EE-1101

Basic Electrical Engineering

Dr. S. A. Qasim

Department of Electrical Engineering

IIEST Shibpur, Howrah
Measuring Instruments
Measurement
• Measurement – A method to obtain information regarding the physical values of a variable - to
ensure quality and efficiency

• Instruments used to measure electrical quantities (e.g. current, voltage, power, energy etc.) are
called electrical measuring instruments

• Instruments which measure

• Current – Ammeter
• Voltage – Voltmeter
• Power – Wattmeter
• Energy – Energymeter

• Accuracy, convenience and reliability of electrical instruments are mainly responsible for the
widespread use of electrical methods of measurements
Classification of Electrical Measuring Instruments
• The various electrical measuring instruments can be broadly divided into two classes.
• Absolute instruments
• Secondary instruments

• Absolute instruments - Instruments which give the value of the quantity to be measured in terms
of the constants (or parameters) of the instrument and its deflection are called absolute instruments
e.g. tangent galvanometer

• Tangent galvanometer - gives the value of current being measured in terms of the tangent (tanθ)
of the angle of deflection (θ), the radius and number of turns of the coil and the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field

• No previous calibration or comparison (with standard) is necessary in case of absolute

instruments. They are used only in standard laboratories as standardising instruments
Secondary Instruments
• Instruments in which the electrical quantity being measured is given directly by the deflection of
the instrument only when they have been pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument
are called secondary instruments

• These instruments are provided with a calibrated scale. The calibration is done with the help of an
absolute instrument or another calibrated instrument

• Generally used in everyday work (Example: laboratories, power stations, substations, industries
etc.)

Types of Secondary Instruments

• Indicating instruments
• Integrating instruments
• Recording instruments
• Indicating instruments - Instruments which directly indicate the value of the electrical quantity at
the time instant when it is being measured are called indicating instruments e.g. Ammeters,
voltmeters and wattmeters
• a pointer moving over a graduated scale directly gives the value of the electrical quantity being
measured

• Integrating instruments - Instruments which measure the total quantity of electricity (in ampere-
hours) or electrical energy (in watt-hours) in a given time are called integrating instruments e.g.
Ampere-hour meter and watt-hour meter
• Sets of dials and pointers which register the total quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied
to the load.

• Recording instruments - Instruments which give a continuous record of the variations of the
electrical quantity to be measured are called recording instruments e.g. Recording voltmeters are
used in supply stations to record the voltage of the supply mains during the day.
• Indicating instrument with a pen attached to its pointer. Pen rests lightly on a chart wrapped over a
drum moving with a slow uniform speed. Path traced out by the pen indicates the manner in which
the quantity, being measured, has varied during the time of the record.
Principle of operation of electrical instruments
• An electrical instrument essentially consists of a movable element and a scale to indicate or
register the electrical quantity being measured. The movable element is supported on jewelled
bearings and carries a pointer or set of dials
• The movement of the movable element is caused by utilising one or more of the following effects
of current or voltage

Effect Type
Magnetic effect Moving-iron instruments

Electrodynamic effect a) Permanent-magnet moving coil

b) Dynamometer type
Electromagnetic-induction effect Induction type instruments
Thermal effect Hot-wire instruments
Chemical effect Electrolytic instruments
Electrostatic effect Electrostatic instruments
Principle of operation of electrical instruments
Type Effect Suitable for Instrument
Moving-iron Magnetic effect DC and AC Ammeter, Voltmeter

Permanent-magnet Electrodynamic effect DC only Ammeter, Voltmeter

moving coil

Dynamometer type Electrodynamic effect DC and AC Ammeter, Voltmeter,

Wattmeter

Induction type Electro-magnetic AC only Ammeter, Voltmeter,

induction effect Wattmeter, Energy meter

Hot-wire Thermal effect DC and AC Ammeter, Voltmeter

Electrolytic meter Chemical effect DC only Ampere-hour meter
Electrostatic type Electrostatic effect DC and AC Voltmeter only
Essentials of Indicating Instruments for proper operation
• A pointer is attached to the moving system which
indicates the value of the electrical quantity being
measured on a graduated scale

• For proper operation of indicating instruments, three

torques are required.

