Week-4

Lecture-4
Analog Indicating Instruments

Chapter 2: Bakshi

1
 Introduction
 The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison
between the measurand and a definite standard
 Three basic quantities in electronic measurement are current,
voltage and power
 These quantities are useful for indirect measurement of other
parameters
 In this chapter, various instruments used for measurement of
current, voltage and power will be discussed
 The necessary requirement for any measuring instrument are:

2
 Introduction
 Force is the push or pull on an object with mass
that causes it to change velocity (to accelerate).
 Torque is a measure of the force that can cause an
object to rotate about an axis.
 In ammeter, torque is proportional to current to be
measured
 In voltmeter, torque is decided by current which is
proportional to the voltage to be measured
 All analog ammeter and voltmeters are basically
current measuring devices
3
Introduction

4
Introduction

5
Introduction

6
 Essential Requirement of Instrument
 For satisfactory operation of an instrument,
following system must be present

7
 Deflecting System
 In this system mechanical force proportional to the
measurand is generated, which deflects the pointer
 The deflecting torque overcomes
 Inertia of the moving system
 Controlling torque provided by controlling system
 Damping torque provided by damping system
 Deflection system uses one of the following effects
produced by current or voltage, to produce deflecting torque
 Magnetic Effect
 Thermal Effect
 Electrostatic Effect
 Induction Effect
8
 Deflecting System
 Magnetic Effect: When a current carrying conductor is placed
in magnetic field, it experiences a force which causes to move
it. This is used in moving coil instruments.
 Thermal Effect: Current to be measured is passed through a
small element which heats it to cause rise in temperature which
is converted to an e.m.f by a thermocouple attached to it
 Electrostatic Effect: When two plates are charged, there is a
force exerted between them, which moves one of the plates.
This effect is used in electrostatic instruments which are
normally voltmeters
 Induction Effects: When a non-magnetic conducting disc is
placed in a magnetic field produced by electromagnets which
are excited by alternating currents, an e.m.f is induced in it 9
Controlling System

 Controlling torque is provided by following:

 gravity control
 spring control

10
Torque
 Torque is the twisting force that tends to cause rotation.
The point where the object rotates is known as the axis of
rotation.

11
Gravity Control

12
Spring Control

13
 Damping System
 Deflection torque produce deflection and controlling
torque acts in opposite direction to that of
controlling torque.
 Before coming to rest pointer oscillates due to
inertia, about equilibrium position
 To bring pointer to rest within short time, damping
system is required
 Damping torque is proportional to velocity of
moving system and does not depend on operating
current
14
 Damping System
 Three configurations
 Over damped
 Critically damped
 Under damped
 Undamped
 Following methods are used to produce damping
torque
 Air friction damping
 Fluid friction damping
 Eddy current damping
15
Air friction damping

 Air friction damper consists of light aluminum piston

which is attached to moving system
 Piston moves in a fixed air chamber which is closed at one
end 16
 Air Friction Damping
 Piston reciprocates in the chamber when there are
oscillations, which causes the compression of air
inside chamber and pressure of air developed due to
friction opposes the motion of pointer
 So oscillations and overshoot get reduced by to and
fro motion of the piston in the chamber, providing
necessary damping torque
 This helps in settling down pointer to its final steady
position very quickly
 Fluid friction damping is similar process where air is
replaced by fluid 17
 Eddy Current Damping
 This is the most effective way of providing
damping. It is based on Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws
 When a conductor moves in a magnetic field
cutting the flux an e.m.f gets induced in it and
direction of this e.m.f so as to oppose the cause
producing it

18
 Galvanometer
 It is used for the detection and presence of small
voltages or current or to indicate zero current in
case of bridge circuit

19
 Galvanometer Construction
 Moving Coil: It is rectangular or circular in cross
section carrying number of turns of fine wire. It
consists of current proportional to the measurend.
It is suspended b/w air gap between poles of
permanent magnet and iron core
 Iron core: It is spherical if the coil is circular and
cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. It is used to
provide low reluctance path to magnetic flux and to
produce strong magnetic field. It ensures higher
deflection torque and better sensitivity of
galvanometer 20
 Galvanometer Construction
 Damping: It is also known as eddy current damping.
Eddy current developed in the metal former on which
coil is mounted, are responsible to produce damping
torque. For effective damping low resistance is
connected across the galvanometer terminals, by
adjusting the value of this resistance damping can be
changed and critical damping is achieved
 Indication: The suspension carries a small mirror
upon which a beam of light is cast through a glass
window. The beam of light is reflected on the scale,
placed at 1m away from the mirror 21
Torque Constant

Controlling torque provided by

spring is directly proportional
to final deflection of coil

For final steady position of coil

22
 Intrinsic Constant of Galvanometer
 Displacement :

 Velocity:

 Acceleration:

23
 Intrinsic Constant of Galvanometer
 Displacement Constant (G): Galvanometer
constant is displacement constant

 Control Constant: The elasticity of suspension is

proportional to displacement which produces
controlling torque. It brings the moving system
back to original position

24
 Intrinsic Constant of Galvanometer
 Damping Constant: It is also the torque retarding
the motion is friction in air or hysteresis in
suspension.

 Constant of Inertia (J): Inertia of system opposes

the motion. It produces a retarding torque

25
Dynamic Behavior of Galvanometer

26
Summary of 2nd Order Responses

27
Summary of 2nd Order Responses

28
Underdamped Motion

29
Overdamped Motion
Critically damped Motion
Under damped Motion
Un-damped Motion