ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT

SUB. CODE- EE PC-209 Essentials of Indicating Instruments :

There are three types of torques operating in the instruments.
DIPLOMA 3RD SEM
● Deflecting Torque or Operating Torque
IN ELECTRICAL ENGG. ● Controlling Torque or Restoring Torque
● Damping Torque
Prepared By - Santwana Das.
UNIT – 2 (Part-1)
MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
General Construction of an Instrument :
Spring has the following properties
An electrical instrument consists of the following parts. ● The spring should be made of phosphor bronze
a) Permanent Magnet : Permanent magnets are made of hard steel or Alnico or Alcomax. In ● Spring should have non-magnetic in nature.
some instrument electromagnet also used. ● Spring should have a small Resistance temp coefficient.
b) Pointer : Pointer are made of Aluminium, because of light weight. It is spade or
knife-edge in shape. b) Gravity Control - In gravity control, is attached to small weight the moving system
c) Case : Case is made of wood or cast iron or pressed steel. It protect the whole instrument and produces controlling torque, when moving system is in deflection position. In
from any damage. Steel cases also provide magnetic screening in case of that instrument zero position, control weight is vertical and when deflected through an angle θ, the
which are affected by external magnetic field.
control weight would move.
d) Supporting System : Supporting of moving system is provided by pivoting or by thread
suspension. Here spindle is made of hardened steel and sapphire (jewel) is used as Fig.- Dynamic response of a measuring instrument
bearing.
e) Balancing the Moving System : For the purpose both control weight and balance weights Deflecting Torque or Operating Torque :
are used. The torque which helps to move the moving system hence the pointer from zero
f) Springs : Spring materials are non-magnetic. These are made of phosphor bronze. It position to measure the unknown quantity is called Deflecting torque or Operating
provide controlling torque as well as leads to the coils. torque. It is obtained by one of the effect of current or voltage (magnetic, heating,
g) Spindle : The spindle is a very accurately machined screw and the object to be measured chemical, induction etc.). It is denoted by Td .
is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is moved by turning the ratchet
knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched by both the spindle and Controlling Torque or Restoring Torque :
the anvil. The torque which oppose the deflecting torque and increase with increase in
deflection of pointer, thus control the pointer to obtain a definite equilibrium position and
Electrical Principles of Operation of Electrical Measuring Instruments :
bring the pointer to its original zero position when there is no deflecting torque is called
All electrical measuring instruments depend for their action on one of the many physical controlling torque or restoring torque. Controlling torque is produced by two ways.
effects of an electric current or potential and are generally classified according to which of a) Spring Control Fig 2 Gravity Control
these effects utilized in their operation. The effects generally utilized are : b) Gravity Control The Te will be wlsinθ, w is control weight, I is the distance from the axis of rotation,
θ is deflection.
1. Magnetic effect - for ammeters and voltmeters usually. a) Spring Control - Spring A and B coiled in opposite directions and one and of each is Tc ∝ Sinθ
2. Electrodynamic effect - for ammeters and voltmeters usually. connected to spindle. Under the influence of deflection torque, one spring unwinds & Td ∝ I
3. Electromagnetic effect - for ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and watt-hour meters. other gets twisted. The twist produces controlling torque which α angle of deflection. At the final deflected position, Tc = Td
4. Thermal effect - for ammeters and voltmeters. When Tc = Td pointer comes to rest in it's final position. I ∝ sinθ
5. Chemical effect - for d.c. ampere-hour meters. I = Ksinθ
6. Electrostatic effect - for voltmeters only. Θ = Sin - 1(I/K)

Advantages ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT

● Its performance is not time-dependent. SUB. CODE – EE PC - 209

● It is simple and cheap. 3RD SEM (EE DIPLOMA)
● The controlling torque can be varied by adjusting the position of the control weight. Prepared By – S.Das.
● Its performance is not temperature-dependent. UNIT – 2 (Part – 2)
Disadvantages MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE & CURRENT

● The scale is non-uniform causing problems to record accurate readings.

● The system must be used in vertical position only and must be properly levelled. PMMC Type Instrument :
Otherwise, it may cause serious errors in the measurement.
● As delicate and proper leveling is required, in general, it is not used indicating Construction :
instruments and portable instruments.
A PMMC, also known as a D'Arsonval meter, is a precise instrument used for measuring
current through a coil, which results in angular deflection of the coil. It is highly accurate for DC
Damping Torque : measurement of current and voltage. All PMMC instruments essentially consist of five main
The torque which bring the pointer quickly to its deflected position without any components- the magnet system, moving coil, controlling system, damping system, and scale &
oscillation of pointer is called Damping Torque and worked only where the system is moving. pointer assembly. The construction of the instrument is briefly describe below –
Critically damped system is generally used. This torque obtained by three ways. b. Air Damping
The term PMMC is the short form of “permanent magnet moving coil”.
a) Eddy Current Damping
A light aluminium piston is attached to the moving system. If the piston is moved into This instrument is simple as well as most frequently used on ships with sophisticated names.
b) Air Friction Damping These instruments are used when an exact measurement is required as well as to aid while
the chamber, the air inside the chamber is compressed and pressure opposes the motion of the
c) Fluid Friction Damping maintaining electrical equipment. Apart from PMMC, it is also called as D’alvanometer. It is a
piston. i.e. moving system to which piston is attached.
The combined inertia Tc and Td allows the moving system to settle quickly at final kind of galvanometer that works on the principle of D’Arsonval. The construction of the PMCC
position. The pointer oscillates about the final steady position before it comes to rest. Thus, instrument can be done using several parts where the permanent magnet and moving coils are
damping torque is required to damp out the oscillations and enable the pointer to reach to its final essential parts. Each part of this instrument is discussed below.
position.
a. Eddy Current Damping

Damping torque in measuring instruments can be produced based on the concept of eddy
current flowing in a closed path in which emf is induced based on the principle of
electromagnetic indication. A thin disc D of aluminium is mounted on spindle P and moves b/w
the magnet, M. and produces emf. in the disc. The emf induced. causes eddy currents which
produce damping torque.
There are three types of damping conditions that show how fast is settled a moving system to its c. Fluid Friction Damping
final position as per their relative damping.
In fluid friction damping, a light aluminium vane is attached to the moving system, which
is placed inside the fluid container so that friction offered by the fluid can oppose the motion of
1. Critically Damped- When moving systems reaches to its final position smoothly without any
the pointer. The friction offered by liquid is more compared to the friction offered by air.
oscillations.
Classification of Electrical Measuring Instruments :
2. Under Damped - when the moving system will oscillate to reach its steady state position with
decreasing amplitude. 1. PMMC type, 2. M.I. type, 3. Electrodynamometer type, 4. Hot wire type, 5.
Induction type, 6. Electrostatic type
3. Over Damped - When the moving system will reach slowly to its final position.
 These instruments use permanent magnets to create the stationary magnetic field in the coils, Once the current is supplied throughout these coils, then it gets a deflection within the field, then So, these errors can be reduced when the swamping resistance is connected in series using the
and then it is used with the moving coil that is connected to the electric source for generating it is used to find out the voltage or current magnitude. The aluminum is a non-metallic former, moving coil. Here, the swamping resistance is nothing but the resistor which includes less
deflection torque according to the Fleming left-hand rule theory. The PMMC instrument working used to measure the current whereas the metallic former including high electromagnetic damping temperature coefficient. This resistance can reduce the temperature effect on the moving coil.
principle is when the torque is applied to the moving coil that is placed within the permanent
is used to calculate the voltage. Magnet System. The PMMC instrument includes two
magnet field, and then it gives a precise result for DC measurement. Torque Equation
high-intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’ shaped magnet-based design. The designing of these The equation involved in the PMCC instrument is the torque equation. The deflecting
Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax for higher superior field intensity & coercive torque induces due to the coil’s movement and this can be expressed with the equation shown
force. In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder can be arranged among the magnetic poles to below.
Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it experiences a
create the field identical; while decreasing air reluctance for increasing the strength of the field.
force that is perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the rule of “Fleming left hand”, if
the thumbnail of the left hand, middle and forefinger are at 90 degrees with each other. Magnet System Td = NBLdl
After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be across the middle The PMMC instrument includes two high-intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’ shaped Where,
finger and finally, the force will be through the thumb finger. magnet-based design. The designing of these magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax for
Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminum former, the magnetic field can be higher superior field intensity & coercive force. In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder can ‘N’ is the no. of turns in the coil
generated in the coil in proportion to the current flow. The electromagnetic force throughout the be arranged among the magnetic poles to create the field identical; while decreasing air ‘B’ is the density of flux within the air gap
fixed magnetic field from the permanent magnet generates the deflection force within the coil. reluctance for increasing the strength of the field. ‘L’ & ’d’ are vertical as well as horizontal lengths of the surface
After that the spring generates the force to resist additional deflection; therefore it helps to ‘I’ is the flow of current in the coil
balance the pointer. Control G = NBLd
So, damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminum core movement of In the PMMC device, the torque can be controlled due to the springs which are fabricated The restoring torque can be provided to the moving coil can be done with the spring and it can be
the magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it attains equilibrium by with phosphorous bronze. These springs are arranged among the two jewel bearings. The spring expressed as Tc = Kθ (‘K’ is the spring constant)
controlling & deflection torque to provide accuracy in measurement. provides the lane to the lead current to supply in & out of the moving coil. The torque can be Final deflection can be done through the equation Tc = Td
controlled mainly due to the delay of the ribbon. Substitute the values of Tc & Td in the above equation, then we can get
Kθ = NBLdl
We know that, G = NBLd
Damping Torque Kθ = Gl
θ= Gl/K
Damping torque can be generated within the PMMC instrument using the aluminum I = (K/G) θ
core’s movement within the magnetic field. So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early From the above equation, we can conclude that the deflection torque can be directly proportional
deflection. It assists in the right measurement devoid of fluctuations. Because of the movement to the flow of current in the coil.
of the coil within the magnetic field, eddy current can be generated within the aluminum former.
This generates the damping force otherwise torque to resist the motion of the coil. Gradually the Advantages of PMMC Instrument :
deflection of the pointer will be reduced and lastly, it will stop at a permanent position.
The advantages are
Pointer and Scale ● The scale in the instrument can be divided properly
● It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
In this instrument, the connection of the pointer can be done through the moving coil. It notices ● It uses less power
the moving coil’s deflection. The magnitude of their derivation can be displayed on the scale. ● It is not influenced by the stray magnetic field.
The pointer within the instrument can be designed with lightweight material. Thus, it can be ● High accuracy
simply deflected through the coil’s movement. Sometimes, the parallax error can occur within ● It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
the device which is simply decreased by properly arranging the pointer’s blade. ● This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges
● This instrument uses shelf shielding magnet so it is applicable in aerospace.
Moving Coil
What are the Different Reasons that Cause an Error in PMMC?
It is an essential component of the PMMC instrument. The designing of this coil can be
done by wounding copper coils to a rectangular block among the magnetic poles. It is made with
In a PMMC instrument, different errors can be occurred due to the temperature effects as
Aluminum and the rectangular block can be called Aluminum former rotated into the jeweled
well as getting older of the instruments. The errors can be caused by the main parts of the
bearing. So it permits the coil to turn freely.
instrument like the magnet, effect of temperature, moving coil and the spring.

Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument : Working Principle of Dynamometer type instruments : and e2 = d Ø2/dt
Therefore energy input to the instrument
The disadvantages are - Due to the current in the coils, mechanical force exists between them. The result is that = i1d Ø1 + i2d Ø2
● It works with only DC the moving coil, moves the pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to rest at a position where = i1d (L1i1 + Mi2) + i2d(L2i2 + Mi1)
● It is expensive compare with other alternative instruments deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque. The electrodynamometer type wattmeter is a = i1L1di1 + i12dL1 + i1i2dM + i1Mdi2 + i2L2di2 + i22dL2 + i1i2dM + i2Mdi1
● It is delicate type of analog wattmeter that operates on the principle of electromagnetic forces generated by
● It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in permanent magnet. the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying coils. It consists of two coils: a fixed coil Since L1 and L2 are constant, therefore dL1 = 0 and dL2 = 0
and a movable coil. The moving coil is connected across the power supply. For this, the moving = i1L1di1 + i1i2dM + i1Mdi2 + i2L2di2 + i1i2dM + i2Mdi1 …………(1)
Applications of PMMC Instrument coil is also known as Voltage Coil or Pressure Coil. And the Fixed coils are connected in series
with the load and the coils carry the current. For this reason, its are called Current Coil or Some of the above input energy to electrodynamometer instruments are stored in the form
The applications are - Potential Coil. The potential coil is connected across the load so that it carries current of magnetic energy in the coil while rest is converted into mechanical energy of moving coil.
● Ammeter proportional to the voltage. Due to the current in the coils, mechanical force exists between them. Thus we can write,
● Galvanometer The result is that the moving coil, moves the pointer over the scale. Energy Input = Mechanical Energy + Stored Energy
● Ohmmeter Mechanical Energy = Electrical Input – Stored Energy …………(2)
● Voltmeter Torque Equation in Electrodynamometer Instruments -
Thus to find the mechanical energy, we need to find the change in stored energy in the magnetic
Electrodynamometer instruments or Electrodynamic instruments have fixed coil divided field of the coil. Let us assume an infinitesimally small time dt for the sake of calculation of
Electrodynamometer type Instruments : into two sections and a moving coil. It is recommended to read before going to understand the change in stored energy.
torque equation. If you are already aware of constructional feature then you may proceed. Change in stored energy
Construction : = d(1/2L1i12 + 1/2L2i22 + Mi1i2)
= i1L1di1+ i2L2di2+ i1Mdi2 + i2Mdi1+ i1i2dM+(i12/2)dL1 + (i22/2)dL2
The electrodynamometer type wattmeter is a type of analog wattmeter that operates on
But L1 and L2 are constant, therefore dL1 = 0 and dL2 = 0
the principle of electromagnetic forces generated by the interaction of magnetic fields and
= i1L1di1+ i2L2di2+ i1Mdi2 + i2Mdi1+ i1i2dM …………(3)
current-carrying coils. It consists of two coils: a fixed coil and a movable coil. It essentially
consists of a fixed coil and a moving coil. The fixed coil is split into two equal parts (F, F) which
From equation (1), (2) and (3),
are placed close together and parallel to each other. The moving coil (M) is pivoted in between
Mechanical Energy = i1i2dM
the two fixed coils and carries a pointer as shown in Fig.
Let Td be the deflecting torque and dƟ be the change in deflection, then mechanical energy
= TddƟ
TddƟ = i1i2dM
⇒Td = i1i2dM/dƟ
The above equation gives the deflecting torque in electrodynamics or
electrodynamometer instruments. It can be seen that deflecting torque depends upon the
Let us assume that the current in fixed coil be I1 and that in moving coil be I2 as shown in figure multiplication of instantaneous value of current and rate of change of mutual inductance between
below. the fixed and moving coil.
Also assume that, Now we will consider two cases.
L1 = Self inductance of fixed coil Case-1: When DC quantity is being measured.
L2 = Self inductance of moving coil Let I1 and I2 be the current in fixed and moving coil respectively. Therefore deflecting torque
M = Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils Td = I1I2dM/dƟ
Thus, But this deflecting torque is controlled by the spring. Spring provides the controlling torque. The
The flux linkage of fixed coil Ø1 = L1i1 + Mi2 controlling torque due to spring for a deflection of Ɵ
The flux linkage of moving coil Ø2 = L2i2 + Mi1 Tc = KƟ where K is spring constant.
The electrical energy input to the instrument, At equilibrium the controlling torque and deflecting torques are equal, hence
= e1i1dt + e2i2dt Tc = Td
But according to Faraday’s Law, ⇒KƟ = I1I2dM/dƟ
e1 = d Ø1/dt ⇒Ɵ = (I1I2dM/dƟ)/K
Fig. – Electrodynamometer type Instrument
 Case-2: When AC quantity is being measured. M.I. (Moving Iron) Type Instrument : This kind of device makes use of a spring where creates torque regulation. The coil’s
Let i1 and i2 are sinusoidal current having a phase displacement of Ø. Therefore we can write as deflection is minimized by the piston made of aluminum metal and this is attached to the
i1 = Im1Sinwt Construction and Working Principle :- movable coil.
i2 = Im2Sin(wt-Ø)
Thus the instantaneous deflecting torque is given as Moving Iron (MI) instruments are popular electrical measuring devices used extensively Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument
Td = (Im1Sinwt)[ Im2Sin(wt-Ø)]dM/dƟ for measuring alternating (AC) current and direct current (DC) flows. The scale of moving iron This device is constructed with two iron sheets where one is static and the other sheet is
The average torque for one time period of the currents are given by instrument is a non-uniform scale. The construction of Moving Iron instruments is fairly simple movable. These iron plates will be magnetized when there is current flow across the static coil
Td = (I1I2CosØ)dM/dƟ yet ingenious. The core component is a movable iron piece positioned inside or near a coil. and this created repulsion force in between the plates. Due to this repulsion force, the movable
Where I1 = RMS Value of i1 When current flows through this coil, it creates a magnetic field that interacts with the iron piece, coil begins to start away from the static plate.
I2 = RMS value of i2 The spring in the device will provide regulation movement of the torque. The air friction
causing it to move.
From the above two cases, we can have following conclusions: stimulates the damping torque where obstructs coil movement. These kinds of moving iron
● For sinusoidal alternating current, the deflecting torque is determined by the product of instruments come under the category of the non-polarized device where means that the device is
RMS value of coil currents and the cosine of phase angle between them. to be set free from the current path that flows the device. So, it is employed for both the direct
● When the instrument is used for AC, the instantaneous torque is proportional to i2. Thus and alternating current.
the torque varies as the current varies but the direction of torque remains the same.
Because of the inertia of the instrument, the needle does not follow the change in torque
rather it takes a position where the average torque becomes equal to the controlling
torque.