1. Deflecting (or operating) torque ‘Td’-

causes the moving system (pointer) to move from zero
position to indicate the value of electrical quantity
being measured

• Deflecting torque is produced by utilising the various

effects of electric current or voltage. The actual method
of producing the deflecting torque depends upon the
type of instrument
Td α I or V under measurement
2. Controlling Torque ‘Tc’
• If deflecting torque was acting alone, the pointer would continue to move indefinitely and would
swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of current (or voltage
or power) to be measured. Hence, this necessitates to provide controlling or restoring torque.

• The controlling or restoring torque should oppose the deflecting torque and should increase with the
deflection of the moving system (i.e., linearly proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer).

• The pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are equal i.e. Td =
Tc.

The controlling torque performs two functions:

a. It increases with the deflection of the moving system so that the final position of the pointer on
the scale will be according to the magnitude of current (or voltage or power) to be measured

b. It brings the pointer back to zero position when the deflecting torque is removed - If the
controlling torque was not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero position
when the deflecting torque is removed
2. Controlling Torque ‘Tc’
• How Tc is produced
➢ By one or more springs ... Spring control
➢ By weight of moving parts ... Gravity control

➢ Spring control - most common

• Generally, two spiral hairsprings of non-magnetic alloy like
phosphor-bronze or beryllium-copper are attached to the
moving system
• The two springs are wound in opposite directions - when
moving system (pointer) is deflected - one spring winds up,
other unwinds - controlling torque - combined torsions of the
springs - proportional to the angle of twist → controlling
torque is directly proportional to the angular deflection of the
pointer.
• One end of each spring is attached to the spindle, while the
other end is attached to a fixed point in the instrument (not
shown)
2. Controlling Torque ‘Tc’
➢ Spring control
• Two springs provide the necessary controlling torque as well
as they provide electrical connection to the operating coil.

• When the instrument is used to measure electrical quantity,

the pointer moves and one of the springs is unwound while
the other gets twisted. The resultant twist in the springs
provides the controlling torque – More deflection – more
twist – greater controlling torque.
Tc ∝ θ ; θ – deflection of pointer

• The pointer comes to rest at a position when the controlling

torque is equal to deflecting torque (i.e. Tc = Td)
2. Controlling Torque ‘Tc’
➢ Gravity control
• In this method, a small adjustable weight W is attached to the
moving system which provides the necessary controlling
torque.

• In the zero position of the pointer, the control weight hangs

vertically downward - no controlling torque.

• Under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves from

zero position (from left to right) and control weight moves in
the opposite direction - Due to gravity, the control weight
would tend to come to original position (i.e. vertical) and thus
provides an opposing or controlling torque.

• The pointer comes to rest at a position where controlling

torque is equal to the deflecting torque.
3. Damping Torque

• When underdamped, large time to settle at a reading

• When overdamped, large time to displaced

• Critically damped – optimum damping

3. Damping Torque
• Only deflecting and controlling torques on moving system
(pointer/needle), it will oscillate about its final deflected
position (b/c of inertia) for some time before coming to rest
(due to inertia) - undesirable – slow

• Remedy - damping torque is provided in the indicating

instruments

• Always acts only when the pointer is in motion and opposes it;
pointer at rest – damping torque is zero

Degree of damping
• When underdamped, large time to settle at a reading

• When overdamped, large time to move pointer

• Critically damped/dead beat – degree of damping is adjusted to

such a value that the pointer comes up to the correct reading
quickly without passing beyond it or oscillating about it -
required
3. Damping Torque
Techniques for providing damping torque -
• Air-friction
• Fluid friction
• Eddy currents
Eddy current damping – Based on electromagnetic induction
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
• First law - Any change in the magnetic field of a coil (of
wire) will cause an emf to be induced in the coil called
induced emf (e = B l v sinθ) and if the conductor circuit is
closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit and
this current is called induced current.
• Second law - the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is
equal to the rate of change of flux that linkages with the coil.
The flux linkage of the coil is the product of the number of
turns in the coil and flux associated with the coil
3. Damping Torque
Eddy current damping – Based on
electromagnetic induction
• When a conducting (but non-magnetic material Aluminium
disc
such as aluminium or copper) disc is moved
perpendicular to a magnetic field, eddy
currents are induced in the disc

