Chapter 2: Part A

1
Objective: To be able to comprehend and describe the
working principle of indicating instruments.

Contents

1.Essentials 2. Moving-iron 3. Moving-

of indicating type indicating coil type
instruments instruments indicating
instruments
Deflecting Controlling Damping Attraction Repulsion
torque torque torque Permanent Dynamometer
type type type
magnet
type

For 2 & 3: - Construction and basic operation

- Deflecting angle
- As ammeter and voltmeter
2
Classification of Instruments
Indicating Instruments
• indicate measured value in real time (instantaneously)
• by a pointer/indicator and a scale or digital (numerical)
display
• instrument e.g.: ammeter, voltmeter, thermometer
• quantity e.g.: current (A), voltage (V), temperature (°C)
Recording Instruments
• record measured value over a period
• instrument e.g.: chart recorders, X-Y recorder, plotters
• recording e.g.: I vs t, V vs t, T vs t, I vs V
Integrating instruments
• integrate measured value over a period
• instrument e.g.: Watt-hour meter, ampere-hour meter
• quantity e.g.: energy (W-h), charge (A-h) 3
Essentials of indicating instruments
All deflection instruments consist of a pointer
attached to a moving system that moves the
pointer over a calibrated scale.

The moving system is subjected to 3 types of

torques: F
• A deflecting torque
• A controlling torque
• A damping torque
r
Torque = force × distance from center
T = F × r (N-m)
4
Deflecting / Operating torque (Td)
Td is produced using one of the effects below:
• electromagnetic
• electrodynamic
• inductive
• thermal
• electrostatic

1. All these effects can be related to electric current.

2. Td causes the moving system to move from its zero
position.
3. Some deflection instruments are not electrically related
e.g.: Bourdon tube pressure meter (Chap 1).
5
GALVANOMETER – ELECTRIC CURRENT DETECTOR

6
Controlling / restoring / balancing torque (TC)
TC opposes Td
TC increases with deflection angle ()
When TC = Td , the moving system will be at rest.
When Td is removed, the moving system will be
returned (restored) back its zero position by TC.
If TC is not introduced to the moving system, the
moving system will move continuously over its
maximum deflection position, as long as Td > 0, and
will not go back to zero position after removing
current.
Two methods for TC:
• A spring - spring control
• A weight - gravity control 7
1) Spring control
A spirally wound hair-spring is used. With the pointer
deflection, the spring is twisted from its equilibrium
position, hence a restoring torque (TC) is produced.
Pointer comes to rest when TC = Td

Example:
Permanent-magnet moving
coil (PMMC) instruments
(to be covered in Chap2B):
Td  I
However, TC  
At TC = Td ,   I
or I   (the scale is linear) 8
Spiral spring characteristics:
The number of turns is fairly large so that no
deformation on the spring occurs. Then
TC = K for 0    max
K = spring constant (N-m/degree)
 = deflection angle from TC = 0 position.
Materials to make the spring must be:
• non-magnetic
• not subject to much deterioration with time
• low specific resistivity (if it carries current)
• low temperature coefficient of spring constant
Hence, phosphor-bronze material is used.
9
2) Gravity control (seldom used nowadays)

Td r

Zero TC
current
position

TC = r x Wsin
Obtained by attaching weights to parts of the system
so that the 2 exert torque in opposite directions. 10
TC = r x W sin
If W centers at the “nut”
r = constant
 TC  sin

Example: PMMC
Td  I At TC = Td , I  sin  (non-linear scale)

Advantages: cheap, temperature independent and

no deterioration with time
Disadvantages (compared with spring control):
cramped scale, vertical position operation
and 0 <  < 90º 11
Damping Torque
- acts on the moving system only when it is moving
and always opposes its movement
- Efficient damping: to slow down the moving
system so that pointer quickly reaches final
position without overshooting (critical damping).
UD
CD/OD
UD
UD
CD

OD
12
Methods of damping
• air friction (used if eddy current is not suitable)
• fluid friction (not often used)
• eddy current (most efficient)
Air friction damping: Air-chamber and Vanes

Construction materials: non-magnetic (Cu, Al)

Damping force  d/dt 13
 Eddy current damping Motion Induced
current
Fapplied (motion)
B
IE (induced) “Right-hand rule”
B B and Motion
induce IE

Force
IE (motion)

B
Fdamping (induced) B and IE
induce Fdamping I “Left-hand rule”

IE (hence Fdamping)  Fapplied or speed (m/s) 14

Eddy current damping
▪ Two forms of damping: disc and metal former.
▪ When a metal cuts through magnetic field, there is
a magnetic flux change in the metal and hence,
eddy currents are induced in the metal.
▪ The eddy currents will produce magnetic field
which interacts with the applied magnetic field.
This is to produce force with direction opposing
the direction of the metal movement.
▪ The magnitude of the force depends on the speed
of the metal movement.

