19EE301

Measurements & Instrumentation

Systems

by
Sakthisudhursun B.
Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,

Mepco Schlenk Engineering College
Sivakasi
 Methods of Measurement
Direct Method
• Unknown quantity is directly compared against a
standard
• Result is expressed as numerical number and a unit
• Common for measuring length, mass

Indirect Method
• Used when desired parameter to be measured is difficult to be
measured directly
• But the parameter got some relation with some other related
parameter which can be easily measured.
 Direct Method Example
Measurand
Compare Result
Standard
 Classification of Instruments based
on comparison
• Deflection Type
• Null Type
Deflection Type:
• Value of the quantity being measured is displayed in terms
of the amount movement of a pointer.
Example: PMMC meter, MI meter, multimeter
Example for Deflection Type Instrument:
 Null Type Instrument
• Zero or Null indication leads to determination of
magnitude of measured quantity
• Null condition depends on other known conditions

Example for Null Type Instrument:

 Null Type Instrument

Advantages:
• Null type instrument more accurate than deflection type
• Highly sensitive
Disadvantage:
• Time consuming since requires many manipulations before null
detection
 Classification of Instruments

Primary
Indicating
(Absolute)
Instrument
Instruments
Instruments
Secondary Recording
Instruments Instrument

Integrating
Instrument
 Classification of Instruments
• Absolute Instrument: Gives the magnitude of the quantity to be measured
in terms of the constants (dimensions like length , number of turns and etc.)
and fundamental units.
• Calibration & comparison are not required
• Example :A tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh current balance
• In Rayleigh current balance, current flowing through coils will exert
some force
• This Force is measured by the balancing weight in a balance
• Current is calculated from force and coil dimensions
• Used in standard laboratory for calibration of secondary instrument
• Takes more time since every time measurement takes lot of time to
compute magnitude of quantity
 Classification of Instruments
• Secondary Instruments: They give direct values of measured
quantity (with the help of pointer & scale or a digital display)
• These have to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument
• Without calibration deflection of such instrument has no
meaning
• CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS:

i. Indicating instruments
ii. Recording instruments
iii. Integrating instruments
 Classification of Secondary Instruments
Indicating Instruments:
Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to
be measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale

Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter

 Classification of Secondary Instruments
Recording Instruments:
The instruments which keep a continuous record of the
variations of the magnitude of an electrical quantity to be
observed over a defined period of time.
Example: Graphic Recorder, X-Y Recorder, Paper less recorder
 Classification of Secondary Instruments
Integrating Instruments:
• These instruments totalize events over a specified
period of time
Example: Energy Meter, odometer
The Energy meter measure the total amount electrical
energy supplied over a period of time.
 Essentials of Indicating Instrument
• Indicating instrument consist essentially pointer which moves
over calibrated scale & which is attached to moving system
• Moving system essentially subject to three torques
1. Deflecting Torque (operating torque)
2. Controlling Torque (Restoring torque)
3. Damping Torque
 Deflecting Torque
• Deflecting torque is required for moving the pointer from its
zero position
• Can be produced by one of the following effects
1. Magnetic effect
2. Heating effect
3. Electrostatic effect
4. Electromagnetic (or) induction effect
5. Hall effect
• Deflecting system of instrument converts electrical current or
voltage into a mechanical force
 Controlling Torque
• Deflection of moving system is indefinite if there is no control torque
• Controlling torque opposes the deflecting torque
• Pointer brought to rest position when controlling force is equal to deflecting
force
• The controlling torque developed in an instrument has two functions:
1. Limits movement of moving system & ensures that magnitude of
deflection always remains same for a given value of quantity to be
measured
2. Brings back moving system to its zero position where the quantity being
measured is removed or made zero
 Controlling Torque
• Controlling torque is achieved by any one of following method
• Spring Control
• Gravity Control
Spring Control:
• In spring control the controlling torque is achieved by two spiral hair spring
attached to moving system
• With deflection of pointer, spring is twisted in opposite direction
• This twist in spring produces control torque proportional to angle of
deflection
• Springs are used as leads of current to the instrument
• Phosphor bronze is most suitable used material for making spring
 Spring Control
TC  k
where k  spring constant

Ebt 3
k
12l
where E  Young' s modulus of spring
b  width of spring
t  thickness of spring
l  length of spring
  Anular deflection in rad
The spring material should also have following properties:
• It should have low resistance
• The temperature coefficient should also be low.
• The springs must be of non-magnetic material
 Spring Control
• If deflecting torque is directly proportional to current then at steady
condition of pointer