• These eddy currents counteract with the

magnetic field to produce a force which
opposes the motion (Lenz’s Law)

• The eddy currents and hence the damping

torque exists as long as the moving system is
in motion
Eddy current damping
• A thin aluminium disc is attached to the spindle and is allowed to rotate horizontally (i.e.,
perpendicular to magnetic field) in the air gap of a permanent magnet

• When the pointer (or the spindle) moves, the aluminium disc also moves and cuts the magnetic
lines of force (produced by the permanent magnet) which induces eddy currents that produces a
force opposing the motion of the disc (Lenz’s Law)

• In this way, eddy currents provide the damping torque to reduce the oscillations of the pointer

• During motion, the deflecting torque due to the quantity being measured is opposed by controlling
torque and damping torque. Hence, the moving system of an indicating instrument experiences all
the three torques

• When the pointer comes to rest at the final deflected position, damping torque is zero and the
controlling torque is equal to the deflecting torque. Hence, the moving system of an indicating
instrument experiences two torques only
Ammeter
• An ammeter is used to measure the flow of current in a circuit. It is thus connected in series with
the circuit under test so that current to be measured or a fraction of it passes through the instrument
itself

• The ammeter must be capable of carrying this current without damage and without abnormally
increasing the resistance of the circuit into which it is inserted. For this reason, an ammeter is
designed to have low resistance
• If the circuit current is large, a low resistance shunt is used to divert a major portion of current so
that only a small current flow through the ammeter (called as Extension of ammeter range)

Voltmeter
• A voltmeter is used to measure the potential difference between two points of a circuit. Thus, it is
connected in parallel with the circuit

• The voltmeter must have enough resistance so that it is not damaged by the current that flows
through it and that it should also not materially affect the current in the circuit (loading of circuit) to
which it is connected. For this reason, a voltmeter is designed to have high resistance
Ammeter & Voltmeter
• The basic principle of the ammeter and of the
voltmeter is the same. Both are current operated
devices i.e. deflecting torque is produced when
current flows through their operating coils

• In the ammeter, the deflecting torque is produced

by the current we wish to measure, or a certain
fraction of that current

• In the voltmeter, the deflecting torque is

produced by a current which is proportional to
the potential difference we wish to measure

• Thus, the same instrument can be used as an

ammeter or voltmeter with proper design
Electrical analog indicating type measuring instruments
• Common indicating type analog Electrical measuring instruments used in the laboratory are
electromagnetic type

• Electromagnetic type instruments are of various types and the important members of this group are
• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
• Moving iron (MI) instruments (Movement of soft iron piece/pieces)
• Dynamometer type (No permanent magnet, no soft iron pieces)
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
These instruments are used either as ammeters or
voltmeters and are suitable for d.c. circuits only

Working principle
• When the instrument is connected in the circuit to
measure current or voltage, the operating current flows
through the coil

• Current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field (of

permanent magnet), a force acts on it (interaction of PM
m.f. and m.f. of current carrying conductor). As a result,
the pointer attached to the moving system moves over
the graduated scale to indicate the value of current or
voltage being measured. This type of movement is
known as D’Arsonval movement – Deflecting torque
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments

Fleming's left-hand rule for motors (to det force

on coil - used here)
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
Construction
• It consists of a light rectangular coil of many turns of fine wire
wound on an aluminium former inside which is an iron core
• The coil is delicately pivoted upon jewel bearings (does not wear
easily) and placed between the poles of a permanent horse-shoe
magnet
• Two soft-iron pieces are attached to the ends of a permanent
magnet, which are used to concentrate the magnetic field

Why soft-iron core is used?

• Soft-iron or soft magnetic material can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized – higher sensitivity
• Soft-iron core has low hysteresis loss
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
• Current is led into and out of the coil by means of
two control hair-springs, one above and the other
below the coil

• Moreover, the two springs provide the necessary

controlling torque.

• Current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field

(from the permanent magnets), a force acts on it –
deflecting torque.

