Electrical Measuring Instrument;-

An electrical measuring instrument is a device that measures various electrical parameters such as
voltage, current, resistance, power and energy. These instruments are used to test, calibrate and
troubleshoot electrical systems. Examples of such instruments include voltmeters, ammeters,
ohmmeters, watt meters and multimeters.

Measuring instrument types:-

1. Pressure gauges – measure the pressure of gases and liquids

2. Voltmeter – measures voltage or potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit

3. Flow meters – measure the flow rate of a liquid or gas in a pipe or other container

4. Thermometer – measures temperature, either directly or by sensing a change in pressure,

resistance, current, etc.

5. pH meter – measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution

6. Balances – measure mass (weight) through comparing an unknown mass to known masses

7. Stroboscope/Tachometer – measure angular velocity (speed) of rotary motion

8. Altimeter/Barometer–measures atmospheric pressure and altitude

Indication error:-

Indication error is when a device or system provides the wrong indication or feedback about a
process. This can happen for many reasons including: hardware failure, software malfunction, poor
design, inadequate maintenance and insufficient testing. Indication errors can have a variety of
consequences ranging from minor annoyances to major safety risks. For example, if an electronic
speedometer was providing incorrect information it could lead to the driver of the vehicle going too
fast and potentially causing an accident.

Reading instrument scales:-

Instrument scales refer to the set of notes and intervals used to create a specific type of music. They
are also used for playing melodies, improvisation, and creating chord progressions. The most
common scales are major and minor scales, although many other types exist. These include
pentatonic, blues, chromatic, harmonic minor, melodic minor and more. Scales can be played on any
instrument with a pitch range (such as guitar or keyboard).

Classification of instrument as per accuracy:-

Instruments are typically classified according to their accuracy, which is typically expressed in terms
of accuracy class. Generally, instrument accuracy classes can be divided into three categories: low-
accuracy, medium-accuracy and high-accuracy.
Low Accuracy Instruments: Low accuracy instruments are generally used for basic measurements or
simple tasks and usually have an accuracy of less than 0.5%. Examples include ruler, protractor or
caliper.

Medium Accuracy Instruments: Medium accuracy instruments have an accurary between 0.5% and
1%. These instruments may be used for calibrations or other more precise applications such as
measuring temperature or pressure changes over time. Examples include thermometers,
barometers and electronic scales.

High Accuracy Instruments: High accuracy instruments are designed to provide highly precise
measurements with accuracies up to 0.1%. These instruments are used in scientific research and
industrial processes where exact readings are required to ensure safety and quality control
standards are met. Examples include micrometers, spectrophotometers and pyrometers (infrared
thermometers).

Types of scales

1 Coarse and coarse-fine scale: Coarse scales and coarse-fine scales are used primarily in panel
instruments with a quality class from 1 to 2.5.

2 Fine scale: Performance for precision and laboratory devices with a quality class from 0.1 to 0.3 are
used mostly in conjunction with a mirror scale.
3 Extended scale: Used primarily for current measurements with short overload time i.e. starting
current of motors.

4 Linear scales: Linear scales are used primarily in moving coil measuring devices. The graduations
are uniform throughout the span.

5 Non-linear scales: Non-linear scales are used primarily in moving iron measuring devices. The
graduations on the scale are not uniform. They are crowded in the begining of the scale.

Non-linear scales, coarse: The dot under the division mark indicates the start and end of the
measuring range. This instrument should not be used for measurement of value below the start
range.

Sources of errors when measuring:-

1 Device errors: This error will occur as a result of careless assembly, damage, false adjustment or
when used in a false position. While using the instrument it must be used in the position as specified
on the dial.

2 Influence errors: These are errors caused by the effect of environment, such as humidity
(dampness), temperature, vibrations, electrical or magnetic fields.

3 Switching errors: These errors are caused by the influence of the electrical quantity being
measured, through incorrect method of connection before measurement or false selection of the
proper measuring device.

4 Human errors: Reading errors caused by looking at the indicator (pointer) from an angle (parallax
error) or false reading of middle value of subdivision graduation.

Reading the scales:

When using a multi-range ammeter or voltmeter, it is important to know the function of the range
switch. The range switch selects the amount of current or voltage that causes full-scale deflection
(FSD) of the meter. When measuring an unknown quantity, it is wise to start out on the highest
range and reduce to a lower range until you get a deflection somewhere between mid and full scale
if possible.

Precautions to be observed while using an instrument:-

1. Make sure you read the instructions and safety guidelines before using the instrument.

2. Ensure that the instrument is properly calibrated and in good working order before use.

3. Wear protective equipment such as gloves, goggles, or a lab coat if necessary when using the
instrument to prevent injuries or contamination of samples or equipment.

4. Do not exceed recommended power levels for electrical instruments and carefully follow
instructions for connecting any electrical components to avoid damaging them with too much
current or voltage.

5. Be aware of any potential hazards associated with a particular operation involving an instrument
and take steps to minimize risk of injury or damage while working with it as well as preventing
unauthorized access to it by unauthorized personnel who may not be familiar with its use or
operation.

6. Store instruments in a clean, dry place away from extreme temperatures, humidity levels, dust
particles, etc., whenever possible-including between uses-to ensure their optimal performance over
time.
ESSENTIAL FORCES REQUIRED IN A INDICATING INSTRUMENTS:

For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary.
They are
(a) Deflecting force
(b) Controlling force
(c)Damping force

1. Deflecting force
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To deflect
the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting force. A
system which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a
deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

2. Controlling force
To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is necessary
which will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is known as
controlling force. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When the
external
signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero
position. This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady
value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
Td = Tc
The controlling force could be produced by any one of the following ways.
Spring control
Gravity control

2.1. Spring control

Two springs are attached on either end of spindle.The spindle is placed in jewelled bearing, so
that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be minimum. Two springs are provided
in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error. The spring is made of
phosphorous bronze. When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the
spindle. While spindle is rotate, the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements
of the pointer. The torque produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer
deflectionθ .
TC ∝θ
The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. WhenTC = Td, the pointer will come to a
steady position. Therefore
θ∝I
2.2Gravity control
In this method, small adjustable weights are attached to the opposite extension of the pointer
as shown in Fig 5. These weights are attracted by the earth's gravitational pull, and thereby,
produce the required controlling force(torque). The instruments with gravity control are to be
used in the vertical position only.

When the instrument is not connected to the supply, the control weight and the balance weight
attached to the opposite end of the pointer make the pointer to be at zero position. When the
instrument is connected to the supply, the pointer moves in a clockwise direction, thereby
displacing the weights as shown in dotted lines in the figure. Due to the gravitational pull, the
weights will try to come to their original vertical position thereby exerting a controlling force on
the movement of the moving system.

3.Damping force
The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro mechanical. Due
to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final steady position before
coming to rest. The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation
is quickly, a damping force is necessary.

PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMMC):

The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the stationary magnetic field
between which the coil moves freely, is known as permanent magnet moving coil. It operates on
the principle of torque equation of the moving coil placed in between permanent magnet.

The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result for DC measurement. In DC metre, known as
galvanometer where this type of instrument are being used.
Torque equation
l,d-length of the respectively vertical and horizontal side of the former.
N-number of turns of the coil in the former.
B-flux density of the air gap.
i-current through moving coil which is to be measured.
K-string constant of the suspension.
θf-final steady deflection of the pointer.

We know, force on each side of the former

F=NBilsinФ
Where Ф=angle between magnetic field and the deflection of the current.
Consider Ф=90°i.e. F=NBil

Deflecting torque (Td)= force ×distance

=NBil ×d
=NBiA[where a = area]

Controlling torque (Tc)=k×θf

At equilibrium or balance condition
Tc=Td
or, k×θf=Gi
or, θf=Gi
or, θf=(G/k)×i
or, θf∝ I[G/k= constant]
As the deflection is directly proportional to the current passing through the metres ,we get
uniform and linear scale for this type of instrument.
Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When the current
carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force produces a torque
and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former rotates, the
pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in
the opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in the opposite
direction. Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument. If A.C. is supplied,
a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a continuous deflection. Therefore this
instrument cannot be used in A.C.

Advantages
● Torque/weight is high
● Power consumption is less
Scale is uniform
● Damping is very effective
● Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
● Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
● Use only for D.C.
● Cost is high
● Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
● Friction and temperature error are present .
Error in PMMC instrument
● Adging and temperature effect on the permanent magnet structure.
● Springing property are to be reduced on temperature effect.
● Change the resistance of moving coil depends on temperature.
Loading effect of PMMC
It is always desired that during measuring voltage or current the metre will draw minimum
energy as possible from the main circuit. If the metre draws some applicable amount of energy
then the main circuit voltage and current will be affected. This phenomenon is known as loading
effect.

MOVING IRON (MI) INSTRUMENT​:

One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC meas urement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
· Attraction type
· Repulsion type
Attraction type M.I. instrument

Construction​: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil The pointer
and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with jeweled bearing. Here
air friction damping is used.

Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow through the
fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron gets magnetized.
The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting
force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle,
the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the force of attraction
depends on the current flowing through the coil.

Advantages
MI can be used in AC and DC.
It is cheap.
Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
Simple construction.
Less friction error.
Disadvantages
It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error.
Scale is not uniform.
It consumed more power.
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation.
Repulsion type moving iron instrument:

Construction:​ The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it.
The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attach ed to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.

Principle of operation:​ When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced by
it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same pola rity, since they are
kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving ir on get repelled. Thus the
deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving i ron is attached to
spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.
Dynamometer type instrument:-

for indirect measurement of power

A Prony brake dynamometer is an instrument used for the indirect measurement of power. It works
by using a friction brake to measure the torque delivered to a moving shaft. This torque is then
multiplied by the rotational speed of the shaft and divided by 5252 to give the power output of the
shaft in watts. The Prony brake dynamometer can be used in many different applications including
motor testing, engine testing and transmission testing.

Electro-dynamic or Dynamo-meter type Instruments working principle:-

Electro-dynamic or Dynamo-meter type instruments measure force or torque by measuring the

current required to produce a known amount of torque on a rotating element. The measurement is
usually made using two coils; one mounted on the object being tested and the other forming part of
an electrical circuit. When a force is applied to the object, it causes the element to rotate and this in
turn creates a voltage in both coils which can be measured. The current required to maintain this
voltage is then proportional to the amount of force being applied.

Dynamometer instrument as an ammeter:-

This instrument could be used as milli or micro ammeter by connecting the fixed and moving coils in
series (Fig 4).

A dynamometer instrument can be used as an ammeter if it is connected in series with the circuit
that needs to be measured. The dynamometer instrument works by measuring the torque applied to
a rotating shaft, which can be converted into a current measurement by multiplying the torque
reading by the angular velocity of the shaft. This allows it to accurately measure both DC and AC
currents, with high precision and sensitivity.

Dynamometer instrument as a voltmeter:- When this instrument is used as voltmeter, the

fixed and moving coils are joined in series along with a high resistance (multiplier) (Fig 6). This
voltmeter could be used both in AC and DC.

A dynamometer instrument can be used as a voltmeter. This is achieved by connecting the

dynamometer to the circuit that needs to be measured and adjusting it to the correct voltage range.
The dynamometer will then measure and display the voltage of the circuit.

Dynanometer used as a Wattmeter:-

A dynamometer can be used as a wattmeter if it is connected in series with the current carrying circuit, and a
voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit. The dynamometer acts as an ammeter, measuring the current
flowing through the circuit. The voltage across the load is measured by the voltmeter, and then power can be
calculated as P = I x V.

Advantages : • This instrument can be used both in AC and DC. • As this is an air cored instrument,
the hysteresis and eddy current losses are eliminated. • This instrument has better accuracy. • When
used as wattmeter, the scale is uniform.

Disadvantages : • It is more expensive than PMMC and moving iron instruments. • When used as
voltmeter or ammeter the scale will not be uniform. • It has a low torque/weight ratio-as such has
low sensitivity. • Sensitive for over loads and mechanical impact. Hence careful handling is
necessary. • It consumes more power than PMMC meters

Digital ammeter :-

A digital ammeter is an instrument used to measure electric current, typically in the range of micro-
amps to tens of amps. It works by passing a known amount of current through a sensing resistor and
then measuring the voltage drop across it. The voltage is then converted into an analog reading that
is displayed on a digital display. The accuracy and resolution of the readings can be improved by
using more precision resistors or using higher quality components. Digital ammeters are commonly
used in industry for testing circuit boards, as well as for general purpose measurements such as
charging batteries or monitoring power consumption from electrical devices.
Digital Volt Meter (DVM)

A Digital Volt Meter (DVM) is an electronic device used to measure the voltage of an electric circuit.
It is a type of multimeter, and can measure both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC).
DVMs typically display readings in either thousands or millions of volts, depending on the model.
They are commonly used for electrical testing, troubleshooting, automotive diagnostics, and
laboratory measurement applications.

Working Principle of DVM :

A digital voltmeter works by converting an analog voltage into a digital value through the use of an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The ADC converts the voltage into a binary number, and then this
number is displayed on a display device. The resolution of the voltmeter determines how many bits
are used to represent the number. The higher the resolution, the more accurate the measurement
will be.

This section explains digital voltmeter parts and how the device works. The below
picture shows the block diagram of the digital voltmeter.

DVM Block Diagram

Input Signal – This is the signal which is given as input to the device for which the
voltage level has to be measured.

Pulse Generator – This is the voltage source device that works with AC, DC, or both
approaches to give output as a rectangular pulse. The levels of frequency and width
of the generated rectangular pulse can be regulated using digital circuitry present
inside the generator. Whereas the levels of rising and falling time are managed by
analog circuitry.

AND Gate – As we know that the output of AND gate is HIGH only when both of its
inputs are HIGH. When a train pulse along with the rectangular pulse is provided as
input to the AND gate, then the output is in the form that train pulses have the same
duration as the rectangular pulse.

Decimal Display Section – This section is used to count the total number of
impulses and the duration in between the impulses. Then the count is displayed on
either an LED or LCD screen after calibration.

Advantages of Digital Voltmeters: • Read out of DVMs is easy as it eliminates observational errors in
measurement • Parallax error is eliminated • Reading can be taken very fast • Output can be fed to
memory devices for storage and future computations • More versatile and accurate • Compact
portable and cheap • Requires low power

Wattmeters :-

Wattmeters are devices used to measure electrical power or the rate of energy consumption in a
system. They are typically used to measure and monitor electricity consumption in residential,
industrial, and commercial settings, as well as for testing electrical equipment. Wattmeters feature
two main parts: the power transducer, which converts electrical power into a measurable signal; and
the display unit that displays the measured value. A wattmeter can also be used to measure voltage,
current, frequency, and other parameters related to an electric circuit.

Types of Wattmeters:

1. Electrodynamic Wattmeter: This type of wattmeter uses the principle of electromagnetic

induction to measure power. It consists of two coils—the current coil and the potential (voltage)
coil—that are linked together magnetically. The current coil is connected in series with the circuit,
while the voltage coil is connected across it. The power flow through the circuit causes a deflection
in the wattmeter needle, which can be read off a scale on its face.

2. Digital Wattmeter: This type of wattmeter uses digital circuitry to measure AC power and displays
it directly on an LCD screen or other display device. Digital wattmeters are more accurate and easier
to use than electro-dynamic meters, but they tend to be more expensive as well.

3. Inductive Wattmeters: These devices work by measuring the magnetic field that is generated
when electric current passes through a conductor such as wire or cable; they allow for non-intrusive
measurements without having to disconnect any wiring from an appliance or circuit being tested..
They typically feature analog dials or LEDs for displaying readings on their output scales; some
models may also include digital displays for ease of reading data points accurately at low currents
levels..

4. Hall Effect Wattmeters: These types of meters use hall effect sensors which detect changes in
magnetic fields along certain axes when subjected to an electric current flowing through them; these
changes can then be used calculate electrical power usage from appliances and circuits being tested
without interruption.. Such meters often feature easy-to-read LED displays that indicate both watts
and VA (volts X amperes).

Dynamometer type, single phase wattmeter: This type is commonly used as a wattmeter.
Construction details and the working of this type of meter have already been discussed . Hence the
trainees are advised to read the information before proceeding further.

Dynanometer used as a Wattmeter:

A dynamometer can be used as a wattmeter if it is connected in series with the current carrying
circuit, and a voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit. The dynamometer acts as an
ammeter, measuring the current flowing through the circuit. The voltage across the load is
measured by the voltmeter, and then power can be calculated as P = I x V.

Advantages • This instrument can be used both in AC and DC. • As this is an air cored instrument,
the hysteresis and eddy current losses are eliminated. • This instrument has better accuracy. • When
used as wattmeter, the scale is uniform.

DIsadvantages • It is more expensive than PMMC and moving iron instruments. • When used as
voltmeter or ammeter the scale will not be uniform. • It has a low torque/weight ratio-as such has
low sensitivity. • Sensitive for over loads and mechanical impact. Hence careful handling is
necessary. • It consumes more power than PMMC meters.

Induction type single phase wattmeter:-

An induction type single phase wattmeter is a device used for measuring the power consumption of
a single-phase AC circuit. It is made up of two components, which are an inductor coil and a
galvanometer. The inductor coil works by producing an alternating current in response to the
current flowing through the circuit being measured. This alternating current then passes through the
galvanometer, which measures its voltage and produces a reading that can be used to calculate
power consumption.

Construction of Induction Type Wattmeter :

It mainly consists of two laminated electromagnets wound with conductors
known as shunt and series magnets. The upper electromagnet is known as a
shunt magnet. It consists of three limbs, the side limbs carry the winding and it
is connected across the load. These windings are excited by the current
proportional to the voltage across the load, hence they are called voltage
coils.

The lower electromagnet is connected in series with load in which power

is to be measured and is known as a series magnet. It carries the windings
called current coils and it is excited proportionally to the load current. The
below shows the construction of an induction-type wattmeter.