Advantages of Electrodynamometer type Instruments :-

● Air cored coils are used, they are generally free from hysteresis and eddy current errors when
used on AC circuits.
● These instruments can be used for both DC.
● Good accuracy
● Good efficiency
● They have high torque to weight ratio.
● Application in p.f. meters, frequency meter and also used as a wattmeter etc.
● Less power consumption.

Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer type Instruments :- Fig.- M.I.type Instrument

Differences in Attraction and Repulsion Types
● They have a non-uniform scale. Types :- The attraction type of moving iron device will posses minimal inductance when
● Low Sensitivity. There are mainly two types of moving iron instruments where those are: compared with the repulsion type device and because of this voltmeters are completely precise
● These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to weight ratio. ● Attraction type over extended frequency levels and so there exists enhanced scope of employing shunts with the
● Repulsion Type ammeters. Whereas repulsion devices are mainly applicable for economical purposes and with
● They are more expensive than either the PMMC or the M.I type instruments.
these instruments linear scale can be easily achieved.
● These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts or over loads.
Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument
In this type, the iron plate is attracted towards the stronger field from the weaker field is termed Deflecting Torque
Applications – as the attraction type of instrument. Here, the static coil in the device is in a flat shape and it has In order to find the expression for deflecting torque of a moving iron instrument, it can
a small opening. The movable element is considered as the iron core’s flat disc. The flow of be achieved with the consideration of energy relations when there happens minimal enhancement
Electrodynamometer type instruments can be used as ac voltmeter, Ammeters, Wattmeters and
current across the static coil generates the magnetic field and this has the attractional force to in the supply of current to the device. In view of this, there will be a minimal amount of
p.f. meters. With slight modification, they can also work as analogue frequency metres. It also
attract the coil. The iron plate will get deflect from the low to the high magnetic field and this deflection ‘ds’ takes place.
used as transfer instruments.
deflection capacity has a direct relation to the current flow magnitude which flows through the
iron plate. In a brief, it is defined that an iron coil will be attracted.

So, let us assume that ‘Td’ is the deflection of torque. And the mechanical effort is Td*ds. In ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT
addition to this, there will also be a variation in the stored energy where results in the variation in SUB CODE – EE PC-209
inductance value. 3RD SEM (EE DIPLOMA)
Consider that the device has I as initial current, L as inductance, and deflection ‘s’. When the Prepared by- S.Das.
amount of current is augmented by a factor ‘di’, then the deflection varies by ‘ds’ and inductance UNIT – 2 (Part-3)
varies by ‘dL’. So as to impact the current enhancement, there has to be an increment in the level
of applied voltage which is shown as AC VOLTMETER (Rectifier Type)
e = d/dL (LI) The instrument, which is used to measure the AC voltage across any two points of electric circuit
On solving the energy equations, the deflecting torque is given as Td = ½ l2 (dL/dϴ) is called AC voltmeter. If the AC voltmeter consists of rectifier, then it is said to be rectifier based AC
At the final equilibrium position, Tc becomes Td and then voltmeter. The DC voltmeter measures only DC voltages. If we want to use it for measuring AC voltages,
Kϴ = ½ l2 (dL/dϴ) then we have to follow these two steps.
With this, the deflection is ϴ = ½ (l2/K) (dL/dϴ)
With this, it can be proved that torque deflection is proportional to the twice RMS of the Step1 The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is
functional current. From the above torque equation, we observe that the angular deflection of Convert the AC voltage signal into a DC voltage signal by using a rectifier.
needle of moving iron instruments is square of rms current flowing through the coil. Therefore,
the deflection of moving iron instruments is independent of direction of current. Step2
So, the torque deflection is unidirectional which means that it operates in a single direction Measure the DC or average value of the rectifier’s output signal.
independent of the current polarity.
We get, Rectifier based AC voltmeter, just by including the rectifier circuit to the basic DC voltmeter.
Advantages of M.I. type Instruments : This chapter deals about rectifier based AC voltmeters. Where,
The advantages of moving iron instruments are: VmVm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal. The DC or average value of the
Types of Rectifier based AC Voltmeters : Half wave rectifier’s output signal is
● These devices are neutral to the current flow path and so employed for both the alternating
Following are the two types of rectifier based AC voltmeters. Vdc = VmπVdc=Vmπ
and direct current applications.
1. AC voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier Substitute, the value of VmVm in above equation.
● Errors caused by friction are very minimal because the proportion of torque and weight is
more. The proportion is more as the current-carrying section is static and movable sections 2. AC voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
are less weighed. Now, let us discuss about these two AC voltmeters one by one.
● As the MI devices require minimal turns than that of permanent magnet moving coil devices,
these are less costly. AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier
● Also, the devices have more robustness due to their simple design. If a Half wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination together is Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.45 times therms value of the
called AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier. sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
Disadvantages of M.I. type Instruments : The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier is shown in below figure.
AC Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
The disadvantages of moving iron instruments are: If a Full wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination together is
● The moving iron instrument scale is not uniform and so the results are not precise. called AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier. The block diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave
● As because of stray, hysteresis, and frequency losses, there might be a scope of happening rectifier is shown in below figure-
critical errors in the device.
● In the device, there will be waveform errors because the deflection of the torque has no direct
relation to twice the current value.

Applications :-
● Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current.
● Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter and Ammeter only. Both can work on AC above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We will get the
as well as on DC. Also used in galvanometer. Simple construction of the moving parts. corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the respective component(s) in above
block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier will look like as shown
in below figure.
The above block diagram consists of two blocks: full wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We will get the
corresponding circuit diagram just by replacing each block with the respective component(s) in above
block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier will look like as shown 3. Adjust the multimeter settings as necessary to align with the reference value.
in below figure.
Current Transformer (C.T.) :
A Current Transformer or C.T. is a particular instrument transformer created to step down the
secondary current for secondary protection and primary current monitoring. The current in the
high-voltage circuits is measured using these transformers and low-range ampere meters.
Construction : Current transformers typically consist of a silicon steel ring core wound with
many turns of copper wire, as shown in the illustration to the right. The conductor carrying the
primary current is passed through the ring. The CT's primary, therefore, consists of a single 'turn'.

The above circuit consists of a diode, capacitor, DC amplifier and PMMC galvanometer. The
diode present in the above circuit is used for rectification purpose. So, the diode converts AC
voltage signal into a DC voltage signal. The capacitor charges to the peak value of this DC
So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier will look like as shown in below voltage signal. During positive half cycle of AC voltage signal, the diode conducts and the
figure. capacitor charges to the peak value of AC voltage signal. When the value of AC voltage signal is
less than this value, the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through
resistor of DC amplifier till the next positive half cycle of AC voltage signal. When the
value of AC voltage signal is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and the
process will be repeated. We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor
charges fast and discharges slowly. As a result, the meter always responds to this capacitor
voltage, i.e. the peak value of AC voltage.
Where, Different Methodes of range extension of Ammeter and Voltmeter. Working Principle of C.T. :
VmVm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal. The DC or average value of the To increase the ranges of the ammeter, we need to connect a small shunt resistance in It has two windings, just like the voltage transformer. AC is induced within the secondary
Full wave rectifier’s output signal is- parallel with ammeters. To increase the ranges of a voltmeter, we need to connect a high series of winding. Whenever AC is supplied throughout the primary winding, an alternating magnetic flux
multiplier resistance in series with voltmeters. We can extend the range of the ammeter by is produced. The load impedance for this kind is relatively low. A current transformer is designed
keeping a shunt resistance. Shunts are used for the range extension of ammeters. A shunt is a to maintain an accurate ratio between the currents in its primary and secondary circuits over a
low-value resistance having minimum temperature co-efficient. It is connected in parallel with defined range. The alternating current in the primary produces an alternating magnetic field in
Substitute, the value of VmVm in above equation the ammeter whose range is to be extended. the core, which then induces an alternating current in the secondary.
Calibration of Ammeter and Voltmeter:
Different Errors and their reduction :
Calibration of Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter is the process of checking the accuracy
of the reading of the ammeter under test (AT) by comparing it with the standard (AS) one. In Current transformers (CTs) exhibit two primary errors:
Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.9 times the rms value of the
other words, calibration checks the correctness of the instrument by comparing it with the ● Accuracy errors (related to gain or linearity)
sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal. reference standard. ● Phase angle errors.
To calibrate the given ammeter we measure the p.d across a standard resistance R connected in
series with the given ammeter by using Potentiometer. By measuring pd (IR) across R, the Increasing the sectional area of the secondary cable of the current circuit or reducing the
cable length actually reduces the impedance of the secondary circuit conductor and the
current through the resistance R which is the same as the current through the ammeter can be
secondary load. The secondary coils of the standby current transformer are connected in series to
calculated. double the load.
Voltage calibration:
1. Connect your multimeter to a voltage reference standard.
2. Compare the multimeter's reading with the standard.

