UNIT

3
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a physical quantity. The
instruments, measuring the various electrical quantities like current, voltage, power,
energy & frequency are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter(kWh meter) and
frequency meter.

1. CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Measuring Instruments

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instruments

Indicating Recording Indicating

Instruments Instruments Instruments

1.1 ABSOLUTE INSTRUMENTS

These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity under measurement in terms

of physical constants of the instrument e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These instruments
do not require comparison with any other standard instrument.

 These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of absolute
quantities (or some constants) of the instruments and their deflections.
 In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other instruments
is necessary.
 They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in practice by
electricians and engineers. They are mostly used as means of standard
measurements and are maintained lay national laboratories and similar
institutions.
 Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:
Tangent galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, Absolute electrometer etc.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

1.2 SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
determined by the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated
by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument, which
has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Working with absolute instruments for routine work is time consuming since every
time a measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute the magnitude of
quantity under measurement. Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly
used.
 They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by these
instruments can be determined from the deflection of the instruments.
 They are often calibrated by comparing them with either some absolute
instruments or with those which have already been calibrated.
 The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be meaningless untill
it is not calibrated.
 These instruments are used in general for all laboratory purposes.
 Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters, voltmeter,
wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour meters etc.

1.2.1 INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be measured by means of a
pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

1.2.2 RECORDING INSTRUMENTS

These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with
respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a
permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. The
recording is generally made by a pen on a graph paper which is rotated on a dice or
drum at a uniform speed. The amount of the quantity at any time (instant) may be read
from the traced chart. Any variation in the quantity with time is recorded by these
instruments. Any electrical quantity like current, voltage, power etc., (which may be
measured lay the indicating instruments) may be arranged to be recorded by a suitable
recording mechanism.

1.2.3 INTEGRATING INSTRUMENTS

These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy
etc., during a particular period of time. That is, these instruments totalize events over a
specified period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a
particular instant are available from them. Some widely used integrating instruments
are: Ampere-hour meter: kilowatthour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour(kVARh)
meter.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

2. ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments, the following torques
are required:
 Deflecting (or operating) torque
 Controlling (or restoring) torque
 Damping torque

2.1 DEFLECTING TORQUE (Td)

One important requirement in indicating instruments is the arrangement for producing
operating or deflecting torque (Td) when the instrument is connected in the circuit to
measure the given electrical quantity.

This is achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage. The
deflecting torque causes the moving system to move from its zero position. The
deflecting torque is produced by utilizing one or more of the following effects of
current or voltage.

Magnetic effect ——————————- Moving-iron instruments.

Electrodynamic effect ———————- Moving coil instruments
Electromagnetic induction effect ———Induction type instruments.
Thermal effect ———————————Hot-wire instruments.
Chemical effect ——————————–Electrolytic instruments.
Electrostatic effect —————————-Electrostatic voltmeters

The table below gives information about the electrical measuring instruments in which
deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the first three effects.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

2.2 CONTROLLING TORQUE (TC)

The controlling torque (Tc) opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the
deflection of the moving system. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the two
opposing torques are equal i.e. Td = Tc. The controlling torque performs two
functions.

Controlling torque increases with the deflection of the moving system so that the final
position of the pointer on the scale will be according to the magnitude of an electrical
quantity (i.e. current or voltage or power) to be measured.

Controlling torque brings the pointer back to zero when the deflecting torque is
removed. If it were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero
position on removing the deflecting torque. The controlling torque in indicating
instruments may be provided by one of the following two methods:

1. Spring control.
2. Gravity control.
2.2.1 SPRING CONTROL METHOD

This is the most common method of providing controlling torque, in electrical

instruments. A spiral hairspring made of some non-magnetic material like phosphor
bronze is attached to the moving system of the instrument as shown in the figure.

Springs also serve the additional purpose of leading current to the moving system (i.e.
operating coil). With that deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite
direction. This twist in the spring provides the controlling torque.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

Since the torsion torque of a spiral spring is proportional to the angle of twist, the
controlling torque (Tc ) is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of pointer (θ)
i.e. Tc α θ. The pointer will come to rest at a position where controlling torque is
equal to the deflecting torque i.e. Td=Tc.