A thin lightweight disc made up of copper or aluminum is pivoted at the

center in the airgap present in between the two electromagnets (shunt &
series). It is mounted with the help of a spindle so that the disc can rotate,
which in turn rotates the spindle. A pointer is attached at top of the spindle and
rotates with the spindle over the scale.

Working of Induction Type Wattmeter :

The working principle of induction type wattmeter is similar to induction
type voltmeters and ammeters. The shunt magnet that carries two voltage
coils are connected in series and other ends are connected across the load.
 They are wounded in such a way that, both circulate a flux through the
central limb. In order to make the resultant flux lag behind the applied voltage
by 90° shading bands are placed on the central limb.

Similarly, the series magnet that carries two current coils are connected in
series and are wound in such a way that, they produce flux in the same
direction. When the disc cuts the two fluxes i.e., from the shunt and series
magnet. The combined effect of these changing fluxes on the disc induces
eddy currents in it.

Therefore, a deflecting torque is produced on the disc due to the

interaction of fields produced by the eddy currents. This causes to rotate the
disc, thereby the spindle and pointer. To control deflecting torque, springs are
provided that produce controlling torque.

Three Phase Wattmeter

Definition: Three-Phase Wattmeter is used for measuring the power of
the three-phase circuit. In three-phase Wattmeter, the two separate
Wattmeter are mounted together in the single unit. Their moving coils
are placed on the same spindle.

Three-Phase Wattmeter has two elements. The single element is the

combination of the pressure coil and the current coil. The current coils
are considered as the fixed coil, and the pressure coils are the moving
coil of the Wattmeter.

Working Principle of Three Phase Wattmeter

It works on the principle that the torque develops on the current carrying
conductor when it is placed in the magnetic field. The measurand power
when passes through the moving coils, the torque develops on the coil.
The torque is the type of mechanical force whose effect can deflect the
object in circular motion.

In three-phase Wattmeter, the torque develops on both the elements.

The value of torque on each element is proportional to the power passes
through it. The total torque on the three-phase Wattmeter is the sum of
the torque on individual Wattmeter.

Let understand this with the help of the mathematical expressions.

Consider the deflecting torque develops on the coil one is D1 and the
power passes through that element is P1. Similarly, the torque develops
on the coil 2 is D2 and the power passes through the coil is P2.

The total torque develops in

the coil is expressed as

Connections of three-
phase Wattmeter

Consider the circuit has two Wattmeters. The current coil of both the
Wattmeter connects across any two phases say R and Y. The pressure
coil of both the Wattmeters connects across the third phase say B.

The mutual interference between the elements of the Three-Phase

Wattmeter will affect their accuracy. The mutual interference is the
phenomena in which the field of two elements interacts each other. In
three-phase Wattmeter, the laminated iron shield is placed between the
elements. The iron shield reduces the mutual effect of the element.

The mutual effect can compensate by using the Weston method. In

Weston method, the adjustable resistors are used. This resistor
compensates the mutual interference that occurs between the elements
of three phase wattmeter.
The principle and working of an induction type wattmeter are similar to the induction type energy
meter. The only difference in construction between the energy meter and wattmeter is that the
spindle of the wattmeter is springcontrolled, has a pointer but no train of gears. However to
summarise what has been learnt earlier the following table 1 is provided with connection diagram of
3- phase wattmeter Fig 4, Fig 5 & Fig 6

Digital Wattmeter:-

The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power in watts of any given circuit.
Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurment of utility frequency and audio frequency and
audio frequency power; other types are required for radio frequency. Fig 1 shows the block diagram
of digital wattmeter. Digital wattmeters measure current and voltage electronically thousands of
times a second, multiplying the results in a computer microcontroller chip to determine watts. The
computer can also perform statistics such as peak, average, low watts consumed. They can monitor
the power line for voltage surges and outages. Digital electronic wattmeter, have become popular
for conveniently measuring power consumption in household appliances with saving energy and
money.
Energy Meters(Analog and Digital)

Necessity of energy meter: The electrical energy supplied by the Electricity board should be billed,
based on the actual amount of energy consumed. We need a device to measure the energy supplied
to a consumer. Electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hours in practice. The meter used for this is
an energy meter. In AC, an induction type of energy meter is universally used for measurement of
energy in domestic and industrial circuits.

Principle of a single phase induction type energy meter:

The operation of this meter depends on the induction principle. Two alternating magnetic fields
produced by two coils induce current in a disc and produce a torque to rotate it (disc). One coil
(potential coil) carries current proportional to the voltage of the supply and the other (current coil)
carries the load current. (Fig 1) Torque is proportional to the power as in wattmeter.

Parts and functions of an energy meter: The parts of the induction type single phase energy meter
are (Fig 1).

Parts of an induction type single phase energy meter include:

1. Current Coil: It is a conducting wire wound on a laminated magnetic core. Its purpose is to provide
current input to the meter for measuring electrical energy consumed by the load.

2. Voltage Coil: It consists of two or three coils mounted at right angles on a common iron core,
which carries current from one coil to another, forming an electromagnet. The voltage coil provides
voltage input to the meter for measuring electrical energy consumed by the load.

3. Pointer Assembly: The pointer assembly consists of several moving parts that are used in
displaying and calculating electrical energy consumption by the load via analog display or digital
readouts like LCD displays etc..

4. Register Counter Mechanism: This mechanism consists of mechanical components like levers,
cams and springs etc., which are responsible for calculating exact amount of electricity consumed in
terms of kilowatt hours (kWh).

5. Terminal Blocks & Connectors: These blocks and connectors provide necessary connections
between different sections inside the meter such as power supply section, register counter section
and display section etc..
Creeping error and adjustment:

In some meters the disc rotates continuously even when there is no current flow through the
current coil i.e. when only the pressure coil is energised. This is called creeping. The major cause for
creeping is over-compensation for friction. The other causes for creeping are excessive voltage
across the pressure coil, vibrations and stray magnetic fields. In order to prevent creeping, two
diameterically opposite holes are drilled in the disc (Fig 3). The disc will come to rest with one of the
holes under the edge of a pole of the potential coil magnet, the rotation being thus limited to a
maximum of half a revolution.

Digital Energy meters :-

Digital energy meters, also known as smart meters, are electronic devices used to measure and
monitor electricity usage in homes and businesses. They use digital technology to track electricity
usage and provide users with real-time information on their energy consumption. This data can be
used to optimize energy efficiency by helping identify areas where energy is being wasted.
Additionally, digital energy meters allow for remote management of electricity usage through an
online portal or app that provides users with detailed analytics about their power consumption.

Electromechanical energy meters measure the energy consumed by recording the revolutions of a
rotating disc driven by current in an electromagnet. They are relatively inexpensive and have a long
life, but require frequent calibration as they are prone to drift.
Electronic (digital) energy meters measure the energy used by measuring electrical parameters such
as voltage and current with analog-to-digital converters and calculating the power consumption
from them. These are more accurate than electromechanical meters, but cost more and require
periodic maintenance.

Electronic (Digital energy meter):-

Digital energy meters are electronic devices that measure the amount of electrical energy consumed
by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device. The meter is typically installed by
electricity suppliers to monitor and record the consumption of electrical energy on a customer's
premises. Digital meters provide advantages over mechanical meters such as more accurate
readings and easier reading through remote access. They also allow for two-way communication
between the customer and electricity supplier, allowing providers to more easily detect power
outages or other issues with customer service.

Advantages:-

DIGITAL electronic meters are much more accurate than electromechanical meters. There are no
moving parts and , hence, mechanical defects like friction are absent. In addition, electronic energy
meters come with indicating LEDs for phase/ neutral ok, earth/leakage loss, kilowatthour pulse etc.

Three Phase Energy Meter

Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the power of three
phase supply is known as the three phase energy meter. The three
phase meter is constructed by connecting the two single phase
meter through the shaft. The total energy is the sum of
the reading of both the elements.
Working Principle of Three Phase Energy Meter

The torque of both the elements is added mechanically, and the total
rotation of the shaft is proportional to the three phase energy
consumption.

Construction of Three Phase Energy Meter

The three phase energy meter has two discs mounted on the common
shaft. Both the disc has its braking magnet, copper ring, shading band
and the compensator for getting the correct reading. The two elements
are used for measuring the three phase power. The construction of the
three phase meter is shown in the figure below.

For three phase meter, the driving torque of both the elements is equal.
This can be done by adjusting the torque. The torque is adjusted by
connecting the current coils of both the elements in the series and their
potential coils in parallel. The full load current is passed through the coil
due to which the two opposite torque is set up in the coil.

The strength of both the torques are equal, and hence they do not allow
the disc to rotate. If the torque becomes unequal and the disc rotates
 then the magnetic shunt is adjusted. The balance torque is obtained
before testing the meter. The position of the compensator and the
braking magnet are separately adjusted to each of the element for
obtaining the balance torque.

Errors in energy meter:-

The various types of errors in an energy meter are caused by the driving
system and braking system.