Uses : Current transformers are used for protection, measurement and control in high-voltage electrical By making use of a good quality core material, low value of flux density and following
substations and the electrical grid. Current transformers may be installed inside switchgear or in apparatus required precautions in the core assembly we can minimise the value of the ratio error. From the
bushings, but very often free-standing outdoor current transformers are used. above equation it is seen that to reduce the ratio error, actual ratio and nominal ratio must be
made equal.
Precautions in the use of C.T. : Current transformer must be fitted with a short-circuiting switch
Uses : A potential transformer is mainly used to measure high alternating voltage in a power
across the secondary terminals. The secondary of the current transformer should be earthed to
system. Potential transformers are step-down transformers, i.e., they have many turns in the
avoid the danger of shock to the operating personnel. They cannot be operated beyond the rated
primary winding while the secondary has few turns.
current. The MOST IMPORTANT thing is that CT SECONDARY should NEVER BE KEPT OPEN.
Either it should be connected the load for which it is installed OR it has to be FULLY SHORTED with a Precautions in the use of P.T.: The protection relay trips the circuit breaker to isolate the fault if
THICK wire. This will STOP development of unwanted abnormal voltage on its secondary. the voltage exceeds the set point. In conclusion, how a potential transformer is connected relies
on how it will be used. It is connected in series with the load for protection reasons and in
parallel with the load for voltage measurement.
Potential Transformer (P.T.) :
A potential transformer, also called a PT, is an instrument transformer used in power Check if the transformers are grounded or not - Despite their use in industries or for residential
systems for voltage transformation. It converts higher voltage values to lower voltage values for purposes, grounding will help prevent any damage due to short circuits or electrical faults. If the
measurement and protection purposes.
transformers are grounded, the electric current will flow through a safe path during any electrical
Construction : The potential transformer consists of primary winding with more turns and hazard.
secondary winding with less number of turns. The high input AC voltage is given to the primary
winding (or connected to the high voltage circuit to measure). The lower output voltage is taken Clamp-on meter :
across the secondary winding by using a voltmeter.
A clamp meter is an electrical testing tool that integrates a basic digital multimeter with Uses : A clamp allows you to measure current without breaking the circuit and get a current
a current sensor. Clamps measure current. reading.
Construction & working : The clamp consists of a handle, clamping arm, and linkage mechanism Clamp meters and multimeters both measure electrical parameters. A clamp meter measures
that together form a pivoting system. When the handle is moved, it initiates a motion in the current without interrupting the circuit, making this tool ideal for taking measurements in tight
linkage system. This movement causes the clamping arm to pivot toward the workpiece. A clamp spaces or testing live wires. Multimeters can measure current, voltage, and resistance and are
meter is a clothespin-shaped instrument that can be clamped around a live wire in order to more accurate than clamp meters.
measure the current it's carrying. As a measurement principle, clamp meters detect the magnetic
field emitted by current flowing in a wire in order to measure the current value.

Working Principle of P.T. : A potential transformer is mainly used to measure high alternating
voltage in a power system. Potential transformers are step-down transformers, i.e., they have
many turns in the primary winding while the secondary has few turns. It uses a capacitive
voltage divider to reduce the voltage level of the high-voltage circuit to a level that the
instruments can measure. It works on the principle of capacitive voltage division, where the high
voltage is divided by the capacitance ratio of the transformer.
Different Errors and their reduction: The primary and secondary voltages are inversely
proportional to the primary voltage and in phase opposition in an ideal potential transformer. Yet
this cannot be achieved effectively due to the primary and secondary voltage dips.
In potential transformers, the voltage drops due to the reactance and resistance in primary and
secondary and also the power factor on secondary causes phase shift errors and voltage errors.
Electrical and Electronic Measurement (EE PC - 209)
Diploma (EE) ● Measured Value - ● Resolution -
Semester - 3rd The measured value of a measurement is the actual quantification of the property Resolution refers to the smallest change in value that the instrument can detect or
Unit -1 (Fundamental of Measurement) of a material using a measurement tool. This is different from the true value which is the display.
absolute measurement with no error. Systematic errors and random errors contribute to ● Accuracy -
Measurement is essentially the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between
the deviation between the two values. Accuracy refers to the largest allowable error that occurs under specific operating
a given quantity and a quantity of the same kind chosen as a standard or a unit. The result of
measurement is expressed by a number representing the ratio of the unknown quantity to the
conditions. It is expressed as a percentage and indicates how close the measurement
adopted unit of measurement. The physical embodiment of the unit of measurement, as well as ● Error - displayed is to the actual (standard) value of the signal measured.
that of its submultiple or multiple value is called a standard. The device used for comparing the The difference between the real value (True Value) and the estimated value
unknown quantity with the unit of measurement or a standard quantity is called a measuring (measured Value) of a quantity is known as measurement error. An error may be ● Instrument Efficiency -
instrument. One cannot stress too strongly the importance of measurements to present-day positive or may be negative. The deviation of the measured quantity from the actual The efficiency of instruments is the ratio of voltage and current rating to the power
science and technology. Indeed, no physical experiment is conceivable without a sufficiently quantity or true value is called error. rating.
accurate technique of measurement. Types - The classification of error in measurement features three main categories.
At first, we have to know, What is Measurement ? These are systemic, random, limiting, and gross errors. Classification of instrument system :-
Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations used to measure Besides, The errors that may occur in the measurement of a physical quantity can be The various electrical measuring instruments can be broadly divided into two
electrical quantities. Measurement of electrical quantities may be done to measure electrical
classified into six types: constant error, systematic error, random error, absolute error, classes viz. (i) Absolute instruments (ii) Secondary instruments.
parameters of a system.
relative error and percentage error. See the classification chart -
Propose and Significance of Measurement :
The electrical instruments for measuring power, intensity, resistance, and voltage make it ● Precision -
possible to confirm the proper operation of machines and installations, as well as identifying the Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other.
consumption characteristics of a certain electric energy service. As electricity is used for many Mainly, Precision is defined as 'the quality of being exact' and refers to how close two or
different processes, electric power measurements are mostly necessary to be able to complete more measurements are to each other, regardless of whether those measurements are
an industrial energy audit. Different methods can be used to measure and analyze power and accurate or not. It is possible for precision measurements to not be accurate.
energy use for different electric equipment. In short, Measurement of electrical quantities
may be done to measure electrical parameters of a system. Using transducers, physical ● Range -
properties such as temperature, pressure, flow, force, and many others can be The measuring range of a measuring instrument refers to the range of values that
converted into electrical signals, which can then be conveniently measured and can be accurately measured by the instrument. It determines the minimum and
recorded. maximum values that can be detected and displayed by the instrument. In short, The
physical variable that is measured between two values is called as a range. One is the
Important terms of Measurement system :- higher calibration value H, and the other is Lower value L, The difference between H,
● Measuring Instruments - and L, is called range.
Electrical measuring instruments are all the devices used to measure the
magnitude of an electric current with different objectives. The values that are usually ● Sensitivity - Absolute instruments which give the value of the quantity to be measured in terms of the
measured with this equipment are current, voltage, resistance, and power. Each is Sensitivity is the smallest change in an input signal that causes the measuring constants of the instrument and its deflection are called absolute instruments. For example, a
expressed in different units: amps, volts, ohms, and watts, respectively. device to respond. Accuracy is defined as a measure of the capability of the instrument tangent galvanometer which is used to measure current is an absolute instrument. It is because
to faithfully indicate the value of the measured signal. It is defined as the ratio of the a tangent galvanometer gives the value of current being measured in terms of the tangent of the
● True Value - changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity being angle of deflection, the radius and number of turns of the coil and the horizontal component of
It is defined as average value of an infinite number of measured values when measured. It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the earth's magnetic field. No previous calibration or comparison is necessary in case of absolute
average deviation due to various contribution factor approaches to zero. It is not instrument responds. Deflection factor or inverse sensitivity is the reciprocal of instruments. They are used only in standard laboratories as standardising instruments.
possible to determine the true value of the quantity by an experiment means. It is an sensitivity. And Those instruments in which the electrical quantity being measured is given directly
imaginary value. by the deflection of the instrument are called Secondary instruments. These instruments are

