisreportedas: 3.12g wearesureofthisdigit thisdigitisaccurate(certain) theaccuracyis0.1g

wearenotsureofthisdigit thisdigitisuncertain theuncertaintyis0.01g

Themassofthepennyshouldbereportedas:(3.12 0.01)g

theuncertaintyofthemeasurement (normallynotshown,butimplied) Thethreestudentobtainedmeasuredvalueswhichareveryclosetoeachother. Wesaythattheirmeasurementshadgood REPRODUCIBILITYorhadgoodPRECISION

Chemistry101

Chapter1

PRECISION:

isadeterminationofthereproducibilityofameasurement. tellsyouhowcloselyseveralmeasurementsagreewithoneanother. precisionisaffectedbyrandom errors. closenessofameasurementtoatrue,acceptedvalue. issubjecttosystematicerrors(errorswhichareoffinthesamedirection,eithertoohighortoolow) 3.12g? 3.03g

ACCURACY:

Areweconfidentthatthecorrectmassofthepennyis ActuallytheTrueValueofthepennyis:

Whatwentwrong? Thebalancemaynothavebeenzeroed, Thepanof thebalancemayhavebeendirty? Thismeasurementisbadlyofffromthetruevalue SuchameasurementissaidtohaveLOWACCURACY Conclusion: Themeasurementofthepennyasreported(3.12g)has:

HIGHPRECISION but (measuredvaluesare closetoeachother)

LOWACCURACY (reportedvalueisfar offfromtruevalue)

PoorPrecision GoodAccuracy

GoodPrecision GoodAccuracy

GoodPrecision PoorAccuracy

PoorPrecision PoorAccuracy

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Chapter1

Considerthatthelengthofanobjectismeasuredwithtwodifferentrulers:

mm(smallestmarkedunit)

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Severalobserversreport: 1.25cm 1.24cm 1.26cm Lengthshouldbereportedas1.25cm(implies 0.01cm)

certaindigits
NOTE: Theaccuracyoftheruleris0.1cm(1mm) Theuncertaintyoftheruleris0.01cm(0.1mm) Onemustrecordthemeasuredvaluetoonemoreplacethanthescaleismarked

uncertaindigit

cm(smallestmarkedunit)

012
Severalobserversreport:1.3cm 1.2cm 1.4cm Lengthshouldbereportedas1.3cm(implies 0.1cm)

certaindigit
Precisionandaccuracyofameasurementarelimitedbytheinstrument.

uncertaindigit

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