Errors Caused by Driving System :

 Errors due to the incorrect magnitude of fluxes. These are mainly due to
variations in supply voltage or load current. The flux produced by the
shunt magnet varies with variations in supply frequency or coil resistance.
 Incorrect phase angles between various parameters like induced emf,
current, and flux. These are mainly due to variation in supply frequency,
incorrect lag adjustments, change in resistance of coils with temperature,
etc.
 Lack of symmetry in the magnetic circuit. Due to this, driving torque is
produced in the disc even with no current flowing through the current coil,
and hence the meter creeps.
Errors Caused by Braking System :
 Change in the strength of brake magnet due to variations in temperature
etc.
 Self-braking effect of series magnet flux due to overcurrent (or loads).
 Variations in disc resistance with temperature.
 Friction errors at light loads.
Various Adjustments for Compensations of Errors :
There are various adjustments made to the energy meter to overcome the
errors mentioned above. They are,

Light Load Adjustment :

This compensation is to overcome the frictional errors, which are high
during low loads. During light loads, the torque produced in the disc is
insufficient to overcome the frictional torque, which is high during starting
rather than running.
 For this compensation, a shading loop is placed in the air gap between the
shunt magnet and the disc, so as to cover a region of the center limb and a
pole of the shunt magnet as shown in the figure above.

The shading loop is energized proportional to the supply voltage and the
field due to this loop produces more starting torque, which is enough to
overcome the frictional torque at the starting. Its effect is negligible during
running conditions. The starting torque can be adjusted to the required value
by the lateral movement of the shading loop.

Creeping Adjustment :
Due to the above friction compensation, the meter may creep sometimes
on no-loads. This is because the starting torque provided by the shading loop
is irrespective of load current. To compensate this effect, two holes are drilled
opposite to each other on the disc. When a hole comes under a pole of shunt
magnet, the disc tends to remain stationary in that position.

Instead of drilling holes, a small piece of iron can be placed on the disc
and when the iron piece comes near the brake magnet, it is attracted and
make the disc stop.

Lag or Power Factor Adjustment :

This compensation is provided to overcome the errors due to incorrect
phase angle between the supply voltage and shunt magnet flux φp. To
bring φp exactly in quadrature with supply voltage two types of lag adjusting
devices are available. They are,
 Shading coil
 Shading band
These devices are placed on the center limb of the shunt magnet, so as to
link with φp. The shading coil or lag coil circuit is closed through a low variable
resistance, by which the lag angle φp can be varied. In the case of the shading
band, the band is moved along the axis of the shunt magnet to bring φp in
exact quadrature with voltage.
Overload Compensation :
This compensation overcomes the effect of self-braking. The self-braking
effect is due to the overcurrents through the series magnet, which results in
more amount of dynamically induced EMFs in the disc.

This increases the eddy currents in the disc, which produces a self-
braking torque. To prevent this self-braking action the rated rpm of the disc is
kept low and the series magnetic flux φs is made smaller than φp. Hence the
effect of dynamically induced EMFs over statically induced ones is negligible.

Along with the above adjustment a magnetic shunt is provided for a series
magnet to divert the path of some amount of flux as shown in the above
figure. φs is the total series magnet flux, φd is the diverted flux and φs' is the
flux involving in the operation of the meter. The saturation point of the
magnetic shunt is kept lower.
Voltage Compensation :
This compensation overcomes the errors due to overvoltages in the
supply. The effects due to overvoltages are saturation of iron parts in the
meter and self-braking effect due to increase in φp, which increases the
dynamically induced EMFs in the disc.
To overcome these effects a saturable magnetic shunt is provided for the
shunt magnet and the reluctance of the side limbs is increased by providing
air gaps in between (i.e., by providing holes).

Temperature Compensation :
An increase in temperature results in an increase in resistance of the coils
and the disc, and a decrease in the braking magnetic field. So, the overall
effects result in an increase in the speed of the disc.

To compensate this error, a temperature shunt is provided on the brake

magnet so that, its field would not become weak with the increase in
temperature. Hence, the braking torque remains constant at all temperatures,
which controls the speed of the disc.
Speed Error :
Sometimes there is a need for speed adjustment of the disc in order to get
an accurate measurement. The speed of the disc depends on the braking
magnet. We know that the movement of the rotating disc through the magnetic
field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in the disc. These eddy
currents when interacts with the magnetic field produced by the braking
magnetic produce a braking torque on the disc.

Therefore, by changing the position of the braking magnet the speed of

the rotating disc can be controlled. If the meter runs fast, the braking magnet
will be moved away from the center of the disc, which increases the radius,
which in turn decreases the speed of the disc. Thus the disc obtains a steady
speed.
Recommendations as per BIS 722:

As per Bureau of Indian Standards IS 722 (Part II 1977), a single phase energy meter should have the
following ratings and accuracies. • Standard basic current (I b ) 2.5, 5, 10, 20 and 30A. • Rated
maximum current (I max) 200% of the rated basic current. • Starting current at unity power factor
shall be 0.5 of basic current. • Limits of error shall be as follows.

Multimeters :-

A multimeter is an instrument that is used to measure multiple electrical values such as volts, amps, and ohms. It
consists of several components which include a voltage source, resistors, capacitors, transistors, and a display
panel. The voltage source supplies the power for the multimeter and can be in the form of a battery or an AC/DC
power adaptor. Resistors are then connected to the voltage source in order to provide resistance to current flow.
Capacitors help regulate currents and transistors amplify signal voltages for more accurate readings. Finally, the
display panel will show readings from all of these components after they have been processed by the
multimeter’s internal circuit boards.

Multimeter
As the name implies, a multimeter is device that can be used to measure multiple
quantities, i.e., when a single device is used to measure multiple quantities, the
device is called multimeter. On the basis of output representation, there are two
types of multimeters −

 Analog multimeter
 Digital multimeter
Analog Multimeter
An analog multimeter is a permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter type
measuring instrument. It works on the principle of d‟Arsonval galvanometer. The
analog multimeter has an analog display that uses the deflection of a pointer on the
scale to indicate the level of measurement being made. The pointer deflects from its
initial position increasingly as the measuring quantity increases.

Working of Analog Multimeter

Since, the analog multimeter is a PMMC types instrument, so when a current is
passed through its coil, the coil moves in a magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnet. A pointer is attached with the coil. When current flows in the
coil, a deflecting torque acts on the coil that will rotate it by an angle, so the pointer
moves over a scale. A pair of hairsprings is attached to the spindle to provide the
controlling torque.

Analog Multimeter Measuring Quantities

A typical analog multimeter can measure following electrical quantities −

 DC Voltage
 AC Voltage
 DC Current
 Resistance
The analog multimeter acts as an ammeter with a low series resistance to measure
direct current. For high currents measurement, a shunt resistor is connected in
parallel with the galvanometer. With the shunt resistor, an analog multimeter can
measure currents in the ranges of milli-amperes or amperes.
By adding a multiplier resistor an analog multimeter becomes a voltmeter and can
be used for the measurement of DC voltage in the ranges of milli-volts or kilo volts.
By adding a battery and a network of resistors, the analog multimeter can work as
an ohmmeter. By changing the value of shunt resistance in resistor network,
different values of resistances can be measured.
By adding a rectifier unit in the analog multimeter circuit, the AC voltages and
currents can also be measured.

Block Diagram of Analog Multimeter

Here, two switches S1 and S2 are used to select the desired meter. It also has a
rotary range-selector switch to choose a particular range of current, voltage and
resistance.

Operation of Analog Multimeter

The analog multimeter is very easy to use. With the knowledge of how to make
voltage, current and resistance measurements, it is only necessary to know how to
use the analog multimeter.
For the measurement of current and voltage, there is no need of batteries in the
analog multimeter. But, if resistance is to be measured, batteries need to be
installed in the multimeter.
Steps for the use of analog multimeter −
 Insert the probes into the correct connections.
 Set switch to the correct measurement types and range for the measurement
to be made. While selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is
above than that is expected. The range of multimeter is then optimised for the
best reading.
 Once the measurement is completed, it is wise precaution to place the probes
into the voltage measurement sockets and set the range to maximum voltage.
In this way if the meter is accidently connected across a high voltage point,
there is a little chance of damage to the multimeter.
Advantages of Analog Multimeter
 It gives the continuous reading, thus a sudden change in signal can be
detected which is not possible with digital multimeter.
 Analog multimeter are very cheap.
 All measurement can be made using a single meter only.

Disadvantages of Analog Multimeter

 They are bulky and larger sized.
 Multiple scales, these can cause confusion.
 Low input resistance.
 Analog multimeters do not have auto-polarity function. Therefore, it is
necessary to connect probes correctly.
 Less accurate than a digital multimeter.