provided with a calibrated scale. The calibration is done with the help of an absolute instrument (a) Moving coils - ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT
or another calibrated instrument. These are the secondary instruments which are most generally (i) Permanent magnet form SUB CODE – EE PC-209
used in everyday work. For example, they are very commonly used in laboratories, power (ii) Dynamometer form 3RD SEM (EE DIPLOMA)
stations, substations, industries etc. (b) Moving iron Prepared by- S.Das.
But, According to the principle of operation, there are four commonly used types: (c) Hot wire UNIT – 3
magnetoelectric, electromagnetic, electric, and induction. Other types include vibration, (d) Electrostatic (voltmeters only)
(e) Induction. Measurement Of Electric Power :
thermoelectric, hot wire, electrostatic, rectifier, photoelectric, and electrolytic.
Dynamometer type Wattmeter : An electrodynamometer or simply a Dynamometer wattmeter
Secondary Instruments are mainly two types.
Here, we will concentrate mainly on moving coil and moving iron types whereas a brief is an instrument which is most commonly used for the measurement of DC and AC power. It
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS - Analog instruments are mechanical devices that indicate
introduction for the others will be given. Of the above mentioned, the magnet moving coil is works on the principle of a dynamometer. It states that there is a mechanical force act between
the magnitude of the quantity in the form of the pointer movement, and the value is read
used for de only whereas induction type are used for ac measurement. The other types can be two current-carrying conductors. There are two types of coils in this instrument. It works on the
according to markings on a scale. The readings may not always be entirely correct used both for de as well as ac a circuits. principle of dynamometer i.e. a mechanical force acts between two current carrying conductors.
because some human error is always involved in interpretation.
(ii) Integrating instruments - Construction of Electrodynamometer :
Those instruments which measure the total quantity of electricity (in ampere-hours) or The electrodynamometer wattmeter has a fixed coil divided into two parts and is connected in
electrical energy (in watt-hours) in a given time are called integrating instruments e.g. series with the load and caries the load current (I1). The moving coil is connected across the load
ampere-hour meter and watt-hour meter. In such instruments, there are sets of dials and through a series multiplier resistance (R) and carries a current (I2) proportional to the load
pointers which register the total quantity 210 of electricity or electrical energy supplied to the voltage. The fixed coil is called as Current Coil and the moving coil is called as Potential Coil.
load. The controlling torque is provided by two spiral springs. Air friction damping is provided in
(iii) Recording instruments - electrodynamometer wattmeter. A pointer is attached with the moving coil.
Those instruments which give a continuous record of the variations of the electrical
quantity to be measured are called recording instruments. A recording instrument is merely an
indicating instrument with a pen attached to its pointer. The pen rests lightly on a chart wrapped
over a drum moving with a slow uniform speed. The motion of the drum is in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the pointer. The path traced out by the pen indicates the
manner in which the bell quantity, being measured, has varied during the time of the record.
Recording voltmeters are used in supply stations to record the voltage of the supply mains
DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS - The instrument which represents the measured value in the during the day. Recording ammeters are employed in supply stations for registering the current
form of the digital number is known as the digital instruments. It works on the principle taken from the batteries.
of quantization. The quantization is the process of converting the continuous input
signal into a countable output signal.
Example - digital multimeter.
● Secondary instruments may be classified according to their functions as Fig.- Dynamometer type Wattmeter
Working Principle :
(i) Indicating instruments - When electrodynamometer type wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure the
Those instruments which directly indicate the value of the electrical quantity at the time electric power. The current coil carries the load current and the potential coil carries a current
when it is being measured are called indicating instruments e.g. ammeters, voltmeters and proportional to the load voltage. Because of the current in the two coils, a mechanical force acts
wattmeters. In such instruments, a pointer moving over a graduated scale directly gives the between them due to which the moving coil (potential coil) moves and hence the pointer attached
value of the electrical quantity being measured. For example, when an ammeter is connected in to it. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the deflecting torque and controlling torque
the circuit, the pointer of the meter directly indicates the value of current flowing in the circuit at become equal.
that time.
When the current is reversed in the circuit, the reversal of current takes place in both the current
Types of Indicating Instruments :
The following types of ammeters and voltmeters are in common use: coil and potential coil so that the direction of the deflecting torque remains unchanged. Hence,
the electrodynamometer wattmeter can be used for the measurement of DC as well as AC power.
 Therefore, For higher current ranges, a 0-5 A instrument is used with a current transformer (C.T.) as
θ ∝ Load Power shown in Fig. a (i) . On high voltage a.c. circuits, besides the current transformer, a potential
transformer is used with a 0-110 V instrument as shown in Fig.a (ii). When instrument
transformers (i . e . , C.T. and P.T.) are used in this way, indications of the pointer must be
Hence the electrodynamometer wattmeter has uniform scale.
multiplied by the "transformation ratios" (N 'N) to get the true power, just as the reading of a
shunted ammeter must be multiplied by the multiplying power of the shunt to get the equivalent
Advantages
un-shunted deflection.
● Can be used for measurement of AC as well as DC power.
● They have uniform scale.
Different types of errors and their compensation :
● By proper design, high accuracy can be obtained.
Errors in Electrodynamometer Wattmeter –
Disadvantages Pressure Coil Inductance: The pressure coil has some inductance because of which
● The stray magnetic field may affect the wattmeter readings. In order to prevent this, the current is lagged by voltage. Hence power factor becomes lagging and leads to a high reading.
Deflecting Torque : instrument should be enclosed in a soft-iron case. Pressure Coil Capacitance: Pressure coil also has capacitances that increase the power factor.
The deflecting of electrodynamometer wattmeter is proportional to the load power in DC as well ● At low power factors, serious errors may be caused by the inductance of potential coil. Errors may occur due to the mutual inductance between the current and pressure coils of
as AC circuit. the watt meter. These errors are quite low at power frequencies. But they increased with increase
● DC circuit – When the wattmeter is connected in DC circuit for power measurement, the Multiplying Factor and Extension of Range : in frequencies.
power taken by the load is V.I1. Measurement of Active Power in three phase circuit for balanced Load by one wattmeter method :
Multiplication factor of wattmeter is that parameter of virtue that helps us in finding a
Deflecting Torque (τd) ∝ l1l2 small scale wattmeter to get the power readings up to multiplication factor times that are
Measurement of active and reactive power in three phase balanced load by single
multiplied to the smallest scale possible. The Multiplication Factor (MF) is : MF = (voltage wattmeter method . Reactive power in a balance 3-ϕ load can also be calculated by using single
Since the current I2 is proportional to load voltage V. Thus, range x current range x power factor)/(range of the wattmeter scale). wattmeter. In this method, the current coil of the wattmeter is connected in any on line and the
Deflecting Torque (τd) ∝ l1V ∝ Load Power The usual ranges of dynamometer wattmeters are from 0-25 A to 0-50 A for current coil pressure coils across the other two lines.
● AC Circuit – When the wattmeter is connected in an AC circuit to measure the load circuit and from 0-15 V to 0-750 V for potential coil circuit. The current coil (i . e . , fixed coils) A wattmeter can measure power in single-phase circuits directly. But in order to measure
power. Consider at any instant, current through the load is i and voltage across the load is carries the whole of load current and for this reason it is made of thick copper wire of 3-phase power, one or more wattmeters are used. The various methods available for the
v and the power factor of the load is supposed to be cos φ lagging. comparatively few turns.
measurement of power in 3-phase circuits are,
u =Vm sinθ Range extension. Since a dynamometer wattmeter is principally used for a.c. power
i = Im sin (θ−φ) measurement, range extension shall be discussed with reference to a.c. power measurement. The ● One wattmeter method
Instantaneous deflecting torque ∝ u i usual ranges of dynamometer wattmeters are from 0-25 A to 0-50 A for current coil circuit and
from 0-15 V to 0-750 V for potential coil circuit. The cun-ent coil (i . e . , fixed coils) carries the ● Two wattmeter method
Due to inertia of moving system, the pointer cannot follow the rapid changes in the instantaneous
whole of load current and for this reason it is made of thick copper wire of comparatively few ● Three wattmeter method
power. Hence the wattmeter indicates the average power.
turns. The current through the potential coil (i.e., movable coil) is limited to about 30 mA by The one-wattmeter method is used for the measurement of three-phase power in case
∴ Average Deflecting torque (τd) ∝ Average of v i over one cycle. means of a high series resistance (i . e . , multiplier). balanced loads only. It is used for both star and delta connected loads. Two wattmeter method
and three wattmeter methods are used for both balanced and unbalanced loads.
In this article let us see about the measurement of power by one wattmeter method.
One Wattmeter Method of Power Measurement :
Where, V and I are RMS values
This method is used only for a balanced load. When a 3-phase system is connected to a balanced
3-phase load, then the entire power consumption of the load can be determined by using a single
wattmeter, whose arrangement is shown below.
Since the controlling torque in the wattmeter is provided by spring. Thus,