Td  Tc
K d I  kθ
Kd
θ I
k
θI
 Gravity Control
• Small adjustable weight called control weight is attached to spindle of
moving system such that deflecting torque produced by instrument has to act
against action of gravity
• Another adjustable weight attached to moving system for zero adjustment &
balancing purpose is called as balance weight
• When the control weight is in vertical position the controlling torque is zero
& hence the pointer must read zero
Gravity Control
 Gravity Control
• Weight acts at a distance l from the center
• Component of weight trying to restore the pointer back to zero
position is W sin Ɵ
• Expression for control torque:

TC =force×distance
TC  W sin   l
 Wl sin 
 k g sin 
 Activity: Compare Gravity Control &
Spring control
Compare based on
Scale (Relation between angle of deflection and current)
Position of usage
Aging problem
Cost
Performance variation with temperature
 Gravity Control
Advantages of Gravity Control:
• It is cheap and not affected by temperature variations.
• It does not deteriorate with time.
• It is not subject to fatigue
Disadvantages of Gravity Control:
• Since controlling torque is proportional to sine of angle of deflection, scale is
not uniformly divided but cramped at its lower end.
• Gravity control instruments must be used in vertical position so that the
control weight may operate & also must be leveled otherwise they will give
zero error
 Damping Torque
• Moving system of instrument will tend to move under the action of
deflecting torque.

• On account of control torque, it will try to occupy a position of rest when

two torques are equal & opposite.

• Due to inertia of moving system, the pointer will not come to rest
immediately but oscillate about its final deflected position

• Damping torque is stabilizing torque which brings the pointer to steady

state quickly

• The damping torque is proportional to the speed of rotation of the moving

system
 Damping torque

• Ideally the damping torque has to produced only when the

moving system is in motion
• To be effective damping torque should be proportional to
velocity of moving system & independent of operating
current

1.Air Friction Damping

2.Fluid Friction Damping
3.Eddy Current Damping
Air Friction Damping
 Air Friction Damping
• Light aluminum vane is attached to the moving system
• Consists of piston moves in fixed air chamber which is closed at one end
• Clearance between piston & wall is uniform throughout and very small
• When piston moves into the chamber the air inside is compressed
• Hence pressure of air builds up which opposes the motion of piston and whole
moving system
• When piston moves out of chamber vice versa action happens to develop
damping torque
• Used in moving iron & dynamometer type of instrument where the operating
magnetic field is weak
Advantages:
Simple and cheap
Suitable for meters with low operating magnetic field
Air Friction Damping
 Fluid friction Damping
• similar to air friction damping
• Mineral oil is used in place of air
• As the viscosity of oil is greater, the damping force is also much greater

Method 1:
• Disc is attached to the moving system is immersed
in the fluid
• When the moving system moves the disc moves in
oil and a frictional drag is produced.
Method 2:
• Number of vanes are attached to the spindle is
arranged to move in the damping oil
 Eddy Current Damping

• Aluminum disc is connected to spindle

• Arrangement of disc is made such that, when
it rotates cut the magnetic field produced by
permanent magnet

• When pointer rotates aluminum disc cuts the magnetic field produced by magnet
• Hence as per Faraday’s law an EMF will be induced & since disc is closed path
current will flow.
• This current is called as eddy current and it opposes the cause that producing it
(i.e.,) movement of pointer

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 31

 Principle of operation of PMMC
Basic Principle of PMMC:
Current carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in magnetic field

Factors affecting force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field:

• Strength of the magnetic field
• Current flowing through the wire
• Length of the wire