Digital Multimeter
A digital multimeter (DMM) is a measuring instrument used to measure various
electrical quantities. The standard measurements that are performed by a DMM are
current, voltage and resistance. Apart from these, a digital multimeter can also
measure temperature, frequency, capacitance, continuity, transistor gains etc.
Block Diagram of Digital Multimeter

DMM Controls and Connection Ports

A typical DMM has a rotary switch, digital display and connecting jacks for the
probes. Let‟s see the various parts of DMM in somewhat details −

 Display − The DMM has an illuminated display screen for better visualisation.
Most DMM have four digit display, the first of which can only be either a 0 or 1
and a + / - indication as well. There may also be some more indicators like AC
/ DC etc.
  Connection Ports − There are three or four ports available on the front of the
DMM. However, only two are needed at a time. Typical ports of the DMM are
−
o Common − It is used with all measurements. The negative (black)
probe is connected to this.
o VΩmA Port − This port is used for the most measurements and positive
(red)probe is connected to it.
o 10A Port − It is used to measure the large currents in the circuits.
 Dial (Selection Knob) − There is a rotary switch to select the types of
measurement to be made and range that is needed.
 Additional Connections − There are some additional connections in DMM for
other measurements like temperature, transistor gains etc.
 Additional Buttons and switches − There are a few additional buttons are
present in a DMM. The main one is ON/OFF button.

Measurements using Digital Multimeter

 In AC Voltage Mode − The applied input voltage is fed through a
calibrated,compensated attenuator, to a full-wave rectifier followed by a ripple
reduction filter.The resulting DC is fed to analog to digital converter (ADC) and
finally to the display system.
 For Current Measurement −
o In DC Current Mode − The drop across an internal calibrated shunt is
measured directly by the ADC.
o In AC Current Mode − After AC to DC conversion, the drop across the
internal calibrated shunt is measured by the ADC
 In Resistance Mode − In the resistance range, the digital multimeter operates
by measuring the voltage across the externally connected resistor, resulting
from a current flowing through it from a calibrated internal current source.

Operation of Digital Multimeter

With the knowledge of how to make voltage, current and resistance measurements,
the operation of DMM is quite easy. It is necessary to install a battery in the DMM to
power it.
Steps for the use of digital multimeter −
 Turn the meter ON.
 Insert the probes into the correct connecting ports.
 Set the dial (rotary switch) to the correct measurement type and range for the
measurement to be made. While selecting the range, ensure that the
maximum range is above than that is expected. Optimise the range for the
best reading. If possible enable all the leading digits to not read zero, in this
way the greatest number of significant digits can be read.
 Once the measurement is completed, it is a wise precaution to place the
probes into the voltage measurement ports and turn the range to maximum
voltage. So that if the meter probes are accidentally connected across a high
voltage point, there is a little chance of damage to the DMM.
Advantages of Digital Multimeter
 Cheap and easily available.
 Auto range according to requirements.
 Smaller size and light in weight.
 Auto off.
 Auto polarity, etc.

Phase-sequence indicator (Meter):-

We have three phase system and by convention we write three phases as

RYB. Phase sequence indicator is the indicator that determines the phase
sequence of the three phase supply system.
When we give conventional three phase supply (i.e. RYB) to the induction
motor, we see that the direction of the rotation of the rotor is in clockwise
direction.
Now what will happen to direction of rotation of rotor if the phase
sequence is reversed, the answer to this question is that the rotor will rotate
in the anticlockwise direction. Thus, we see that the direction of rotation of
rotor depends on the phase sequence. Let us study how these phase
instruments work and on what principle they work.
Now there are two types of phase sequence indicators and they are:
1. Rotating type
2. Static type.
Let us discuss one by one each type.

Rotating Type Phase Sequence Indicators

It works on the principle of induction motors. In this coils are connected in
star form and the supply is given from three terminal marked as RYB as
shown in the figure. When supply is given the coils produces the rotating
magnetic field and these rotating magnetic fields produces eddy emf in the
movable aluminium disc as shown in the diagram.

These eddy emf produces eddy current on the aluminium disc, eddy
currents interact with the rotating magnetic field due this a torque is
produced which causes the light aluminum disc to move. If the disc moves
in the clockwise direction then chosen sequence is RYB and if the direction
of rotation is in anticlockwise the sequence is reversed.
Static Type Phase Sequence Indicators
Given below is the arrangement of static type indicator:

When the phase sequence is RYB then the lamp B will glow brighter than
the lamp A and if the phase sequence is reversed then the lamp A will glow
brighter than the lamp B. Now let us see how this happens.
Here we assume that the phase sequence is RYB. Let us mark voltages as
Vry, Vyb and Vbr as per the diagram. We have

Here we have assumed balance operation such that we have Vry=Vbr=Vyb=V.

Since algebraic sum of all the phase currents is also equal, therefore we can
write

On solving the above equations we have ratio of Ir and Iy equals to 0.27.

It implies that the voltage across the lamp A is only 27 percent of that of
lamp B. Hence from this we can conclude that the lamp A will glow
dimmer in case of RYB phase sequence while in case of reversed phase
sequence we have lamp B is dimmer than lamp A.
There is another kind of phase indicator also that works similar to that of
the previous one. However here inductor is replaced by the capacitor as
shown in the diagram given below.
Two neon lamps are used, along with them two series resistor are also used
to limit the current and to protect the neon lamp from breakdown voltage.
In this indicator if the supply phase sequence is RYB then lamp A will glow
and lamp B will not glow and if the reversed sequence is applied then the
lamp A will not glow while lamp B will glow.

Frequency meter:-

Electric power systems comprise the networks of electrical components, which

supply, transfer, deploy the electric energy when required. Power Systems
can be classified into two types like AC power systems and DC power
systems.AC power system runs efficiently based on the frequency
parameter. This frequency parameter can be measured using a device
named frequency meter, which displays the value of the periodic electric
signal in frequency form on the display. There are 3 types of frequency
meters they are, electrical resonance frequency meter (like Ferro dynamic
type frequency meter, electrodynamometer type frequency meter), Weston
type frequency meter, and ratiometer type frequency meter. This article
explains about Weston type frequency meter.
What is a Weston Type Frequency Meter?

Definition: Weston type frequency meter is based on the principle of the

deflection, where the unknown value of the frequency of an input signal can
be determined using this meter. It consists of 2 main coils they are,
inductive coil and resistive coil. The current in these coils changes,
whenever the signal frequency deviates from known frequency.
Different Types of Frequency Meters
The different types of Frequency meters are

 Electrical resonance frequency meter

 Ratiometer type frequency meter
Electrical Resonance Frequency Meter

It is based on the principle of electrical resonance, that is when inductive

reactance XL and capacitive reactance XC becomes equal then the circuit
is said to be at electrical resonance.
Ratiometer Type Frequency Meter

It consists of a ratio meter, which shows the relationship between current

ration and their reflections. The main advantage of the radiometer type
frequency meter is that the deflected pointer and the measured frequency
exhibits a linear relationship. It can measure up to 5KHz.

Working Principle of Weston Type Frequency Meter

Weston type frequency meter works when the current is passed through 2
coils that are 90 degrees to one another. This flow of current generates
some magnetic field and thus deflecting the needle towards a higher
magnetic field. This needle indication is a representation of the unknown
frequency of the signal.
Construction
Weston type frequency meter construction is as follows

It consists of 2 coils inductive coil and resistive coil, which are the right
angle to one another. The 2 pairs, resistor RA, and coil A and inductor
LA and coil B pair are placed in series, other pairs, LA and coil A, and
RB, and coil B are placed parallelly.

Weston Frequency Meter

The meter consists of a soft pointer made up of iron and a magnetic needle
which is placed at the center. The inductor “L” connected is in series with
“LA and RB ” minimizes the errors.
Working of Weston Type Frequency Meter
 Case1: On applying current to the circuit, it flows through the 2
perpendicular coils, coil A & coil B. Thereby setting up the magnetic field,
where the field magnitude is directly proportional to its current in the coil.
 The coil A & coil B magnetic fields act on the magnetic needle as well as
on soft iron, where the position of the needle is based on the magnetic
fields, and the relative magnitude that acts on it.
 Case2: At the condition where the normal frequency is applied to the
meter, there will be a voltage drop in resistance and reactance, LA, and
RB of the same magnitude. This results in an equal flow of current
through the coils A and B.
 The circuit is designed in a proper manner that the voltage drop remains
the same across LA, LB RA, RB, whenever normal frequency is passed.
This allows the magnetic needle pointing at 45 degrees concerning, both
coils and soft iron needle pointing at the center.
 Case3: Whereas on passing high-frequency trough the circuit, there will
be an increase in reactance LA and LB of the coil, and the resistances on
another side RA, RB, remain the same. In other words, the inductance
increases the impedance of the coil A, and if the current magnitude in
coil A decreases, the field developed due to coil A current also
decreases.
 We can observe that more current follows in coil B than coil A, since coil
B is connected parallelly. Hence coil B has a stronger magnetic field
compared with coil A, and the pointer moves towards the strongest
magnetic field that is coil B.
 Finally, the frequency which is to be determined reduces from its normal
value, and the pointer indicates the value of unknown frequency towards
the left side.
Advantages
The following are the advantages

 Highly sensitive
 Construction is simple
 The frequency scale is linear
 Readings are independent of voltages
 It is suitable for measuring a wide range of voltage.
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Weston frequency meter

 Sensitive to temperature variation

 The presence of rectifiers results in distortion producing inaccurate
frequency output.
Applications
The following are the applications

 Used for testing radio equipment‟s

 Used for measuring transducers.
A frequency meter is a device that is used to measure the unknown
frequency of a given signal. There are 3 types of frequency meter they are,
electrical resonance frequency meter (like Ferro dynamic type frequency
meter, electrodynamometer type frequency meter), Weston type frequency
meter, and ratiometer type frequency meter. A Weston type frequency
meter is based on the principle of deflection. It consists of 2 coils, that are
resistive coil and inductive coil. The current in the coil‟s changes, whenever
the signal frequency deviates from standard frequency. The deflection of
the pointer will move towards a higher magnetic field. Weston type
frequency meter is suitable for measuring a wide range of voltages.