Under steady state condition,

τd = τc

The phasor diagram of the balanced 3-phase system is shown below. A three-phase two-watt meter measures the current and voltage from any of the 2 supply lines of o Industrial Power Measurement: For monitoring and managing power consumption in
3 phase corresponding to the 3rd supply line of 3 phase. The 3 phase 2 wattmeter is said to be at industrial facilities.
a balanced load condition if the current in every phase lag at an angle “φ” with phase voltage. o Commercial Buildings: Ensuring efficient power usage and identifying potential issues
Construction of Two Wattmeter Method. in power distribution systems.
o Educational Purposes: Demonstrating power measurement techniques in electrical
The 3-phase power of a 3-phase circuit can be measured using 3 ways they are, engineering courses.
● 3 Wattmeter Method o Research and Development: Analyzing power systems in laboratories and during the
● 2 Wattmeter Method development of new electrical components.
● 1 Wattmeter Method.
The main concept of 2 Wattmeter with 3 phase voltage is to balance the 3 phase load by
satisfying the condition of current lagging at an angle ‘φ’ with the voltage phase. The schematic Measurement of Active Power in three phase circuit for balanced Load by three wattmeter
diagram of 3 phase 2 wattmeter is shown below method :
Power measurement in an AC circuit is measured with the help of a Wattmeter. A
wattmeter is an instrument which consists of two coils called Current coil and Potential coil.
The current coil having low resistance is connected in series with the load so that it carries the
The wattmeter current coil is connected in series with any one of the lines and load current.
hence carries the full line current. The voltage coil is connected in such a way that, one The potential coil having the resistance is connected across the load and carries the current
end to the line in which the current coil is placed, the other end is connected to the proportional to the potential difference.
remaining two lines through an SPDT switch, and hence the line voltage will be For measuring the power in a 3 phase or Poly Phase system, more than one wattmeter is
impressed on it. required, or more than one readings are made by one wattmeter. If more than one wattmeter is
connected for the measurement, the process becomes convenient and easy to work with instead
Here an SPDT switch is used to change the voltage coil connection between two phases. Hence, of taking various readings with one wattmeter.
the sum of readings of the wattmeter with two different positions of the switch will give the total Three-Wattmeter Method of Three-Phase Power Measurement
power consumed by the load. Let the phase voltages of the phases R, Y, and B be VR, VY, and Three Wattmeter method is employed to measure power in a 3 phase, 4 wire system. However,
VB respectively the phase/line currents of the phases R, Y, and B be IR, IY, and IB respectively. As this method can also be employed in a 3 phase, 3 wire delta connected load, where power
the system is a balanced one, the impedances of the phases must be equal. It consists of 2 wattmeters like W1 and W2, where each wattmeter has a current coil ‘CC’ and a consumed by each load is required to be determined separately.
When SPDT switch is at position 1, the wattmeter reading indicates, pressure coil ‘PC’. Here, one end of wattmeter ‘W1’ is connected to ‘R’ terminal whereas one end of
W1 = VRY IR cos (30° + Φ) wattmeter’ W2′ is connected to’ Y’ terminal. The circuit also consists of 3 inductors ‘Z’ which are The connections for star connected loads for measuring power by three wattmeter method is
= √3VI cos (30° + Φ) constructed in a star topology. The 2 ends of inductors are connected to 2 terminals of a wattmeter shown below:
When SPDT switch is thrown to position 2, the wattmeter reading indicates, whereas the third terminal of the inductor is connected to B.
W2 = VRB IR cos (30° - Φ) Advantages of Two Wattmeter Method
= √3VI cos (30° - Φ) o Versatility: Applicable to both balanced and unbalanced loads.
Total power i.e., the sum of the readings of two wattmeters is, o Simplicity: Straightforward connection and calculation process.
o Accuracy: Provides accurate measurements in various types of three-phase systems.
Measurement of Power Factor Using One Wattmeter Method : o No need to open the load connections
By subtracting W1 wth W2, we get, o Neutral connection is not necessary
Dividing equations 2 and 1, we get, Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter Method
Therefore power factor, o Complexity in Delta Systems: Measurement and calculations can become complex in
Power measurement in a 3-phase system using one wattmeter can be done only when the load delta-connected systems.
is balanced. Any slight change in load on any phase produces a significant error in the readings. o Non-availability of Neutral: Difficulties arise when the neutral point is not accessible in
However, in order to measure 3-phase power in unbalanced load, two wattmeter or three star-connected systems.
wattmeter method is used. o Not suitable for 4 wire 3 phase systems
o Errors may occur due to improper connections
Applications of Two Wattmeter Method of 3 Phase Power Measurement
Measurement of Active Power in three phase circuit for balanced Load by two wattmeter method :
The two wattmeter method is widely used in various applications:
 The pressure coil of all the three wattmeters namely W1, W2 and W3 are connected to a ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT Uses : Single-phase energy meters measure the electricity consumption in residential and small
common terminal known as the neutral point. The product of the phase current and line voltage SUB CODE – EE PC-209 commercial buildings with a single-phase power supply. They use a neutral and a phase cable to distribute
represents phase power and is recorded by an individual wattmeter. 3RD SEM (EE DIPLOMA) AC power, with the phase cable carrying the load and the neutral cable completing the circuit. Energy
The total power in a three wattmeter method of power measurement is given by the algebraic Prepared by- S.Das. meters used in homes or in small scale industrial application facilitates in keeping a check on energy
sum of the readings of three wattmeters. i.e. UNIT – 4 & 5 consumption. This benefits in controlling unnecessary power usage & also helps in protecting appliances
where, from controlling fluctuations in power outages.
W1 = V1I1 Unit - 4
W2 = V2I2
W3 = V3I3 MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC ENERGY 3-ph Electronic Energy Meter :
Except for 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load, 3 phase power can be measured by using only Two The 3-phase electric meter is used for measuring the power of three-phase electrical
1-ph Electronic Energy Meter : supply, most commonly for commercial use.
Wattmeter Method.
A single phase energy meter is designed to measure the electricity consumption of Constructional features : Three-phase electronic multi-function energy meter is mainly
Measurement of Active Power in three phase circuit for unbalanced Load : residential and small commercial properties. It operates on a single alternating current (AC) composed of a power supply and a management unit, an acquisition unit, a control unit, a display
The two wattmeter method is used for measuring the power in three-phase, three-wire circuit and is suitable for applications where the electrical load is relatively low. A single phase unit, a storage unit, a clock unit, and other units. Energy meters have four main parts, the driving
systems. It is applicable to both balanced and unbalanced loads and can be used in star (Y) or meter also referred to as credit meters, KWh meters, or check meters are electrical meters system, the moving system, the braking system, and the registering system. The driving system
delta (Δ) connected systems. Two wattmeter method is the most used method to measure the designed for use in measuring the power consumption in a single-phase power supply. These
power in both balanced and unbalanced loads. The two-wattmeter method is a technique used to starts the meter's work, using electrical energy flow for power. The moving system then turns
meters, however, only deal with Alternating current (AC power) supply and not the Direct this power into mechanical action.
measure three-phase power in an electrical system, especially in an unbalanced load. current (DC) power. The energy meter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to record
Electrical Energy Consumed over a specified period of time in terms of units is the base to raise the bill Construction of Three Wire, Three Phase Meter
Effect of power factor variation on wattmeter readings in two wattmeter method. by power supplier.
The readings from the two wattmeters can vary depending on the Power factor of the Constructional Features : Single-phase meters have two electromagnets: one is a series magnet, ● 1) Shunt electromagnet – A three phase meter has two sets of shunt electromagnet.
system: Power Factor (pf) = 1 (Unity): 𝑊1 and 𝑊2, will have equal readings. Power Factor (pf) and the other is a shunt magnet. An aluminum disk is present between these two magnets that ● 2) Series electromagnet – A three phase meter has two sets of series electromagnet.
< 1 (Lagging): 𝑊1 will be greater than 𝑊2. Power Factor (pf) > 1 (Leading): 𝑊2 will be greater rotates in a magnetic field. The rotating speed of this disk is directly proportional to the ● 3) Rotor Discs.
than 𝑊1 appliance part. The energy meter contains an aluminum disc whose rotation indicates the power ● 4) Braking Magnets.
Measurement of Reactive Power in 3-ph Circuit consumption of the load. This disc is positioned in the air gap between the series and shunt ● 5) Cyclometer & Display Mechanism.
Three Phase reactive power can be measured by two wattmeter method which is universally electromagnets. The shunt magnet is equipped with a pressure coil, while the series magnet
adopted Method. The difference between higher reading wattmeter and lower wattmeter reading contains a current coil. Working Principle : The 3-phase electric meter is used for measuring the power of three-phase
yields VL*IL Sinϕ. So, the total 3 phase reactive power is √3 VL * ILSinϕ. electrical supply, most commonly for commercial use. The three phase energy meter has two
The formula for 3-phase reactive power is Q = sqrt(3) x V x I x sin(φ), where Q is the reactive discs mounted on the common shaft. Both the disc has its braking magnet, copper ring, shading
power, V is the line voltage, I is the line current, and φ is the phase angle between the voltage band and the compensator for getting the correct reading. The two elements are used for
and the current.
measuring the three phase power. The construction of the three phase meter is shown in the
Maximum Demand Indicator
figure below.
Maximum Demand Indicator (MDI) is an instrument for measuring the maximum
amount of electrical energy required by a specific consumer during a given period of time. MDI
instruments record the base load requirement of electrical energy.
Construction : MDI instruments record the base load requirement of electrical energy. They can
also measure the peak load, but are unable to record sudden short circuit or high motor starting
currents. The main parts of MDI are: Dial connected with moving system.
Working Principle : A maximum demand meter or indicator measures the highest amount of
electrical power consumed by a particular consumer during a specified period (usually half an
Working Principle : The functioning of a single phase energy meter is based on the principle
hour). A half-hourly meter records the power demand regularly and stores this information for
of electromagnetic induction. When an electrical current flows through the circuit, it generates a
future analysis.
magnetic field. Single-phase meters have two electromagnets; one is a series magnet, and the
other is a shunt magnet. An aluminum disk is present between these two magnets that rotates in a
magnetic field. The rotating speed of this disk is directly proportional to the appliance part.