• If N is the no. of turns in the coil, B the magnetic

flux density due to permanent magnet, I the current
in the coil, l the effective length, the force F acting
on the coil is given by
F = N*B*I*l N
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
Hence deflecting torque Td on coil will be
Td = N*B*I*l*2r Nm
because torque = force x perpendicular distance

Spring provides controlling torque Tc,

Tc = K*θ
= deflection angle in radians
K is spring constant in Nm/radian
at steady state,
Td = Tc
Therefore, N*B*I*l*2r = K*θ
I = K*θ/ (N*B*l*2r)
Iαθ
=> Scale of PMMC instruments is uniform
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
• Damping torque is provided by eddy currents induced in the aluminium former as the coil moves
from one position to another

• The magnetic field produced by the eddy currents (i.e., magnetically induced currents) opposes the
motion of the coil and is proportional to the angular speed of the coil. The angular speed of pointer
will therefore be opposed and the pointer will settle to its equilibrium position quickly with very
small oscillation and overshoots.
Damping torque = /
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
Why PMMC is not suitable for AC measurements?
• If the current in the coil is reversed, the deflecting torque will also be reversed since the
direction of the field of the permanent magnet is the same

• The direction of the deflecting torque will alternate with the frequency of the AC current (50
Hz). The mechanical inertia will not allow for the mass to alternate at this frequency. Hence,
there will be no deflection for AC measurements
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) type instruments
Advantages
• Uniform scale
• Very effective eddy current damping because the aluminium former moves in an intense magnetic
field of the permanent magnet
• High efficiency as it requires very little power for its operation
• No hysteresis loss as the magnetic flux is practically constant
• External stray fields have little effect on the readings as the operating magnetic field is very strong
• Very accurate and reliable

Disadvantages
• Such instruments cannot be used for a.c. measurements
• About 50% more expensive than moving-iron instruments because of their accurate design
• Some errors are caused due to variations (with time or temperature) either in the strength of
permanent magnet or in the control springs
Extension of range of PMMC type instrument
• For PMMC ammeter, a low value of shunt resistance is
used

• When PMMC instrument is used as an ammeter, its range

can be extended with the help of a low resistance shunt as
shown in the figure

• This shunt provides a path for extra current because it is

connected across (i.e. in parallel with) the instrument

• These shunted instruments can be made to record currents

many times greater than their normal full-scale deflection
currents. The ratio of maximum current (with shunt) to the
full-scale deflection current (without shunt) is known as
the ‘multiplying power’ or ‘multiplying factor’ of the shunt
Extension of range of PMMC type instrument
• Voltage across shunt = Voltage across the meter
(I-Im)S = ImRm

S = ImRm/(I-Im)
• Multiplying power of shunt = I/Im = 1 + Rm /S
• Multiplying power of a shunt is the ratio of circuit current to be
measured and the meter current. The multiplying power of a
shunt is constant and indicates the factor by which the meter
current must be multiplied to obtain the circuit current.

• Suppose the meter has a resistance of 5 Ω and requires 15 mA

for full-scale deflection. In order that the meter may read 1A,
the value of shunt is given by
S = 0.015*5/(1-0.015) = 0.0761 ohm

• Multiplying power of shunt = I/Im = 1/0.015 = 66.67

Extension of range of PMMC type instrument
• For PMMC voltmeter, a high value of series resistance is
used
• The range of PMCC when used as a voltmeter can be
increased by using a resistance
• A high value of series resistance is used for extension of
voltage measurement
• The range of a permanent-magnet moving coil voltmeter can
be increased by connecting a high resistance Rs called
multiplier in series with it as shown in figure
• Let Rm = meter resistance, Rs = series resistance i.e.
multiplier, Im = full-scale deflection current, V = full-range
voltage of the meter

Then, Voltage across AB = Voltage across the meter and Rs

or V = Im(Rs + Rm)
Extension of range of PMMC type instrument
V = Im(Rs + Rm)
Rs = V/(Im – Rm)
Voltage amplification = Voltage to be measured/Voltage across
meter = V/ImRm = 1+(Rs/Rm)

Suppose the meter has a resistance of 5 Ω and requires 15 mA for

full-scale deflection. In order that the meter may read 15 V, the
value of series resistance Rs is given by
Rs = V/(Im-Rm) = 15/0.015 – 5 = 995 ohm