Digital Frequency Meter and Its

Working
An electric signal can be represented as a sinusoidal waveform, where
each wave has a positive edge and a negative edge. The basic parameters
for measuring the strength of the wave is amplitude and frequency, where
the amplitude is the maximum vibration taken from an equilibrium position
of a sinusoidal wave and frequency is the reciprocal of the time period.
Frequency can be measured using different types of frequency meters like
deflection type which can measure frequency in the range of lower
frequencies to 900Hz, Weston frequency meter which is usually not
deflection type, it can measure frequency in the range 10 to 100Hz, and the
advance frequency meter named digital frequency meter, which can
measure the approximate value of frequency in binary digit form up to 3
decimals and displays on the counter. The advantage of these kinds of
frequency meter is that they can measure the lower value of frequency.

What is Digital Frequency Meter?

Definition: A digital frequency meter is an electronic instrument that can

measure even the smaller value of frequency up to 3 decimals of a
sinusoidal wave and displays it on the counter display. It counts the
frequency periodically and can measure in the range of frequencies
between 104 to 109 hertz. The entire concept is based on the conversion of
sinusoidal voltage into continuous pulses ( 01, 1.0, 10 seconds) along a
single direction.
 frequency-wave

Construction of Digital Frequency Meter

The main components of digital frequency meter are

Unknown Frequency Source: It is used to measure the unknown value of

input signal frequency.
Amplifier: It amplifies low-level signals to high-level signals.
Schmitt Trigger: The main purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to convert the
analog signal into a digital signal in a pulse train form. It is also known
as ADC and basically acts as a comparator circuit.

And Gate: The generated output from AND gate is obtained only when the
inputs exist at the gate. One of the terminals of the AND gate is connected
to Schmitt Trigger output, and another terminal is connected to a flipflop.

block-diagram
Counter: It operates based on the clock period, which starts from “0”. One
input is taken from the output of the AND gate. The counter is constructed
by cascading many flip flops.
Crystal Oscillator: When a DC supply is given to a crystal oscillator (frequency
of 1MHz) it generates a sinusoidal wave.
Time-Based Selector: Depending on reference the time period of signals can
be varied. It consists of a clock oscillator which gives an accurate value.
The clock oscillator output is given as input to Schmitt trigger which
converts sinusoidal wave into a series of a square wave of the same
frequency. These continuous pulses are sent to frequency divider decade
which is in series that are connected one after the another, where each
divider decade consists of a counter decade and the frequency is divided by
10. Each decade frequency divider provides respective output using a
selector switch.
Flip Flop: It provides output based on input.
Working Principle
When an unknown frequency signal is applied to the meter it passes on
to amplifier which amplifies the weak signal. Now the amplified signal is now
applied to Schmitt trigger which can convert input sinusoidal signal into
a square wave. The oscillator also generates sinusoidal waves at periodic
intervals of time, which is fed to Schmitt trigger. This trigger converts sin
wave into a square wave, which is in the form of continuous pulses, where
one pulse is equal to one positive and one negative value of a single signal
cycle.
The first pulse which is generated is given as input to the gate control flip
flop turning ON AND gate. The output from this AND gate count decimal
value. Similarly, when the second pulse arrives, it disconnects AND gate,
and when the third pulse arrives the AND gate turns ON and the
corresponding continuous pulses for a precise time interval which is the
decimal value is displayed on the counter display.

Formula

The frequency of the unknown signal can be calculated by the following

formula

F = N / t …………………..(1)
Where

F =frequency of the unknown signal

N = Number of counts displayed by the counter

t = time interval between the start-stop of the gate.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of digital frequency meter

 Good frequency response

 High sensitivity
 The production cost is low.
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages

 It does not measure the exact value.

Digital Frequency Meter Applications
The following are the applications

 The equipment‟s like radio can be tested using a digital frequency meter
 It can measure parameters like pressure, strength, vibrations, etc.

Power Factor Meter

Definition: The power factor meter measures the power factor of
a transmission system. The power factor is the cosine of the angle
between the voltage and current. The power factor meter determines
the types of load using on the line, and it also calculates the
losses occur on it.

The power factor of the transmission line is measured by dividing the

product of voltage and current with the power. And the value of voltage
current and power is easily determined by the voltmeter, ammeter and
wattmeter respectively. This method gives high accuracy, but it takes
time.

The power factor of the transmission line is continuously changed with

time. Hence it is essential to take the quick reading. The power factor
meter takes a direct reading, but it is less accurate. The reading
obtained from the power factor meter is sufficient for many purposes to
expect precision testing.

The power factor meter has the moving system called pointer which is in
equilibrium with the two opposing forces. Thus, the pointer of the power
factor meter remains at the same position which is occupied by it at the
time of disconnection.

Types of Power Factor Meter

The power factor meter is of two types. They are

1. Electrodynamometer
 Single Phase Electrodynammeter
 Three Phases Electrodynamometer
2. Moving Iron Type Meter
 Rotating Iron Magnetic Field
 Number of Alternating Field

The different types of power factor meter are explained below in details.

Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter

The construction of the single phase electrodynamometer is shown in

the figure below. The meter has fixed coil which acts as a current coil.
This coil is split into two parts and carry the current under test. The
magnetic field of the coil is directly proportional to the current flow
through the coil.

The meter has two identical pressure coils A and B. Both the coils are
pivoted on the spindle. The pressure coil A has no inductive resistance
connected in series with the circuit, and the coil B has highly inductive
coil connected in series with the circuit.
 The current in
the coil A is in phase with the circuit while the current in the coil B lag by
the voltage nearly equal to 90º. The connection of the moving coil is
made through silver or gold ligaments which minimize the controlling
torque of the moving system.

The meter has two deflecting torque one acting on the coil A, and the
other is on coil B. The windings are so arranged that they are opposite in
directions. The pointer is in equilibrium when the torques are equal.

Deflecting torque acting on the coil A is given as

θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference.
Mmax – maximum value of mutual inductance between the coils.

The deflecting torque acting on coil B is expressed as

The deflecting torque is acting on the

clockwise direction.
The value of maximum mutual inductance is same between both the
deflecting equations.

This torque acts on anti-

clockwise direction. The above equation shows that the deflecting torque
is equal to the phase angle of the circuit.

Three Phase Electrodynometer Power Factor Meter

The construction of the three phase meter is shown in the figure below.
The electrodynamometer is only useful for the balanced load. The
moving coil is placed at an angle of 120º. They are connected across
different phases of the supply circuit. Both the coil has a series
resistance.

The voltage
across the coil A is V12 and the current across it IA1. The circuit of the coil
is resistive, and hence the current and voltage are in phase with each
other. Similarly, the voltage V13 and the current IB1 is in phase with each
other.

The phasor diagram of the three phase electrodynamic meter is shown

in the figure below. Let Φ –

phase angle of the circuit.
θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference.

Torque acting on coil A is

Torque acting on coil

B is The torque
TA and TB are acting on the opposite directions.

Thus the
angular deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the phase angle of
the circuit.

Moving Iron Power Factor Meter

The moving iron instrument is divided into two categories. They are the
rotating magnetic field to some alternating fields.

A. Rotating Field Power factor Meter – The following are the essential
feature of the rotating magnetic field. The power factor meter has three
fixed coils, and their axes are 120º displaced from each other. The axes
are intersecting each other. The coils are connected to the three phase
supply with the help of the current transformer.

The P is the fixed coil

connected in series with the high resistance circuit across the phases 2
and 3. There is an iron cylinder across coil P. The two iron vanes are
fixed to the cylinder. The spindles also carry damping vanes and pointer.
The phasor diagram of the power factor meter is shown in the figure.

The total torque

of the meter is zero for steady state deflection.

The coil P and the iron cylinders generate the alternating flux which
interacts with the flux of the fixed coils. The interaction of the coil
generates the moving system which determined the phase angle of the
current. The vanes of the power factor meter are magnetized by the
current of the moving coil which is in phase with the system line voltage.