For three phase meter, the driving torque of both the elements is equal. This can be done by The construction of Kelvin double bridge is similar to the wheat stone bridge, but the only
adjusting the torque. The torque is adjusted by connecting the current coils of both the elements difference is it consists of 2 arms “P & Q”, “p & q” where the arm “p & q” is connected to one end of the
in the series and their potential coils in parallel. The full load current is passed through the coil galvanometer, at “d” and “P & Q” is connected to another end of the galvanometer, at ‘b’. This
due to which the two opposite torque is set up in the coil. connection minimizes the effect of connecting lead and the unknown resistor R & a standard resistor S is
placed between ” m and n”, and “a and c”.
The strength of both the torques are equal, and hence they do not allow the disc to rotate. If the
torque becomes unequal and the disc rotates then the magnetic shunt is adjusted. The balance
torque is obtained before testing the meter. The position of the compensator and the braking
magnet are separately adjusted to each of the element for obtaining the balance torque.
Uses : A 3 phase electric meter is a device used to measure the consumption of electricity in systems that
operate on a three-phase power supply. Essentially, it's a tool that allows utility companies and consumers
to accurately track and bill for the amount of electricity used in such systems. The 3-phase electric meter
is used for measuring the power of three-phase electrical supply, most commonly for commercial use.

The Errors of these electric energy meters and their compensation :

In an energy meter, phase angle errors occur as a result of improper adjustments of lag condition,
abnormal frequencies etc. Due to temperature, changes in resistance values also lead to error in the phase
angle. Creeping error is the kind of error in which the energy meter consumes a very small amount of Uses : Induction types of energy meters are universally used for the measurement of energy in domestic
energy even when no load is attached to the meter. The creeping increases the speed of the disc even and industrial A.C circuit. The unit of electrical energy is a kilowatt hour (KWh).
under the light load condition which increases the meter reading. Advantages of Induction meter
Compensations include light load adjustment using a shading loop, creeping adjustment using ● No moving iron.
holes in the disc, lag adjustment using shading coils or bands, overload compensation using a magnetic
shunt, voltage compensation using saturable shunts, and temperature compensation using a temperature
● High torque is to weight ratio. Principle of Kelvin Bridge
● The moving element has no electrical contact with the circuit.
shunt. A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure resistance equal to or greater than 1 – ohm, but if we
● Less affected by stray magnetic field.
1-ph & 3-ph Induction type Energy Meter : want to measure the resistance below 1 – ohm, it becomes difficult because the leads which are connected
● More accurate on a wide range of loads.
Induction-type meters measure power in alternating-current circuits and are the type commonly to the galvanometer adds up the resistance of the device along with the resistance of leads leading to
● Good damping.
seen on the outside of houses. Specialized watt-hour meters include totalizing meters, which record the variation in the measurement of the actual value of resistance. Hence in order to overcome this problem,
power used in more than one circuit, and highly accurate portable meters, which are used for testing we can use a modified bridge called kelvin bridge.
installed. Induction type of energy meters are universally used for the measurement of energy in domestic Calibration of Single-phase electronic energy meter using direct loading.
Energy Meter calibration refers to the process of verifying the measurement accuracy and
and industrial ac. circuits. Induction types of meters possess lower friction and a higher torque/weight
working status of the Energy Meter through the actual test. This process involves testing, comparing and
Derivation
ratio.
judging the energy meter to determine the accuracy and reliability of its measurement results.
Working Principle - The induction type of energy meter used is based on the “electromagnetic induction” The ratio p/q = P/Q,
principle They are known as induction-type instruments. An induction meter can handle current up to 100 Under the balanced condition current in galvanometer = 0
A. One kilowatt-hour (1 kWh) is equivalent to a power of 1 kW used for 1 hour, or 0·5 kW for 2 hours, 2 Unit – 5 (Part -1) Potential difference at a & b = voltage drop between Eamd .
kW for 0·5 hours, etc. The working principle and construction of an induction type meter are
simple and easy to understand, making them popular for measuring energy in homes and Measurement of Circuit Parameter, CRO and Other Meters :
industries. In all induction meters, two fluxes are produced by different alternating currents on a Measurement of Resistance :
metallic disc. These alternating fluxes create an induced emf. This emf interacts with the
alternating current on the opposite side, producing torque. 1. Low Resistance : Kelvin’s Double Bridge :

A Kelvin bridge, also called a Kelvin double bridge and in some countries a Thomson bridge, is a
measuring instrument used to measure unknown electrical resistors below 1 ohm. It is specifically
designed to measure resistors that are constructed as four terminal resistors. A kelvin bridge or kelvin
double bridge is a modified version of the Wheatstone bridge, which can measure resistance values in the
When galvanometer shows zero then-
range between 1 to 0.00001 ohms with high accuracy. It is named because it uses another set of ratio arms
and a galvanometer to measure the unknown resistance value. The basic operation of the Kelvin double
bridge can be understood from the basic construction and operation of the kelvin bridge.
 also known as meg-ohm-meter. It is used in several areas like multi-meters, transformers, electrical ● Testing of battery, relay, ground connection etc.
wiring, Etc. Megger device is used since the 1920s for testing various electrical devices which can
measure greater than 1000meg-ohms. It has two main elements, a magnet-type de generator to supply Advantages
current for making measurements, and an ohmmeter which measures the resistance value. The generator ● Permanent magnet DC generator
armature is turned by a hand crank usually through step-up gears, to produce an output voltage of 500 V. ● The resistance between the ranges zero to infinity can be measured.
While testing the terminals X and Y are connected across the terminal and body of the machine for
measurement. Now the current passes through the deflecting coil B. The deflecting torque produced by Disadvantages
We know that P/Q = p/q coil B interacts with the torque of coil A and rotates the moving element to indicate the resistance value. ● There will be an error in reading value when the external resource has low battery,
● Error due to sensitivity
For obtaining perfect results, the arms ratio should be maintained equal and the thermo-electric
Insulation Resistance ● Error due to a change in temperature.
electromagnetic field induced in the bridge while taking readings can be reduced by interchanging the
Insulation resistance is resistance in ohms of wires, cables, and electrical equipment, which is used to
polarity of the connection. Therefore the unknown resistance value can be obtained from the two arms. Megger is an electrical instrument used to determine the range of resistances between zero to infinity.
safeguard the electrical systems like electrical motors from any accidental damages like electrical shocks
Typically, it measures 1 – 0.00001 ohm with an accuracy ± 0.05% to ±0.2%, in order to achieve or sudden discharges of current leakages in wires. Initially, the pointer is at the infinite position, it gets deflected when an emf is generated from infinity to
sensitivity the current to be supplied should be large. zero, which depends on Ohm’s law. There are two types of meggers, manual and electrical megger. The
Advantages main concept of megger is to measure insulation resistance and machine windings.
Principle of Megger
The principle of Megger is based on moving coil in the instrument. When current is flowing in a 4. Measurement of Inductance using Anderson Bridge.
The advantages are
conductor, which is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque.
● It can measure the resistance value in the range of 0.1 µA to 1.0 A.
Where vectored Force = strength and direction of the current and magnetic field. The Anderson Bridge is a specialized bridge circuit used for measuring the self-inductance (L)
● Power consumption is less
Case (i) Resistance of insulation = High; pointer of moving coil = infinity, and quality factor (Q) of an inductor. It's particularly effective for inductors with high (Q) values. The
● Simple in construction
Case (ii) Resistance of insulation = Low; pointer of moving coil = zero. bridge achieves this by balancing the reactance of the inductor with known resistance and capacitance
● Sensitivity is high.
It is the comparison between Insulation resistance and the known value of resistance. It provides the
highest accuracy in measurement than other electrical measuring instruments. components.
Disadvantages The Anderson’s bridge gives the accurate measurement of self-inductance of the circuit. The
Construction of Megger bridge is the advanced form of Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge. In Anderson bridge,
The disadvantages are the unknown inductance is compared with the standard fixed capacitance which is connected between
● For knowing whether the bridge is balanced or no, the sensitive galvanometer is used. Megger is used to measure a high value of resistance. Megger consists of the following parts.
the two arms of the bridge.
● To obtain good sensitivity of the device, a high current is required.
● Manual adjustments are to made periodically when required. ● DC generator Constructions of Anderson’s Bridge
● 2 Coils (Coil A, Coil B)
Applications ● Clutch
The application of the Kelvin double bridge is ● Crank handle
● It is used to measure the unknown resistance of a wire. ● terminal X & Y

By incorporating an additional set of ratio arms connected to a central measurement point, the kelvin
double bridge enables obtaining precise resistance readings free from such error-inducing external
resistances. A better approach is to measure RA by connecting in parallel the ammeter and the voltmeter
and calculating RA = V/I. Once RA is known, we can use configuration (b) regardless of the value of R/RV.
R=VRIR=V1−V2I1.