In an instrument where the deflecting torque is uniform, spring control provides a

uniform scale over the whole range. The balance weight is attached to counterbalance
the weight of the pointer and other moving parts.

2.2.2 GRAVITY CONTROL METHOD

In this method, a small weight is attached to the moving system, which provides
necessary controlling torque. In the zero position of the pointer, the control weight
hangs vertically downward and therefore provides no controlling torque.

However, under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves from zero position
and control weight moves in opposite direction. Due to gravity, the control weight
would tend to come in original position (i.e. vertical) and thus provides an opposing or
controlling torque. The pointer comes to rest at a position where controlling torque is
equal to the deflecting torque. In this method, controlling torque (Tc) is proportional
to the sin of angle of deflection (θ) i.e. Tc α sin θ.

Because in this method controlling torque (Tc) is not directly proportional to the angle
of deflection (θ) but it is proportional to sin θ therefore, gravity control instruments
have non-uniform scales; being crowded in beginning.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

2.3 DAMPING TORQUE

A damping torque is produced by a damping or stopping force which acts on the

moving system only when it is moving and always opposes its motion. Such a torque
is necessary to bring the pointer to rest quickly. If there is no damping torque, then
the pointer will keep moving to and fro about its final deflected position for some time
before coming to rest, due to the inertia of the moving system.

This damping torque acts only when the pointer is in motion and always opposes the
motion. The position of the pointer when stationary is, therefore, not affected
by damping torque. The degree of damping decides the behaviour of the moving
system.

If the instrument is under-damped, the pointer will oscillate about the final position for
some time before coming to rest. On the other hand, if the instrument is over damped,
the pointer will become slow and lethargic.

However, if the degree of damping is adjusted to such a value that the pointer comes
up to the correct reading quickly without oscillating about it, the instrument is said to
be critically damped. The damping torque in indicating instruments can be provided
by:

1. Air friction damping

2. Fluid friction damping
3. Eddy current damping
2.3.1 AIR FRICTION DAMPING
Arrangements of air friction damping are shown in fig. (a) and fig. (b). In the
arrangement shown in fig (a), a light aluminium piston is attached to the spindle that
carries the pointer and moves with a very little clearance in a rectangular or circular
air chamber closed at one end.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

The cushioning action of the air on the piston damps out any tendency of the pointer
to oscillate about the final deflected position. This method is not preferred these days
and the one shown in fig. (b) is preferred.

In this method, one or two light aluminium vanes are attached to the same spindle that
carries the pointer. As the pointer moves, the vanes swing and compress the air. The
pressure of compressed air on the vanes provides the necessary damping force to
reduce the tendency of the pointer to oscillate.

2.3.2 FLUID FRICTION DAMPING

In this method, discs or vanes attached to the spindle of the moving system are kept
immersed in a pot containing oil of high viscosity. As the pointer moves, the friction
between the oil and vanes opposes the motion of the pointer and thus necessary
damping is provided.

The fluid friction damping method is not suitable for portable instruments because of
the oil contained in the instrument. In general, fluid friction damping is not employed
in indicating instrument, although one can find its use in Kelvin electrostatic
voltmeter.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta

2.3.3 EDDY CURRENT DAMPING

Two methods of eddy current damping are generally used. In the first method, as
shown in the figure, a thin aluminium or copper disc is attached to the moving system
is allowed to pass between the poles of a permanent magnet. As the pointer moves, the
disc cuts across the magnetic field and eddy currents are induced in the disc.

These eddy currents react with the field of the magnet to produce a force which
opposes the motion according to Lenz’s Law. In this way, eddy current
damping torque reduces the oscillations of the pointer.

In the second method, the coil which produces the deflecting torque is wound on
aluminium former. As coil moves in the field of the instrument, eddy currents are
induced in the aluminium former to provide the necessary damping torque.

Measuring Instruments by Shivam Gupta