Advantages of Moving Iron power Power Factor

1. The meter requires large working force as compared to the

electrodynamometer type meter.
2. The coils of the moving iron instruments are fixed permanently.
3. The range of the scale extends up to 360º.
4. The construction of the meter is robust and simple.
 5. The moving iron instrument is cheap as compared to electrodynamic
meter.
Disadvantages of moving iron instrument

1. The loss occurs in the iron part of the meter. The losses depend on
the load and the frequency of the meter.
2. The meter has low accuracy.
3. The calibration of the meter is affected because of the variation in
supply frequencies, voltage and waveforms etc.
The power factor meter is used for measuring the power factor of the
balanced load.
Digital Power Factor Meter :- Digital power factor meter: The Fig 1 Shows the block diagram of
digital power factor meter.

The power factor meter is used to calculate the present power factor of the system. The power
factor is corrected using the true power technique. The power factor value so obtained is
communicated to the microcontroller via the pins TX and RX.

The program fed to the microcontroller then analyses the power factor. The power factor gets
displayed on the 7 segment display connected to the microcontroller. If the power factor is above
the pre-set value, then no action in microcontroller and the relays will remain in their normal
positions of NO and NC.

Once the power factor lowers to a value below the pre-set mark, the signal is sent to relay card The
relay card consists of relays along with LED’s for detecting the operation of relays. The input to
relays is sent via an opto-coupler and then through a current amplifier before it reaches the relay.
The particular relay operates and connects the respective capacitor bank to it. The operates and
connects the respective capacitor bank to it.
The operation of relay is detected by the LED thereby leading to emission of light from the LED The
microcontroller has been programmed in such a way that out of the three relays, it will make the
relay or combination of relays in such a way that the capacitor banks are included which correct the
power factor in the best possible way to the best possible value. The capacitor banks are preset as C,
C/2 and C/4, which have been created using series combinations of capacitors of value C.

Measurement of 3 phase power by single and two wattmeters:-

Single Wattmeter Method: The single wattmeter method is used to

measure three-phase power in a balanced system. In this method, a
single wattmeter with two elements is used to measure the total
three-phase power of the system. The two elements of the
wattmeter are connected in series with each phase and neutral wire
of the 3-phase system.

Two Wattmeter Method: The two wattmeters method can also be

used to measure 3-phase power in a balanced system. This method
requires two wattmeters, each connected across two phases of the
3-phase system. Each element of one watt meter is connected in
series between each 2 phases and neutral wire while each element
of second one is connected across remaining 2 phases and neutral
wire for measurement purpose.
Self-evaluation test :-

1 Draw a general wiring diagram for the two-wattmeter method of three-phase power
measurement.

2 Why is it desirable, in practice, to use the two-wattmeter method? (Fig 3)

Self-evaluation test 1 Draw a general wiring diagram for the two-wattmeter method of three-phase
power measurement. 2 Why is it desirable, in practice, to use the two-wattme ter method? (Fig 3)

3 Why can the two-wattmeter method not be used in a three-phase, four-wire system with random
loading?

4 Which of the above circuits is used for the two wattmeter method of power measurement?

Power factor calculation in the two -wattmeter of measuring power :-

As you have learnt in the previous lesson, the total power PT= P1 + P2 in the two-wattmeter method
of measuring power in a 3-phase, 3-wire system. From the readings obtained from the two
wattmeters, the tan φ can be calculated from the given formula
Tong - tester (clamp - on ammeter):-

It is a device used for the measurement of currents, without interrupting the circuit
itself. It can measure both AC and DC currents flowing through the wire. It even
distinguishes the direction of current flowing in a particular circuit. If we clamp the
leads in the opposite way, then it will be shown a negative symbol before the
magnitude of the circuit on the display.

Clamp Meter

Meters measuring AC and DC are different from each other. The meter can measure
current up to various levels. It can even measure the current of milliampere range.
The meter comes with an even high resolution of 0.1 mA. In terms of accuracy, a
clamp meter is slightly less accurate than the conventional multimeter.

Clamp Meter Construction

The meter diagram is shown above. As indicated, 1 indicates the clamps which are
used to put on the wire. Also called as leads, when kept around the wires, it indicates
the current flowing in the particular wire. 2. Acts as support to 1. The windings are
placed in 2. 3 represent the clamps push-type hinge, when pressed the clamps will
be opened.
When the current is needed to be measured, the first 3 is pressed, the clamps or
leads are opened, they are kept around the wire in which the current to measured is
flowing, and then the magnitude of current appears on 4. 4 is four display.

Clamp Meter Diagram

Generally, it‟s a LED display with up to 4 digits accuracy. 5 is the mode in which the
clamp meter needs to be set. If we want to measure, AC or DC current, that setting
can be done at 5. Some clamp meters even have external leads and they can be
also used to measure current by interrupting the circuit. But by using the clamps, we
need not interrupt the circuit.

Clamp Meter Principle

To measure the required current, the wire in which the current is flowing acts as the
primary winding. When the primary winding is placed near to the core, it induces
emf, and secondary emf is obtained on the secondary side. Now to measure the
current, a small amount of shunt resistance is used in the secondary.

The current which is to be measured is allowed to flow through the shunt resistance.
And a voltage drop appears on the shunt winding resistance. By knowing the value
of shunt resistance and by knowing the value of the drop, the current flowing through
the shunt resistance can easily be known by using Ohms Law. Generally, the value
of shunt resistance is very low as compared to the value of meter resistance.

AC Clamp Meter

An AC meter is used to measure the AC currents. Whenever the AC current flowing

through the wires is placed in between the clamps, the current is measured and its
value is displayed. AC clamp meter working is discussed below.
Clamp Meter Working

The working of AC meter is fundamentally the faraday‟s law of electromagnetic

induction. Whenever there is a relative displacement between the coil and magnetic
field, an emf is induced in the coil. For the generator, the relative displacement is
because the conductors are moving and the coil is constant. But in the case of
transformers, induction motors, and meters, the relative displacement is due to the
alternating nature of current flowing in the circuit.

The clamps of the clamp meter, act as the core of the transformer. The current in the
primary winding is the current that is to be measured or the current flowing in the
leads. When the current in the primary winding is kept near to the core, i.e. clamps,
the flux passes through the core and induces an emf in the secondary winding. The
secondary winding of the clamp is placed inside the core. It is shown by point 2 in
the clamp meter diagram.

So the measured current to be measured is displayed. It can be noted that the

current which is to be measured, form only one turn of the primary winding. The rest
turns would be found on the secondary winding. Since we need not step up or down
the current, the required turns on secondary would be one.

DC Clamp Meter

A DC clamp meter is used to measure the DC currents. Whenever the DC current

flowing through the wires is placed in between the clamps, the current is measured
and its value is displayed.

DC Clamp Meter Working

The working of DC meter is different than AC meter. In the DC meter, the

electromagnetic induction principle will now work. Since the current is static in
nature, and the coil is also static in nature, so there is no relative displacement
between the coil and the magnetic field. Therefore the no emf would be induced on
the secondary winding. But since the primary winding consists of current, a primary
emf of static in nature is induced in the primary core.
A constant magnetic field is present in the core. This constant magnetic field is
measured by using Hall effect sensors. A hall effect probe is connected at the
secondary winding of the core. This hall effect based probe measures the static or
constant magnetic field present in the core. And based on the magnitude of static
emf, it measures the current. Hence this way, the DC meter can measure both AC
and DC currents.

Clamp Meter Specifications

The meter specifications generally involve how much current it can measure in both
AC and DC mode. Generally, it can measure up to 100 A at the higher end, and it
can measure milliamperes at the lower end. Voltage specifications are generally 230
V, and power ratings depend on the current to be measured.

Application :-1 For measuring the incoming current in the main panel board. 2 Primary current of AC
welding generators. 3 Secondary current of AC welding generators. 4 Newly rewinded AC motor
phase current and line current. 5 Starting current of all AC machines. 6 Load current of all AC
machines and cables. 7 For measuring the unbalanced or balanced loads. 8 For finding the faults in
AC, 3-phase induction motors.

Precaution : 1 Set the ampere range from higher to low if the measuring value is not known. 2 The
ampere-range switch should not be changed when the clamp is closed. 3 Before taking any
measurement make sure the indication is at zero on the scale. 4 Do not clamp on a bare conductor
for current measurement. 5 Seating of the core should be perfect

Extension of range of MC voltmeters - loading effect - voltage drop effect :-

There is no fundamental difference in the operating principles of ammeters

and voltmeters. Both are current operated devices (except electrostatic
type voltmeters) i.e. deflecting torque is produced when current flows
through their operating coils.

In an ammeter, the deflecting torque is produced by the current to be

measured or by a definite fraction of it whereas in a voltmeter torque is
produced by the current proportional to the voltage to be measured.

Thus, the real difference between the two instruments is in the

magnitude of the currents producing the deflecting torque. The
essential requirements of a measuring instrument are that its introduction
into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does not alter the
circuit conditions and the power consumed by them for their operation is
small.

An ammeter is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be

measured. Therefore, it should have a low resistance. On the other hand, a
voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be
measured; therefore, it must have high resistance.
Thus we conclude that the difference is only in the resistance of the
instrument, in fact, an ammeter can be converted into voltmeter by
connecting a high resistance in series with it.

