Measuring Instruments
Electromagnetism to get into how we measure the different metrics and units
of electronic circuits, where electrical measuring instruments or devices come
into play. If you don't know about those metrics already this post will not make
so much sense and so I suggest you to know about: electric current, potential
(voltage), capacitance, resistance, power etc. already.
What are electrical measuring instruments?
Electrical measuring instruments are devices used for measuring electrical
aspects and quantities such as current, voltage, resistance and power. It's
important to measure them to determine if the electrical system has faults or
not. For example when having problems with electornic equipment we can
detect the problem using some instrument which is called a meter and
afterwards fix it.
Such devices have the following three functions:
1. Indicating Function -> They provide information about the quantity they
are measuring.
2. Recording Function -> They output/record what they measure.
3. Controlling Function -> They control processes.
And also have some characteristics which are static or dynamic:
Static characteristics are the accurancy, sensitivity and reproducibility.
Dynamic characteristics are related to rapidly changing quantities and so
are about the dynamic relations of the input and output.
What types do we have?
We can split them up based on their usage which can be:
1. Detecting and indicating instruments (ammeter, galvanometer,
voltmeter etc.)
2. Recorders (continuous line recorder, dotted line recorder, event
recorder etc.)
3. Transducers (voltage transducer, current transducer, active power
transducer etc.)
4. Stabilized power supplies (constant voltage/current power supply)
5. Oscilloscopes (measuring oscilloscope, observation oscilloscope etc.)
6. Energy meters (watt-hour meter, var-hour meter, static meter etc.)
7. Signal generators (amplitude or frequency modulated signal generator)
8. Measuring bridges (Wheatstone, Thompson and transformer bridge)
9. Accessories (series resistor, series capacitor, instrument lead, probe
etc.)
And we can also split them out depending on if they are:
Absolute (or Primary) instruments -> Which give us the
magnitude/value of the quantity without the need of any other
instrument for comparison.
Secondary instruments -> Which have a deflection in the magnitude and
need to be calibrated and so their measurements have to be compared
with another standard intrument before using them.
Another way is depending on how they produce the results:
Deflection type -> Such an instrument has a pointer which deflects from
its initial position and the actual deflection is the value of the quantity
measured.
Null type -> Such an instrument has a stationary pointer and maintains
this position using a restorance force which can then be translated into
the quantity.
Let's get into what exactly some of they are doing:
Ammeter (Ampermeter) -> Measures current
Capacitance meter -> Measures the capacitance of a component
Cos Phi meter -> Measures the power factor
Electricity meter -> Measures the energy dissipation
ESR meter -> Measures the equivalent series resistance of capacitors
LCR meter -> Measures the inductance, capacitance and resistance of a
component
Ohmmeter -> Measures the resistance of a component
Oscilloscope -> Displays waveform of a signal, allows measurement of
frequency, timing, peak excursion, offset, ...
Signal generator -> Generates signals for testing purposes
Wattmeter -> Measures the power consumption
Voltmeter -> Measures the potential difference between two points in a
circuit
Torque in indicating Instrument (Deflecting, Controlling and Damping)
For satisfactory operation of an indicating instrument three forces/ Torque are
essentially required, these are as follows.
Deflecting Force
Controlling Force
Damping Force.
Deflecting force or Deflecting Torque:
This torque produce the required amount of force in the pointer to move from
its `zero’ position, when the instrument is connected to the supply.
To obtain this force in an instrument, different effects of electric current use
such as magnetic effect, heating effect, chemical effect etc.
Without deflecting torque pointer of an instrument cannot be move for any
value.
Controlling force or Controlling Torque:
Controlling torque is essential to control the movement of the pointer and to
ensure that the magnitude of the deflection of the pointer is always the same
as given value of the quantity to be measured.
The controlling force is always acts in opposite direction to the deflecting
force. And also return the pointer to its initial zero position when the
instrument is disconnected from the supply.
The controlling force could be produced by any one of the following method.
Gravity control
Spring control
Gravity control:
In this method, small adjustable weights are attached to the opposite
extension of
the pointer as shown in figure.
When the instrument is disconnected from the supply, the control weight and
the balance weight attached to the opposite end of the pointer make the
pointer to be at zero position.
When the instrument is connected to the supply, the pointer moves in a
clockwise direction, thereby displacing the weights shown in figure.
Due to the gravitational pull, the weights will try to come back to its original
position.
Spring control:
The most common arrangement of two spring control utilizes. Which is made
up of phosphor-bronze or beryllium copper spiral hair-springs A and B, the
inner ends of which are attached to the spindle.
Both springs A and B are wound in opposite directions so that when pointer is
deflecting, one spring winds up while the other unwinds. Therefore the
controlling force is produce due to the combined torsions of the springs.
