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Measuring Instruments
Rajesh Kumar
Measuring Instruments
Two Types :
1. Absolute instruments :-
These give the magnitude of the quantity in terms of the constants of the
instruments. Example :-
a tangent galvanometer (used for measuring electric current)
2. Secondary instruments :-
These have to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument.
1. Indicating instruments (e.g., voltmeters, ammeters, etc)
2. Recording instruments (e.g., ECG).
3. Integrating instruments (e.g., energy-meter).
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Principle of Operation
• The effects generally utilized are:
Magnetic effect (for ammeters, voltmeters usually)
Electrodynamic effect (for ammeters, voltmeters but
particularly for wattmeter's)
Electromagnetic effect (for ammeters, voltmeters,
wattmeter's and watt-hour meters)
Thermal effect (for ammeters, voltmeters )
Chemical effect ( for dc ampere-hour meters)
Electrostatic effects (for voltmeters only)
Essentials of an Instrument
1. Deflecting Torque :
1. This can be produced by any of the effects of current (or
of voltage).
2. It is proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being
measured.
2. Controlling Torque : (i) Spring control, (2) Gravity
control.
1. It opposes the deflecting torque.
2. It is proportional to the deflection of the pointer.
3. Damping Torque : (i) Air friction, (ii) Fluid friction,
(iii) Eddy current.
1. It makes the moving system to come to its final steady
position quickly.
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Controlling Torque
• It opposes the deflecting torque.
c
• At pointer’s zero position, the controlling torque is
zero.
• At some position , the controlling torque becomes
equal to the deflecting torque.
• The pointer then stops moving further.
• It serves two functions :
1. The pointer stops moving beyond the final deflection,
2. The pointer comes back to its zero position when the
instrument is disconnected.
(i) Spring Control
Most commonly used.
One or two hairsprings made of phosphor bronze are used.
The outer end of this spring is fixed and the inner end is
attached with the spindle.
When the pointer is at zero of the scale, the spring is normal.
As the pointer moves, the spring winds and produces an
opposing torque.
The balance-weight balances the moving system so that its
centre of gravity coincides with the axis of rotation, thereby
reducing the friction between the pivot and bearings.
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Double Springs
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• Two springs A and B are wound in opposite
directions.
• On deflection, one spring winds while the
other unwinds.
• To make the controlling torque directly
proportional to the angle of deflection, the
springs should have fairly large number of
turns.
Advantages :
Since c and d I ; at final position, c d
Hence, I
These instruments have uniform scale.
Disadvantages :
The stiffness of the spring is a function of temperature.
Hence, the readings given by the instruments are temperature
dependent.
Furthermore, with the usage the spring develops an inelastic
yield which affects the zero position of the moving system.
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(ii) Gravity Control
A small control weight is attached to the moving system.
In addition, an adjustable balance weight is also attached to
make the centre of gravity pass through the spindle.
In zero position of the pointer, this control weight is vertical.
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When deflected by an angle θ, the
weight exerts a force,
The restraining or controlling
torque is thus developed is given as
c W sin L WL sin
Since d I , and c d
or WL sin kI
WL
I sin
k
or I sin
Disadvantage :
1. These do not have uniform scale.
2. These must be used in vertical position so that the control
may operate properly.
Advantages :
1. Less expensive.
2. Unaffected by changes in temperature.
3. Free from fatigue or deterioration with time.
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Damping Torque
Due to inertia of the system, the pointer moves ahead to
position A, before coming to rest.
This way the pointer keeps oscillating about its final steady-
state position with decreasing amplitude.
It settles at its final steady-state position when all its energy is
dissipated in friction.
The situation described above is very annoying.
Moreover, for every change in the magnitude of the quantity
being measured, one has to wait for some time.
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The remedy lies in providing a suitable damping
torque.
If over-damped, the time-delay in taking the reading
becomes unnecessarily long.
If under damped, the oscillations of the pointer
would not be killed completely.
Thus, the damping torque should be just sufficient to
kill the oscillation without increasing the delay-time.
This condition is said to be critically damped or
‘dead beat’.
Methods of Obtaining Damping Torques
It must act only when the deflecting system is moving.
The faster the motion, the stronger should become the
damping torque.
The magnitude of the damping torque should be
proportional to the speed of the deflecting system.
Different methods.
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(1) Air Friction Damping
(a) Piston in an air chamber. (b) Vane in an air chamber.
(2) Fluid Friction Damping
The vane is dipped in a pot containing damping oil.
The drag on the vane opposes its motion.
This arrangement can only be used in the instruments
which are held in vertical position.
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(3) Eddy-Current Damping
This is the most commonly
employed method.
Eddy currents in a metal Eddy currents in a metal
vane. disc.
Instruments
Moving Iron
Type
( D.C/A.C)
Attraction Type Repulsion Type
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Instruments
Moving Coil
Type
Electrodynamic
PMMC Type
or dynanometer
(D.C)
Type (Both)
Moving Iron ( Attraction Type)
• The operation of the attraction
type depends on the attraction
of a single piece of soft iron
into a magnetic field produced
by stationary coil, which is
excited by current /voltage
under measurement.
• When the current flows in the
stationary coil, the iron vane is
attracted into the field of
stationary coil.
• This attractive force so
produced rotates the moving
system.
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Moving Iron ( Repulsion Type)
• This type of instrument has a
stationary coil and two soft
iron vanes, one of which is
stationary coil frame; while the
movable vane is attached to
the shaft of instrument
• When current flows through
the stationary coil, the two
vanes get similarly magnetized
, thereby resulting in a force of
repulsion between them.