2. Medium Resistance : Voltmeter and Ammeter Method

The magnitude of resistance can be measured by different methods. One method is to measure the
voltage drop V across a resistance n a circuit with a voltmeter and the current I through the resistance with
an ammeter. Then using Ohm's Law, R = V/I.. Ohm's Law suggests a method for measurement of
resistance. If a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage (V) across an unknown resistance (R), and an
ammeter is used to measure the current (i) through the same unknown resistance, then R would be given
by R = V/I.
Applications of Megger :
3. High Reistance : Megger ● The electrical resistance of insulator can also be measured
Megger is a portable instrument to measure high insulation resistances. It works on the principle ● Electrical systems and components can be tested The bridge has fours arms ab, bc, cd, and ad. The arm ab consists unknown inductance along
● Winding installation. with the resistance. And the other three arms consist the purely resistive arms connected in series with the
of electromagnetic induction. An instrument that is used to measure insulation resistance is a Megger. It is

circuit. The static capacitor and the variable resistor are connected in series and placed in parallel with And r4 is a variable non inductive resistor connected in parallel with variable capacitor c4. Now the
the cd arm. The voltage source is applied to the terminal a and c.
supply is given to the bridge between the points a and c. The detector is connected between b and d.
From the theory of ac bridges we have at balance condition,
Theory of Anderson Bridge

Let, L1 – unknown inductance having a resistance R1. Advantages of Anderson Bridge

R2, R3, R4 – known non-inductive resistance Substituting the values of z1, z2, z3 and z4 in the above equation, we get
C4 – standard capacitor The following are the advantages of the Anderson’s Bridge.
1. The balance point is easily obtained on the Anderson bridge as compared to Maxwell’s inductance
At balance Condition, capacitance bridge.
2. The bridge uses fixed capacitor because of which accurate reading is obtained.
3. The bridge measures the accurate capacitances in terms of inductances.

Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge

Now,
The main disadvantages of Anderson’s bridge are as follow.
1. The circuit has more arms which make it more complex as compared to Maxwell’s bridge. The
equation of the bridge is also more complex.
2. The bridge has an additional junction which arises the difficulty in shielding the bridge.

The other balance condition equation is expressed as Because of the above-mentioned disadvantages, Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge is used in the
circuit.

5. Measurement of Capacitance using Schering Bridge.

Schering Bridge Theory :

By substituting the value of Ic in the above equation we get,

By separating and equating the real and imaginary parts of the equation, we obtain :

And

on equating the equation, we get

The Schering Bridge is designed to measure a capacitor’s capacitance, dissipation factor, and
Equating the real and the imaginary part, we get relative permittivity. Below is an illustration of the Schering Bridge circuit:
Here, c1 is the unknown capacitance whose value is to be determined with series electrical resistance r1.
c2 is a standard capacitor.
c4 is a variable capacitor.
r3 is a pure resistor (i.e. non inductive in nature).
 Let us consider the phasor diagram of the above Shering bridge circuit and mark the voltage
drops across ab,bc,cd and ad as e1, e3,e4 and e2 respectively. From the above Schering bridge phasor
diagram, we can calculate the value of tanδ which is also called the dissipation factor.

The equation that we have derived above is quite simple and the dissipation factor can be calculated
easily. Now we are going to discuss high voltage Schering Bridge in detail. As we have discussed that
simple Schering bridge (which uses low voltages) is used for measuring dissipation factor, capacitance
and measurement of other properties of insulating materials like insulating oil etc.

6. Earth Tester : (Working, Connection Diagram, Application)

A grounding resistance tester also called an earth tester is a soil resistance measuring instrument.
It is used for sizing and projecting grounding grids. It works on the principle of Ohms law. Here the user
does not have to have to disconnect the ground system to process measurement.
Construction & Working Principle :
The Earth Resistance Tester uses a hand-driven generator. The rectifier and the rotational current Earth testers operate based on Ohm's Law, where the measured ground resistance (R) is
reverser are the two principal components of the Earth Tester. The rectifier converts AC (Alternating determined by dividing the potential difference (V) by the injected current (I). The formula is expressed
Current) into DC. The Earth Tester works only on DC (Direct Current). The rectifier and current reverser as R = V/I. The tester automatically calculates the ground resistance based on these principles.
have clambered on the shaft of the DC generator. The tester has two commutators installed The pressure and current coils have two-two terminals each. These pairs are placed across a
simultaneously with the current reverser and rectifier. Each commutator consists of four fixed brushes. permanent magnet. One synchronized pair of current and pressure coils are short-circuited, and connected
to the ancillary electrodes. The other pressure coil is connected to the rectifier at one end and an earthing
electrode at another end. The current coil is too connected in a similar manner. The potential coil is 7. Digital Multimeter : (Working Principle, Block Diagram, Application)
undeviatingly united to the DC generator. The potential coil is placed amidst the permanent magnet. This Digital multimeters are measuring instruments that can measure quantities such as voltage,
coil is connected to the pointer and the pointer is calibrated to the scale. This resistance pointer indicates current, and resistance. Measured values are shown on a digital display, allowing them to be read easily
the measurement of the earth’s resistance. and directly, even by first-time users. It also called a volt-ohmmeter (VOM), is an electronic instrument
Application : A grounding resistance tester also called an earth tester is a soil resistance measuring used to measure various electrical quantities in a circuit. It is a multifunctional tool that combines several
instrument. It is used for sizing and projecting grounding grids. measurement functions into one device. The most common measurements for multimeters include
voltage, current and resistance.
Difference between Earth Resistance Tester and Megger Working Principle : A digital multimeter (DMM) is a versatile electronic device used to measure
The table shows the difference between the two :- various electrical properties, including voltage, current, and resistance. The working principle of
the multimeter is to use different measurement techniques to measure electricity. While there are
many types of multimeters, the common type is the digital multimeter (DMM), which uses
analog-to-digital conversion to display measurements on a digital screen. The working principle of
the multimeter is to use different measurement techniques to measure electricity.

Other measurements: Advanced multimeters can use other techniques to measure capacitance, frequency,
temperature, and other quantities. These measurements involve different measurement circuits and
sensors specific to the respective quantities.
Different multimeters have different accuracies, measurement ranges, and capabilities, so it is critical to
refer to the manufacturer's instructions and specifications to ensure proper use and accurate measurements
for your particular multimeter model..

Applications :
A multimeter is a device used to measure multiple parameters of an electric circuit like voltage,
current, and resistance. The device is made up of a digital or analog meter, batteries, resistors, and other
circuitry, which ensure the measurement of several electrical quantities with very high accuracy and
speed. It checks alternating current (AC) voltage, direct current (DC) voltage, resistance and amperage.
Use a multimeter to test electricity in batteries, appliances and outlets. While there are many types of
multimeters, the common type is the digital multimeter (DMM), which uses analog-to-digital conversion
to display measurements on a digital screen. Here is an overview of how a multimeter generally works:
Voltage measurement : When measuring voltage, connect the multimeter in parallel to the circuit or
component under test. In this mode, the multimeter acts as a high-resistance voltmeter. It uses a voltage
divider circuit and an analog-to-digital converter to measure the voltage and display it on the screen.
Current measurement : Connect the multimeter in series to the circuit when measuring current. In this
mode, the multimeter acts as a high-resistance voltmeter. It uses a voltage divider circuit and an
analog-to-digital converter to measure the voltage and display it on the screen.
Resistance measurement : When measuring resistance, the multimeter makes a known small current flow
through the component, measures the voltage drop across it, and then uses Ohm's law to calculate the
resistance.
Diode test : When testing a diode, the multimeter applies a small forward bias voltage and measures the
resulting current. It detects the direction of current flow and displays the forward voltage drop across the
diode, indicating its functionality.