15
RIGHT-HAND RULE Left-hand Rule
First finger for
Field, B
1

2
C
Se ond finger
for
Current, I

M
Thu b for
Motion, F 16
2 methods of eddy current damping:
•damping disc - other types of instruments
•damping metal former - PMMC instruments
materials: Cu or Al (non-magnetic conductor)
Damping disc

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Damping metal former

 FD
IE
S B N
IE
FD  18
 Damping disc
▪ A thin disc of conducting (non-magnetic) material like copper or
aluminium (preferred) mounted onto the spindle which carries the
moving system and pointer of instrument.
▪ The disc is positioned so that during rotation, it cuts the magnetic flux
between the poles of a permanent magnet.
▪ Hence eddy currents are produced in the disc which produces damping
torque in a direction to oppose the very cause producing them which is
the speed of rotation of the disc. Hence, these eddy currents retard the
motion of the disc and the moving system as whole.
Damping metal former
▪ Generally employed in permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC)
instruments. The coil is wound on a thin light aluminium former. Eddy
currents are induced when the former moves (due to deflecting force by
the coil) in the field of the permanent magnet.
▪ The eddy current interacts with the magnetic field to exert damping
torque, which opposes the coil rotation direction.
19
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=in1pyN_zt7E
INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
FOR CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
MEASUREMENTS

Lesson 2 20
Types of indicating instruments will be discussed:
1. Moving-iron type (for DC and AC):
(a) attraction type
(b) repulsion type

2. Moving-coil type:
(a) permanent-magnet type (for DC only)
(b) electrodynamic or dynamometer type (for DC
and AC)

21
 Moving Iron Instruments
as DC or AC ammeters and voltmeters
1. Attraction type – attraction of a single piece of
soft iron into a magnetic field generated by a
coil.
2. Repulsion type – repulsion of two adjacent
pieces of iron magnetised by the same magnetic
field generated by a coil.
The coils must generate sufficient ampere-turns
(NI) to attract or magnetise the irons.
As ammeter: low Vdrop  low Rcoil  low N
As voltmeter: small I  high Rcoil  large N
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Types of indicating instruments will be discussed:
1. Moving-iron type (for DC and AC):
(a) attraction type
(b) repulsion type

2. Moving-coil type:
(a) permanent-magnet type (for DC only)
(b) electrodynamic or dynamometer type (for DC
and AC)

23
Attraction type moving iron instrument

S Oval-shape
N
N S N S

Principle of operation of an attraction type

moving iron instrument 24
 Attraction type moving iron instrument
•The iron disc will swing into the coil when an electric
current passes through it.

•If a pointer is fixed to the spindle carrying the disc, then

the passage of current through the coil will cause the
pointer to deflect.

•The amount of deflection produced would be greater

when the current producing the magnetic field is greater.

•Whatever the direction of current through the coil, the

iron disc would always be magnetised in such a way that
it swings inwards. Hence such an instrument can be used
for DC and AC meters. 25
Deflecting torque

N
S F S N
H
Magnetization O
M  H sin(+) H sin(+)
F  MH  H2 sin(+) F cos(+)
HI H
F
Td = l  F cos(+)
Td  I2 sin[2(+)] (+) 26
[sin2A = 2sinAcosA]
 Deflection angle

Spring control Gravity control

TC   TC  sin
At equilibrium At equilibrium
TC = Td TC = Td
   I2 sin[2(+)]  sin  I2 sin[2(+)]

The scale of an ammeter and a voltmeter is uneven.

I = IDC or IRMS

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Types of indicating instruments will be discussed:
1. Moving-iron type (for DC and AC):
(a) attraction type
(b) repulsion type

2. Moving-coil type:
(a) permanent-magnet type (for DC only)
(b) electrodynamic or dynamometer type (for DC
and AC)

28
Repulsion type moving iron instrument

Coil A
max N S
N S
Repulsion N S

Frepulsion  I2coil Coil B 29

 Repulsion type moving iron instrument
•Consists of a fixed coil inside which are placed two soft-iron rods
(A and B) parallel to each other. A is fixed. B is moveable and
carries a pointer that moves over the calibrated scale.

•When the current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil,

it sets up its own magnetic field, which magnetises the two rods
similarly.