F=BIlsinθ,
where
F is force acting on a current carrying conductor,
B is magnetic flux density (magnetic field strength),
I is magnitude of current flowing through the conductor,
l is length of conductor,
θ is angle that conductor makes with the magnetic field.
Construction of PMMC
Construction of PMMC
Construction of PMMC
Moving Coil: PMMC Construction
• Wound with many turns of enameled or silk covered copper wire
• Coil is mounted on rectangular aluminum former which is pivoted on jewelled
bearing
• Coils move freely in the field of permanent magnet
• Magnetic former are used for voltmeter
• Non magnetic former are used for ammeter
Permanent Magnet:
• Olden days U-shaped magnet having soft iron pole pieces are used
• To make field radial and uniform
• To decrease the reluctance
• Flux density of permanent magnet varies from 0.1wb/m2 to 1Wb/m2
• Movement of coil is restricted (i.e.) no part of coil is allowed to move near pole
tips where there is a fringing
• Limitation is overcome by concentric type construction
 PMMC Construction
Control Torque:
• Provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs
• Spring also serves as lead for in and out of coil
Damping Torque:
• Damping torque is provided by eddy current damping
• When aluminum former moves with moving coil in the field of permanent magnet,
induces a voltage in it
• This voltage causes eddy current to flow in it
• These current exerts force on former & thus damping torque is produced
• By Lenz’s law this force opposes the motion of the former
Pointer and Scale:
Pointer is carried by spindle & moves over graduated scale
Made from light weight aluminum
 PMMC meter errors
Errors in PMMC:
• Error due to aging
• Strength of spring changes with time
• Weakening of permanent magnet due to ageing & temperature effects
• Flux density of permanent magnet weakens with increase in temperature
• Weakening of springs due to temperature effects
• A 1⁰C rise in temperature reduced the strength of spring about 00.04%
• Change of resistance of moving coil with temperature
• Copper wire having a temperature co-efficient of 0.004/⁰C. Causes serious
error when used in micro and milli ampere range of current flows through
moving coil
 PMMC Advantages &
Advantages: Disadvantage
• Scale is uniform
• Power consumption is less
• High Torque-to-weight ratio which gives high accuracy
• Error due stray magnetic field are less due to high operating flux density
Disadvantage:
• Can be only used to measure DC voltage & current
Reason:
 During positive half the pointer experiences force in one direction & in
negative half pointer experiences force in opposite direction
 Pointer can’t follow rapid reversal and deflection corresponds to mean
torque which is zero
• Cost is high
 Moving Iron (MI) Instruments

Two basic forms of moving iron instrument:

1. Attraction Type
2. Repulsion Type
Basic working Principle:
• Attraction Type: Operation depends on attraction of single piece of soft iron
into a magnetic field
• Repulsion Type: Operation depends on repulsion of two adjacent pieces of iron
magnetized by same magnetic field

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 40

 Attraction Type Moving Iron (MI)
Instruments

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 41

 Construction of Attraction Type Moving Iron (MI)
Instruments
• Fixed Coil:
• Coil is flat in shape & has narrow slot like winding
• The operating magnetic field is produced by the fixed coil which carries the
operating current
• Moving Iron:
• Moving iron is flat disc or a sector which is eccentrically mounted
• Working:
• When current flows through coil magnetic field is produced & moving iron
moves from weaker field to stronger field (i.e.) moving iron is attracted
towards the coil

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 42

 Repulsion Type Moving Iron (MI) Instruments
Repulsion Type:
It consists of two vanes inside the coil
One vane is fixed & other is movable
Working:
• When current flows through fixed coil both vanes are magnetized with same
magnetic polarity
• Hence they repel each other as result movable vane moves & therefore the pointer
will also move over a calibrated scale
Other operating forces:
• Control torque is provided by springs
• Damping torque is air friction damping
• Operating magnetic field is very low in Moving Iron instruments & hence eddy
current damping can’t be used
10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 43
Repulsion Type Moving Iron (MI) Instruments
 Construction of Repulsion Type
Moving Iron (MI) Instruments
Two different construction based
on vane construction:
1. Radial Vane
2. Co-axial vane
Radial Vane: Radial strips of iron
is used & strips are placed with in
the coil
Co-axial vane: Fixed & movable
vanes are sections of co-axial
cylinders

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 45

 Moving Iron (MI) Instruments
• What ever may be direction of current in moving coil, iron disc is always
attracted in attraction type and moving vane is always repelled in repulsion
type
Hence can be used for AC & DC but calibration for both is not same

• Control torque is provided by springs

• Damping torque is air friction damping
• Since Operating magnetic field is very low in Moving Iron instruments
 Electrodynamometer based Wattmeter