Voltage amplification = 1+995/5 = 200

Greater the value of Rs, greater is the voltage amplification. For
this reason, Rs is called voltage multiplier or simply multiplier.
The important requirement of a multiplier is that its resistance
should remain constant, i.e. it should have low temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Moving Iron (MI) type instrument
Moving iron type instruments are of mainly two types
1. Moving Iron Attraction Type Instrument
2. Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instrument

MI attraction type instrument - When current flows

through the coil, a small piece of iron is drawn into the
core of the coil in case of attraction type of instruments
- Deflecting torque –
Control torque – spring
Damping torque– air friction

Moving Iron Attraction Type Instrument

Moving Iron (MI) type instrument
MI attraction type instrument

The control torque is proportional to the angle θ

through which the pointer moves and the deflecting
torque is proportional to square of the current being
measured

Deflecting torque – K’I2

Control torque – Kθ

At balance

Kθ = K’I2
or θ α I2
Angular deflection of MI instruments is proportional to Moving Iron Attraction Type Instrument
square of operating current
⸫ No effect of direction of current on deflection =>
Can be used for AC circuits
Digital meters
• Digital multimeters (DMMs) long ago replaced needle-based
analog meters due to their ability to measure with greater
accuracy, reliability and increased impedance.
• A DMM is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical
values—principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and
resistance (ohms).
• DMMS combine the testing capabilities of single-task
meters—the voltmeter (for measuring volts), ammeter (amps)
and ohmmeter (ohms).
• Often, they include several additional specialized features or advanced options.
• The face of a DMM typically includes four components.
• Display: Where measurement readouts can be viewed.
• Buttons: For selecting various functions (the options vary by model).
• Dial (or rotary switch): For selecting primary measurement values (volts, amps, ohms).
• Input jacks: Where test leads are inserted.
Digital meters
Working
• Instead of a pointer and continuous scale (as in analog instruments), DMMs directly indicate the
value in decimal numbers.
• A DMM should have a scheme to convert analog signal to digital one (Analog to Digital converter
“ADC”) and a scheme to convert digital value to display in decimal value.
• In all type of “Analog to Digital” converter the signal is in the form of voltage signal. Therefore, for
current measurement, the current must be converted to a proportional voltage signal (current to
voltage converter).
• The “Analog to Digital converter” takes some time (although it is very small) to convert the analog
signal.
• Therefore, the analog signal is sampled and hold during the conversion by a sample hold circuit with
high frequency sampling pulse and a storage element in synchronization with the conversion speed of
ADC so that during conversion the analog value remains steady.
• In some high-quality digital measuring instrument, the digital signal processors are used to measure
many more quantities like power, power factor angle etc.
Digital meters
Display
• All the DMMs displays have digits.
• It is always a prominent part of the DMM’s specification.

• It is often displayed on the front panel of a handheld or a benchtop DMM.

• The display digits refer to the level of resolution that the DMM can measure.
• By knowing a DMM's resolution, we can determine if it is possible to see a small change in a
measured signal.

• Example: If a DMM offers a resolution of 1 mV on the 4 V range, it is possible to see a change of 1

mV while reading 1V
• As per the above discussion, manufacturers specify DMMs in terms of digits.
• Example: 3 ½, 3 ¾, 4 ½, 4 ¾, 5 ½ and so on
Digital meters
Display
• From the example, we say that it is a combination of full digits and fractional digit.
• 3 ½ Digital meter display
• Full digit, 3 represents number of full digits, ranges from 0 to 9
• Fractional digit, ½ ranges from 0 to 1
• Generally, ½ is called as half digit.

• 3 ¾ Digital meter display

• 3 represents number of full digits, ranges from 0 to 9
• Fractional digit, ¾ ranges from 0 to 3
• In general, for a fractional digit, we can use the following expression. Fractional digit= Maximum
value the digit can attain number of possible values
• Hence, a ½ digit has a maximum display value of 1, and it has 2 possible values (0 or 1). Similarly, a
¾ digit has a maximum display value of 3, and it has 4 possible values (0, 1, 2, and 3).