It is already seen that the moving coil instruments can carry the maximum
current of about 50 mA safely and the potential drop across the moving coil
instrument is about 50 mV. However, in practice, heavy currents and
voltages are required to be measured. Therefore, it becomes necessary
that the current and voltage being measured be reduced and brought within
the range of the instrument.

There are four common devices used for the range extension of ammeter
and voltmeter namely; shunts, multipliers and current and potential
transformers.

The shunts and multipliers are used to extend the range of moving coil
ammeters and voltmeters respectively.

Whereas in the case of moving iron ammeters, for the ranges up to 0 – 250 A,
shunts are used and for the ranges higher than that, CTs are used.

And also, in the case of moving iron voltmeters, for the ranges up to 0 – 750
V, multipliers are used and for the ranges higher than that, PTs are used.
Range Extension of Ammeter by Shunt

It is possible to extend the range of an ammeter by using a shunt. A shunt

is a low-value resistance having minimum temperature co-efficient and is
connected in parallel with the ammeter whose range is to be extended. The
combination is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be
measured.

This shunt provides a bypath for extra current because it is connected

across (i.e. in parallel with) the instrument.

These shunted instruments can be used to measure currents many times

greater than their normal full-scale deflection currents.

The ratio of maximum current (with shunt) to the full-scale deflection

current (without shunt) is known as the „multiplying power‟ or „multiplying
factor‟ of the shunt.

Emample: A moving coil ammeter reading up to 1 ampere has a resistance

of 0.02 ohm. How could this instrument be adopted to read current up to
100 amperes.

Solution: In this case,

Full-scale deflection current of the ammeter, Im = 1 A
Line current to be measured, I = 100 A
Resistance of ammeter, Rm = 0.02 ohm
Let, the required shunt resistance = S

As seen from Figure, the voltage across the instrument coil and the shunt
resistance is the same since
both are joined in parallel.

∴ Im*Rm = S*Is = S(I − Im)

or S = Im*Rm/(I – Im)

= 1*0.02/(100 – 1) = 0.02/99 = 0.000202 Ans.

Range Extension of Voltmeter by Multipliers

Multipliers are used for the range extension of voltmeters. The multiplier
is a non-inductive high-value resistance connected in series with the
instrument whose range is to be extended. The combination is connected
across the circuit whose voltage is to be measured.

Example: A moving coil voltmeter reading up to 20 mV has a resistance of

2 ohms. How this instrument can be adopted to read voltage up to 300
volts.

Solution: In this case,

Voltmeter resistance, Rm = 2 ohm
Full-scale voltage of the voltmeter, ν = RmIm = 20 mV = 0.02 V
Full-scale deflection current, Im = v/Rm = 0.02/2 = 0.01 A
Voltage to be measured, V = 300 V
Let the series resistance required =R

Then as seen from figure, the voltage drop across R is V – ν

R *Im = V – ν

or R = (V – v)/Im

or R = (300 – 0.02)/0.01 = 299.98/0.01 = 29998 ohms Ans.

Shunts can not be used to extend the range of moving-iron AC

ammeters accurately. It is because the division of current between the
operating coil and the shunt varies with frequency (since reactance of the
coil depends upon frequency). In practice, the range of moving-iron AC
ammeters are extended by one of following methods:
Range Extension of Ammeter by Coil Turns

By changing the number of turns of the operating coil. For example, suppose that full-scale
deflection is obtained with 400 ampere-turns. For full-scale reading with 100A, the number of turns
required would be = 400 / 100 = 4. Similarly, for full-scale reading with 50A, the number of turns
required in = 400/50 = 8.

Thus the ammeter can be arranged to have different ranges by merely having a different number of
turns on the coil. Since the coil carries the whole of the current to be measured, it has a few turns of
thick wire. The usual ranges obtained by this method are from 0 -250 A.

Range Extension of Ammeter by Current Transformer

For ranges above 0 – 250 A, a current transformer is used in conjunction

with 0 – 5 A moving iron AC ammeter as shown in the figure. The current
transformer is a step up transformer i.e. number of secondary turns is more
than the primary turns.

Usually, the primary winding of the transformer contains a single turn or at

the most a few turns. The primary of this transformer is connected in series
with the load and carries the load current. The AC ammeter is connected
across the secondary of the transformer.

Since in figure, the current transformer ratio is 10:1, it means that line (or
load) current is equal to 10 times the reading on the AC meter. Therefore,
load current, IL = 3 x 10 = 30 A.

Range Extension of Voltmeter by Potential Transformer

The range of a moving-iron AC voltmeter is extended by connecting a

high resistance (multiplier) in series with it.

For ranges higher than 0 – 750 V, where power wasted in the multiplier
would be excessive, a 0 – 110 V moving-iron AC voltmeter is used in
conjunction with a potential transformer as shown in the figure.

The potential transformer is a step-down transformer i.e. number of primary

turns is more than the secondary turns. The primary of the transformer is
connected across the load across which voltage is to be measured. The AC
voltmeter is connected across the secondary.

Since in figure, the potential transformer ratio is 20:1, the load voltage is
equal to 20 times the reading on the AC voltmeter.
Load voltage, VL = 100 x 20 = 2000 V

Note that both secondaries of the instrument transformers are grounded as

a safety measure.

Calibration of MI Ammeter and Voltmeter :-

Calibration of a MI ammeter and voltmeter can be done by using a

multimeter or other reference meter. You will need to take readings
from both meters while they are in series with the reference meter,
then compare the results to ensure that they are producing accurate
readings. If there is a difference between the readings, you may
need to adjust the sensitivity of one or both meters before retaking
measurements. Additionally, you may need to perform additional
tests such as checking for linearity and accuracy of response times if
necessary.
The calibration is the process of checking the accuracy of the result by
comparing it with the standard value. In other words, calibration checks
the correctness of the instrument by comparing it with the reference
standard. It helps us in determining the error occur in the reading and
adjusts the voltages for getting the ideal reading.

Calibration of Voltmeter

The circuit for the calibration of the voltmeter is shown in the figure
below.
The circuit requires two rheostats, one for controlling the voltage and
another for adjustment. The voltage ratio box is used to step-down the
voltage to a suitable value. The accurate value of the voltmeter is
determined by measuring the value of the voltage to the maximum
possible range of the potentiometer.

The potentiometer measures the maximum possible value of voltages.

The negative and positive error occurs in the readings of the voltmeter if
the readings of the potentiometer and the voltmeter are not equal.

Calibration of Ammeter

The figure below shows the circuit for the calibration of the ammeter.

The standard resistance is connected in series with the ammeter which

is to be calibrated. The potentiometer is used for measuring the voltage
across the standard resistor. The below mention formula determines the

current through the standard resistance.

Where,
Vs – voltage across the standard resistor as indicated by the
potentiometer.
S – resistance of standard resistor

This method of calibration of the ammeter is very accurate because in

this method the value of standard resistance and the voltage across the
potentiometer is exactly known by the instrument.

Loading Effect of Voltmeter :

The loading effect of a dc voltmeter refers to the phenomenon in which a
negative error is produced in the voltmeter reading (measured voltage), due to
the low internal resistance (i.e., low sensitivity of the voltmeter).

Sensitivity is the main factor in selecting the voltmeters for measuring the
voltages of the desired range. If the sensitivity of the voltmeter is low, then the
voltmeter gives accurate readings for a low resistance circuit and inaccurate
and unreliable readings for a high resistance circuit, which is known as loading
effect.

Let us consider two circuits, in which voltmeter connected across the

resistance.

In the figure shown above, the resistance of the voltmeter is considered to

be 50 kΩ and the resistance across which voltage is to be measured is low
compared to the resistance of the voltmeter i.e., 500 Ω. As current flows
 through the path of low resistance, maximum of the current flows through the
low resistance and only a part of the current flows through the resistance of
the voltmeter. Hence, the voltmeter gives the true value of the reading.

In the figure shown above, the resistance of the voltmeter is 50 kΩ and the
resistance across which the voltage is to be measured is very high i.e., 8O kΩ.
In this circuit, most of the current flows through the voltmeter, and less current
flows through the resistance across which the voltage has to be measured.

This is because the current always chooses a low resistance path

(voltmeter path). Due to this the voltage drop across the resistor will be less
when compared to the actual voltage drop before the voltmeter has
connected. Hence the voltmeter shows a value that is lower than the true
value of the reading.

From the above, if a voltmeter having a low sensitivity is used to measure the
voltage,

 For low resistance circuits, it provides correct readings.

 For high resistance circuits, the voltmeter acts as a shunt for that portion
of the circuit, and hence, the equivalent resistance of that portion
decreases. As a result, the voltmeter indicates a voltage value lower than
the actual voltage. This effect is known as the loading effect of the
voltmeter.
To avoid the loading effect, a voltmeter of high sensitivity should be used
or it can be eliminated to some extent by using a voltmeter with a very high
resistance when compared to that of the resistance in the circuit.