2-dimension simple wiring diagram 3-dimensional cut section

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 47

Electrodynamometer based Wattmeter
 Electrodynamometer based Wattmeter
Important Parts:
1. Fixed coil
2. Moving coil
Fixed coil:
• Divided into two sections to give more uniform field near center & to allow passage of
instrument shaft
• Wound with heavy wire when used as ammeter and current coil of wattmeter
• Wound with thin wire when used as voltmeter
• Stranded wires are used to reduce eddy current losses
Moving Coil:
• Both fixed and moving coil are air cored & Wound on non metallic former
• Wound with thin wire when used as voltmeter and pressure coil of wattmeter
• Wound with thin wire and provided with shunt when used as ammeter
• Moving coil is attached to spindle

10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 49

 Electrodynamometer based Wattmeter
Control Torque:
Provided by two control springs
Damping Torque:
Provided by air friction damping
Pointer:
Pointer is attached to spindle, hence when moving rotates pointer is allowed to move
over a calibrated scale
Shielding:
The field produced by these instruments is very weak. Even earth's magnetic field
considerably affects the reading. So shielding is done to protect it from stray magnetic
fields.
Deflection Torque: The deflecting torque is produced due to interaction of magnetic
field produced by fixed coil and current in moving coil.
10/8/2022 Basic Electrical and Electronics Engg. 50
 Extension of meter range
The moving coil instruments can carry the maximum current
of about 50 mA safely and the potential drop across
the moving coil instrument is about 50 mV.
However, in practice, heavy currents and voltages are
required to be measured.

Then how to measure Range

Large current and High Extender
voltage ?????
 Extension of meter range
• The shunts & multipliers are used to extend the range
of moving coil ammeters and voltmeters respectively.
• A shunt is a small resistance connected in parallel with
ammeter to extend its range
• A multiplier is a high resistance connected in series with
voltmeter to extend its range
Derivation for Shunt Resistance

R m  Meter resistance
R sh  shunt resistance
I m  Full scale current of meter
I sh  Current through shunt
I  Current to be measured
 Derivation for Shunt Resistance
 
I m R m  Ish R sh I  I m  Ish
Im R m
 R sh Ish  I  I m
Ish
Im R m Im R m
R sh  R sh 
Ish I - Im
Derivation for Shunt Resistance
I
Let, m 
Im

Rm
R sh 
I Im
-
Im Im
Rm
R sh 
m -1
Multi-Range Ammeter

are multiplying factors of shunt

Multi-Range Ammeter
Make before Break Switch

Break before Make Switch

 Universal or Ayrton shunt

The meter will never be left without a parallel connected shunts

At 5A position Rm+R2+R3 is in parallel with R1

At 1A position Rm+R3 is in parallel with R1+R2
At 0.5A position Rm is in parallel with R1+R2+R3
Derivation for multiplier Resistance

R m  Meter resistance
R s  Multiplier resistance
I m  Ifs  Full scale current of meter
V  Voltage to be measured
Vm  Voltage across meter
 Derivation for multiplier Resistance
 
Vm  I m R m
I m RS  mI m R m  I m R m
V  I m RS  I m R m
I m R m m  1
Let, m 
V RS 
Vm Im
RS  R m m  1
I m RS  I mR m
m
Im R m
 Multi-Range Voltmeter

R1  R m m1  1
R2  R m m2  1

R3  R m m 3  1

V1 V2 V3
m1  m2  m3 
Vm Vm Vm
Multi-Range Voltmeter using potential divider
arrangement
Requirements of shunts & Multiplier
 Problem on shunts & Multiplier
• An ammeter with an internal resistance of 2.5Ω has a full
scale deflection of 100mA. Calculate the resistance which
is necessary to enable it to used as
• A voltmeter with a range of 0-100V
• An ammeter with a range of 0-10A
 Solution: Multiplier Resistance
RS  R m m  1
R m  Meter resistance  2.5
R s  Multiplier resistance  To find
I m  Ifs  Full scale current of meter  100mA
V  Voltage to be measured  100V
Vm  Voltage across meter  I m  R m  0.25V

V 100
m   400
Vm 0.25
 Solution: Multiplier Resistance
RS  R m m  1

RS  2.5400  1  997.5
 Solution: Shunt Resistance
Rm
R sh 
m -1
R m  Meter resistance  2.5
R sh  shunt resistance  To find
I m  Full scale current of meter  100mA
I sh  Current through shunt  Unknown
I  Current to be measured  10A

I 10
m   100
I m 0.1
 Solution: Shunt Resistance

Rm
R sh 
m -1
2.5 2. 5
R sh    0.02525
100 - 1 99
What is the full scale range when the key is connected to ‘A’
position (in 𝒎𝑨) and ‘B’ position (in 𝒎𝑨) ?