• This repulsive force rotate the
moving system
Moving Iron ( Repulsion Type)
• This type of instrument has a
stationary coil and two soft
iron vanes, one of which is
stationary coil frame; while the
movable vane is attached to
the shaft of instrument
• When current flows through
the stationary coil, the two
vanes get similarly magnetized
, thereby resulting in a force of
repulsion between them.
• This repulsive force rotate the
moving system.
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Moving Iron Instrument
• When instrument is used as an ammeter the
coil has comparatively few turns of thick wire
so that ammeter has low resistance because it
is connected in series with the circuit.
• In case when it is used as a voltmeter the coil
has high impedance so as to draw as small a
current as possible since it is connected in
parallel with the circuit.
Advantages and disadvantages
• Such instruments are cheap and robust , give a
reliable service and can be used on both dc
and ac circuits.
• Their scales are non-uniform.
• They involve hysteresis losses, due to stray
magnetic field.
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Moving Coil (PMMC)
• The operation of a moving-coil permanent-
magnet type instruments is based upon the
principle that when a current carrying
instrument is placed in a magnetic field, it is
acted upon by a force which tends to move it
to one side and out of the field.
• In these instruments deflection of the moving
system is directly proportional to the current
passing through the instrument.
Construction
• Moving coil ammeters and
voltmeters are used for
measuring current and voltage
• This instrument consist of a u -
shaped permanent magnet
fitted with two soft iron pole
shoes and a rectangular coil of
many turns wound on light
aluminum or copper former,
which is pivoted on jeweled
bearings so that it is free to
rotate in the air-gap between
the soft iron cylinder, and the
pole shoes.
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Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
Uniform scale.
High sensitivity.
Low power consumption.
Well shielded from any stray magnetic field.
Disadvantages:
Can be used for dc measurement only.
These are more expensive than moving iron
type of instruments.
Dynanometer Type
• Electrodynamic type instruments
are similar to the PMMC-type
elements except that the magnet is
replaced by two serially
connected fixed coils that produce
the magnetic field when energized
• The movable coil carries a
pointer, which is balanced by
counter weights. Its rotation is
controlled by springs.
• The motor torque is proportional
to the product of the currents in
the moving and fixed coils
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Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
• Free from hysteresis and • Low torque/weight ratio,
eddy current errors. hence more frictional errors.
• Applicable to both dc and ac • More expensive than
circuits. PMMC or MI instruments.
• Electro-dynamic voltmeters • Power consumption higher
give accurate r.m.s values of than PMMC but less than
voltage irrespective of MI instruments.
waveforms.
Wattmeter
• The real power in ac circuit is given by VIcos¢, where cos¢ is power
factor.
• The measurement of real power in ac circuits is done by using an
instrument which is known as wattmeter.
• The wattmeter comprises of two coils namely current coil and
pressure coil.
• The current coil is connected in series with the load and pressure coil
is connected across the load.
• The most commonly used wattmeters are of dynamo-meter indicating
type. The current coil is fixed and pressure coil is moving coil.
• The working of this type of wattmeter depends upon the
electromagnetic forces exerted between the current coil and pressure
coil.
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Wattmeter
• In order to take down the correct reading from
wattmeter a multiplying factor is to be used.
• The various values of multiplying factor are
mention on the meter.
• Many times it happens that the wattmeter gives –ve
reading. In such a case the connections of either
the current coil or pressure coil should be reversed.
Then the wattmeter will start reading +ve.
• The terminals of current are marked M - L for
mains and load.
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Energy Meter
• Energy meter is an instrument which
measures electrical energy. It is also
known as watt-hour (Wh) meter. It is
an integrating device. There are
several types of energy meters single
phase induction type energy meter are
very commonly used to measure
electrical energy consumed in
domestic and commercial installation.
Electrical energy is measured in kilo
watt-hours (kWh) by this energy
meter.
Construction
• A single phase induction
type energy meter consists
1. Driving System
2. Moving System
3. Braking System
4. Registering system
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• Driving System:- This
system of the energy meter consists of two silicon steel
laminated electromagnets. M1 & M2 as shown in fig.The electromagnet
M1 is called the series magnet and the electromagnet M2 is called the shunt
magnet. The series magnet M1 carries a coil consisting of a few turns of
thick wire. This coil is called the current coil (CC) and it is connected in
series with the circuit. The load current flows through this coil. The shunt
magnet M2 carries a coil consisting many turns of thin wire. This coil is
called the voltage coil (VC) and is connected across the supply it consist of
current proportional to the supply voltage.
• Moving system: - The moving system consists of a thin aluminum disc
mounted on a spindle and is placed in the air gap between the series and the
shunt magnets. It cuts the flux of both the magnet forces are produced by
the fluxes of each of the magnets with the eddy current induced in the disc
by the flux of the other magnets. Both these forces act on the disc. These
two forces constitute a deflecting torque.
• Braking system: - The braking system consists of a
permanent magnet called brake magnet. It is placed near the
edge of the disc as the disc rotates in the field of brake magnet
eddy current are induced in it. These eddies current react with
the flux and exert a torque. This torque acts in direction so that
it opposes the motion of disc. The braking torque is
proportional to the speed of the disc.
• Registering system: - The disc spindle is connected to a
counting mechanism this mechanism records a number which
is proportional to the number of revolutions of the disc the
counter is calibrated to indicate the energy consumed directly
in kilo watts-hour (kWh)
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Thank you
for your
attention
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