Essential property of springs are:
can be wound or unwound several times without losing the tension
called High resistance to fatigue.
should not get affected by external magnetism it is Non-magnetic
properties.
Low temperature coefficient (do not elongate due to temperature)
Low specific resistance
Spring controlled instruments have the following advantages over the gravity
controlled instruments.
The instruments can be used in any position
Control springs help in leading in and out the current to the moving
coil of the instruments.
Damping force or Damping Torque:
This force is necessary to bring the pointer to rest in its final deflected position
quickly. Without such damping, the combination of deflecting torque and
controlling torque makes the pointer to oscillate about its final deflected
position for some time. It resulting in a waste of time while taking the reading.
Moving Iron Instrument
https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/2017/01/moving-iron-
instruments.html
Moving Coil Instrument Working Principle
https://www.yourelectricalguide.com/2017/01/moving-coil-instrument-
working-principle.html
What is Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instrument?
Definition: The instruments which use the permanent magnet for creating the
stationary magnetic field between which the coil moves is known as the
permanent magnet moving coil or PMMC instrument. It operates on the
principle that the torque is exerted on the moving coil placed in the field of the
permanent magnet. The PMMC instrument gives the accurate result for DC
measurement. Construction of PMMC Instrument The moving coil and
permanent magnet are the main part of the PMMC instrument. The parts of
the PMMC instruments are explained below in details.
Moving Coil – The coil is the current carrying part of the instruments which is
freely moved between the stationary field of the permanent magnet. The
current passes through the coil deflects it due to which the magnitude of the
current or voltage is determined. The coil is mounted on the rectangular
former which is made up of aluminium. The former increases the radial and
uniform magnetic field between the air gap of the poles. The coil is wound with
the silk cover copper wire between the poles of a magnet. The coil is mounted
on the rectangular former which is made up of aluminium. The former
increases the radial and uniform magnetic field between the air gap of the
poles. The coil is wound with the silk cover copper wire between the poles of a
magnet.
Magnet System – The PMMC instrument using the permanent magnet for
creating the stationary magnets. The Alcomax and Alnico material are used for
creating the permanent magnet because this / magnet has the high coercive
force (The coercive force changes the magnetisation property of the magnet).
Also, the magnet has high field intensities.
Control – In PMMC instrument the controlling torque is because of the springs.
The springs are made up of phosphorous bronze and placed between the two
jewel bearings. The spring also provides the path to the lead current to flow in
and out of the moving coil. The controlling torque is mainly because of the
suspension of the ribbon.
Damping – The damping torque is used for keeping the movement of the coil in
rest. This damping torque is induced because of the movement of the
aluminium core which is moving between the poles of the permanent magnet.
Pointer &
Scale – The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the
deflection of the coil, and the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the
scale. The pointer is made of the lightweight material, and hence it is easily
deflected with the movement of the coil. Sometimes the parallax error occurs
in the instrument which is easily reduced by correctly aligning the blade of the
pointer.
Dynamometer type instruments:
These instruments are the modified form of permanent magnet moving coils
type. Here operating field is produced by a permanent but by another fixed
coil. The moving system and the control system are similar to those of
permanent magnet type. Such instruments can be used for both a.c and d.c
circuits. They can be used as ammeters and voltmeters but are generally used
as wattmeters.
Principle of Dynamometer type instruments:
These instruments are based on that principle the mechanical force exists
between the current carrying conductors.
Construction of Dynamometer type instruments:
A dynamometer type instrument as shown in fig essentially consists of a fixed
coil and a moving coil. The fixed coil is split into two equal parts which are
placed close together and parallel to each other. The moving coil is pivoted in
between the two fixed coils. The fixed and moving coils may be excited
separately or they may be connected in series depending upon the use to
which the measurement is put. The moving coil is attached to the moving
system so that under the action of deflecting torque, the pointer moves over
the scale.
The controlling torque is provided by two springs which also serve the
additional purpose of leading the current into and out of the moving coil. Air
friction damping is provided in such instruments.
Working of Dynamometer type instruments:
When instrument is connected in the circuit, operating currents flow through
the coils. Due to this, mechanical force exists between the coils. The result is
that the moving coil moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to
rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque.
by reversing the current, the field due to fixed coils is reversed as well as the
current in the moving coil, so that the direction of deflecting torque remains
unchanged. Therefore, such instruments can be used for both d.c and a.c
measurements.
Advantages of Dynamometer type instruments:
1. These instruments can be used for both a.c and d.c measurements.
2. Such instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
Disadvantages of Dynamometer type instruments:
1. Since torque / weight ratio is small, therefore, such instruments have
frictional errors which reduce sensitivity.
2. Scale is not uniform.
3. A good amount of screening of the instruments are required to avoid the
effect of stray fields.
4. These instruments are costlier than types and, therefore, they are rarely
used as ammeters and voltmeters.