Source: NPTEL course on “Electrical Measurement and Electronic Instruments”

Hint
Hint for when key in position A
 Solution: When Key in ‘A’ position

Ish R sh  I m R m  R external 

3
Ish R sh  10 10  99
 0.99V
0.99V 0.99
Ish    0.99 A
R sh 1
Solution: When Key in ‘A’ position

I  I m  Ish
3 3
 10 10  990 10
3
 1000 10
 1000 mA
 Hint for when key in position B

Im Im
Ish Ish
I I
 Solution: When Key in ‘B’ position

Ish R sh  I m R m 

Ish R sh   10 10  90 3

 0.9V
0.9V 0.9
Ish    0.09 A
R sh 10
Solution: When Key in ‘B’ position

I  I m  Ish
3 3
 10 10  90 10
3
 100 10
 100 mA
Instrument Transformer
 Instrument Transformer
In general what is a transformer?
• Device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits
• While doing energy transfer it can alter the voltage and current
What is an instrument Transformer?
• Transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for
measurement purpose.
Two Types:
• Current Transformer (CT) : Used in conjunction with ammeter
• Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer (PT): Used in
conjunction with Voltmeter
Source: NPTEL course on “Electrical Measurement and Electronic Instruments”
 Instrument Transformer
Why we need instrument transformer?
• Limitation of shunts & multiplier for measuring high voltage &
current
Limitation of Range extenders:
• Power consumption
• Measuring circuit is not isolated electrically (i.e.) Thereat to the
operator
• Accuracy of shunt and multipliers is limited

Above limitation are over come by use of Instrument Transformer

Source: NPTEL course on “Electrical Measurement and Electronic Instruments”
 Instrument Transformer
Advantages of instrument transformer?
• Measuring circuit is isolated from the power circuit
• The secondary rating of instrument transformers are standardized so it reduces
over all cost
• Low power consumption in metering circuit
• Several instrument can be operated from single instrument transformer
• Instrument of moderate size is used to metering (Ammeter: 0-5A, Voltmeter: 0-
100V)
Current Transformer
 Current Transformer
• Primary winding is connected in series with line carrying the current (system
current) to be measured
• Primary current is independent of secondary current (i.e.) load on secondary
• Primary current purely dependent on system current to which CT is connected
• Usually a CT is a step up transformer
• Hence primary winding consists of very few turns and secondary winding has large
number of turns
• The exact number of secondary turns depends on turns ratio
• One of terminal of CT is grounded
Why?
• To protect the equipment and person in the vicinity in the event of an insulation
failure
• If not grounded high voltage will induce on secondary
 Current Transformer

• Primary winding consists of bar of Primary winding has more than

one full turn wound on core
suitable size
Identify which one is bar type and which one is
wound type

Bar Type Wound Type

 Current Transformer Construction
The following three types of core constructions are generally employed :
1. Core type
2. Shell type
3. Ring type 


Clamp on current Transformer
 Transformation Ratio, Some definition
Primary winding current
R for a CT
Secondary winding current
Primary winding voltage
R for a PT
Secondary winding voltage

Nominal Ratio,
Rated Primary winding current
Kn  for a CT
Rated Secondary winding current
Rated Primary winding voltage
Kn  for a PT
Rated Secondary winding voltage

Transformation ratio
Ratio correction factor 
Nominal ratio
 Some definition
Secondary winding has a very small impedance or “Burden” , so
the current transformer operates on short circuit conditions.
The rated burden of Instrument Transformer :
Volt- ampere loading which is permissible without errors
exceeding the limits.
Potential Transformer
 Potential Transformer
• Primary winding is connected across the line carrying the voltage to be measured
• Primary current is dependent on secondary current (i.e.) load on secondary
• Usually a PT is a step down transformer
• Turn ratio of transformer is so designed which keep secondary voltage of 100to
120 V when full rated voltage is applied to the primary side
• Potential transformer is similar to the power transformer but only difference the
VA rating of PT is very small (Usually few volt-ampere)
• PT are used to operate voltmeters, the potential coils of wattmeter and energy
meter
• In PT full line voltage is applied across the primary where as voltage across
primary of CT is very small
• But CT carries full line current
 Potential Transformer
CT Transforms high current into low current
Secondary side can’t be open circuited when
under service
Secondary is used in conjunction with
ammeter or current coil of wattmeter
PT Transforms high voltage into low
voltage
Secondary side can be open circuited
when under service
Secondary is used in conjunction with
voltmeter or potential coil of wattmeter
 Construction of Induction type Energy Meter