•The adjacent points on the lengths of the rods will have the same
magnetic polarity. They will repel each other with the result that the
pointer is deflected against the controlling torque of a spring.

•The force of repulsion is approximately proportional to the square

of the current passing through the coil.

•No matter what the direction of the current is, the two rods will be
magnetised with the same polarity and repel each other all the
time. 30
 Linear scale design

To achieve uniform scale,

two tongue-shaped strips of
iron are used, instead of two ‘Tongue-shaped’ iron-sheet
rods.
31
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ucGgo-CMYRM
 Deflecting torque
m1 m1
m1m2
Magnetic force (N), F = N S
4r 2
r F F
N S
m1 and m2 are pole strengths m2 m2
F  m1m2 and F  1/r2
If r is not changed,
Td  F  m1m2
m1 & m2  H  I
 Td  I2
If r is changed and r2  I , then Td  I at Td = TC
Control : Gravity or spring control 32
Damping for moving iron instruments

- Pneumatic (air chamber or vane)

- Eddy current damping is not suitable because the

additional magnet to produce eddy current will
affect the moving iron deflection (the generated
magnetic field is weak due to air core).

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 Sources of error in
moving iron instruments
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(A) Error on both AC and DC meters
(i) Error due to hysteresis of the iron parts

B Low hysteresis material

Meter (reading during incr. H)

< (reading during decr. H)
AC meter: the effect is
H
negligible.

(ii) Error due to stray magnetic field

The instruments are operated at low field which
can be affected by external field. Need shielding.
35
(B) Error on AC meter only
(i) Change of coil impedance with frequency
Coil impedance, Z = R + jL, Z = [R2 + (L)2]
Occur on voltmeters, especially large L
Coil current, IRMS = VRMS / Z
For a given VRMS , IRMS(f1) < IRMS(f2) , where f1 > f2
 lower reading at higher frequency
How to compensate? Use a suitable capacitor
Advantages : cheap, robust, reliable, AC and DC
measurements.
Disadvantages : Hysteresis, low degree of
precision, frequency dependent.
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Change of self-inductance
L
Hence, there are changes in L in a coil
moving iron instrument.
soft-iron
Let:
Initial values: I,  and L coil
Final values: I+dI, +d and L+dL
Conservation of energy:
Ee = dEm + Ew + loss
Ee - energy from electric supply
dEm - change in magnetic energy
Ew - mechanical work done (deflection)
Loss - friction and hysteresis losses 37
Ee = Vemf  I  dt = I2dL + LIdI Normal: VL = L di/dt

d dL dI
Vemf = (LI) = I +L
dt dt dt
1 2  1 2
dE m =  (L + dL)(I + dI)  −  LI 
2  2 
1 2
= LIdI + I dL Neglect dLdI, (dI)2, dL(dI)2
2
Ew = Td d (energy stored in spring)
Ee = dEm + Ew and assume no loss
1 2 dL
And rearrange, Td = I
2 d 38
 Current and voltage range extension
Ammeter
DC: by a shunt resistor, RS IM = I{RS/(RS+RM)}
Multiplying power of the shunt: I I
M
I RM
N= = 1+ IS RM LM
IM RS
AC: by a shunt with RS and LS RS LS
IM R S + jLS R S (1 + jLS / R S )
= =
IS R M + jL M R M (1 + jL M / R M )
IM/IS = RS/RM when LS/RS = LM/RM - time constant
 independent of frequency 39
Voltmeter IM
DC: by a series resistor, RSr VM RM
Voltage magnification: V LM
V R Sr
= 1+ V-VM C
VM RM RSr
AC: by a RSr||C, RSr (non-inductive)
If frequency changes from f to f+df, the impedance
of the voltmeter must be practically constant. For
frequency up to 1kHz, if RM << RSr For a given V, IM is
L L constant due to
R Sr C = = 0.41 jLM (hence VM)
(1 + 2 )R Sr R Sr and 1/jC changes.
*Approximation 40
 Self-test questions

Q1: An ammeter which utilizes spring control produces a

deflection angle, θ = 25° for a current, I = 1.5A. What will
be the value of I for θ = 60°? Assume that the deflection
torque, Td, is proportional to I.

Ans: 3.6 A

Q2: The control torque, Tc, of an ammeter is proportional to

the sine of the deflection angle while the deflection torque,
Td, is proportional to square of the current. If a current of
5A produces deflection of 90º, what will be the deflection
angle (in degrees) for a current of 3A?

Ans: 21.1°
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