Registering System
Moving System

Driving System

Braking System
Construction of Induction type Energy Meter
Construction of Induction type Energy Meter
. 1 - Voltage coil - many turns of
fine wire encased in plastic,
connected in parallel with load.
2 - Current coil - three turns of
thick wire, connected in series
with load. 3 - Stator -
concentrates and confines
magnetic field. 4 - Aluminum
rotor disc. 5 - rotor brake
magnets. 6 - spindle with worm
gear. 7 - display dials
Main parts of single phase energy meter:
1. Operating system
2. Moving system
3. Braking system
4. Registering or Counting system
Driving System:
• Consists of two electro-magnets: 1) Shunt magnet & 2) Series
magnet
• Cores of electromagnets is made up of silicon steel stampings
• Coil of shunt magnet is known as pressure coil
• Pressure coil is connected across the supply & carries current
proportional to supply voltage
• Coil of series magnet is known as current coil
• Current coil is connected in series with load & carries load current
• Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb
• Position of copper shading bands are adjustable
• Function of shading band is to bring the flux produced by shunt magnet
exactly in quadrature with applied voltage
Moving system:
• Consists of light rotating aluminum disk mounted on vertical
spindle or shaft
• Disc is placed in between series & shunt magnet
• Time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt & series
magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminum disc.
• Interaction between these two magnetic fields & eddy currents
set up driving torque in disc
• Spindle is supported by a steel pivot supported by jewel bearings
at two ends
• Pinion engages the shaft with counting or registering system
Braking System:
• Permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the
aluminum disc forms the braking system
• Due to relative motion between the rotating disc & fixed
permanent magnet induces eddy current in the disc
• This eddy current while interacting with brake magnet
induces the torque
• Position of permanent magnet is adjustable and thus braking
torque can be controlled by varying the position of
permanent magnet
Function of registering or counting system:
• To continuously record numerical value proportional to
number of revolution made by rotating system
• By suitable combination of train of reduction gears, rotation of
aluminum disc can be transmitted to different pointers to
register meter readings
• Finally kWh reading can be obtained by multiplying number of
revolution pointed out by dials with meter constant
Meter constant:
• A fixed value which is used when converting meter readings
to actual energy use
• Number of revolution made per kWh is termed as meter
constant.

No of revolutions
Meter constant (k) =
kWh

No of revolutions made
Energy recorded=
meter constant
Creeping:
• The slow and continuous rotation of rotor when only pressure coi
alone excited & current coil is not excited is termed as Creeping
• Cause:
• Incorrect friction compensation
• Stray magnetic field
• Excess voltage than normal supply voltage
• Method of Prevention:
• By drilling two diametrically opposite holes
• By attaching small piece of iron attached to edge of disc
 By drilling two diametrically By attaching small piece of iron
opposite holes attached to edge of disc

By drilling holes the eddy current path

along the disc will be distorted and disc
comes to rest when the hole come near
the edge of shunt magnet pole
Voltage & Current Measurement
using Instrument Transformer
Power Measurement using
Instrument Transformer
A single phase of power 5500 KW at 11 KV is to be measured by
means of wattmeter of 5 A and 110 V rating . Determine the
transformation ratio of potential transformer and current
solution :
transformer
power to be measured , P = 5500 KW
= 5500 X 103 W
Voltage on the primary, V1 = 11 KV
= 11000 V
Primary current, I1 = P/ V1
= 5500 X 103 / 11000
= 500 A
secondary voltage, V2 = 110 V
Voltage ratio of P.T. = V1/ V2 = 11000/ 110
= 100 : 1 Ans.
Current ratio of C.T. = I1/ I2 = 500/ 5
= 100 : 1 Ans.
Lag Adjustment Devices:
• The phase angle between supply voltage and pressure coil
flux should be equal to 90°.
• However in actual practice, the angle between supply
voltage and pressure coil flux is exactly not 90° but few
degrees less.
• Therefore, some lag adjustment devices are used for
adjustment of lag angle.
• Methods:
• Shading Coil with Adjustable resistance
• Shading Bands
Shading Coil with Adjustable resistance
Shading Band
Shading Coil with Adjustable resistance’s phasor Diagram