2.

Foundation

건축 재료 및 시공
Building Materials and Methods
(2023 Fall)

Dongmin Lee, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor
School of Architectural & Building Science
Chung-Ang University

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01 Foundations

▪ Dead loads are permanent

• Building self-weight
• Long-term, fixed equipment

▪ Live loads change with time

• Occupants
• Furniture

▪ Environmental loads
• Snow, wind, seismic, flood, etc.

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01 Foundations
▪ Must transmit building loads to the rock or soil on which
the building rests

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01 Foundations: Requirements

▪ Transfer the structural loads

• From a building into the ground.
▪ Support different kinds of loads
▪ Safe against a structural failure
▪ Must not settle in such a way
• Settle damages the structure or impairs foundations’
functions.
▪ Technically and economically Feasible
▪ Practical to build without adverse effects

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01 Foundations
• Must not allow building collapse

2018 상도유치원

2004 SAI building, Manila

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01 Foundations
▪ Must control settling
▪ Uniform settlement (균등침하): May disrupt building service entrances
or site elements at the building/site interface
▪ Differential settlement (부동/등 침하): May cause damage to finishes,
cladding, and even building structure where building becomes distorted

(a) Building before settlement (b) Uniform settlement (c) Differential settlement
occurs
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01 Foundations

• Must be economically and technically feasible

• Must not have adverse affects on surrounding structures

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EARTH
MATERIALS

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02 Classifying Earth Materials

• Particle size

• Moisture content

• Presence of organic content

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02 Classifying Earth Materials

• Rock (바위/암석): Continuous mass of solid mineral material

▪ Generally, the strongest, most stable of earth materials
▪ Strength varies with mineral content and physical structure

• Soil (토양, 흙): Particulate

▪ Properties vary with particle size and shape, mineral content, and sensiti
vity to moisture

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03 Particle Size Boulder

▪ Boulder (바위): Too big to lift with one hand

▪ Cobble(큰 자갈): Can be lifted in one hand
▪ Gravel(자갈): Individual particles can be lifted Cobble
between thumb and forefinger
▪ Sand(모래): Particles too small to be individually
lifted between fingers
▪ Silt(실트): Spherical particles, too small to see
with unaided eye
▪ Clay(점토): Smaller than silt, plate-shaped

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03 Particle Size
▪ Coarse-grained soils
• Gravel
• Sand

▪ Fine-grained soils
• Clay
• Silt

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06 Soil Properties

• Coarse-Grained Soils
▪ Cohesionless (응집력): Strength depends on friction and int
erlocking of adjacent particles (shear strength).
▪ When unconfined, have little strength
▪ Properties little affected by moisture content
▪ Free-draining: Good for draining water away from
foundations (기초) and substructures (건축물 하부) or from
under slabs on grade and pavements

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06 Soil Properties

• Fine-Grained Soils
▪ Smaller particle size makes them less free draining
▪ More sensitive to moisture
▪ Properties and strength vary with moisture content

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06 Soil Properties
• Clays (점토)
▪ Very small particles, with larger surface area
▪ Electrostatic forces cause particles to stick together: cohesive

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06 Soil Properties

• Clays

▪ Properties vary with moisture content and mineral composition

▪ Some are highly expansive when wetted

▪ Some are virtually impervious (불침투성) to water

▪ Some clays are subject to consolidation (압밀), or gradual

compression over time

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06 Soil Properties

• Liquefaction (액화)

▪ When saturated with water and subject to cyclic seismic

forces, some fine-grained soils will lose all shear strength
and behave almost as a liquid

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07 Soil Gradation

• Well graded soil (left): wide distribution of particle sizes

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07 Soil Gradation
• Well sorted soil (right): Limited range of particle sizes
• More void space; more free draining

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08 Soils for Foundations
• Strength: Generally, the larger the particle size, the stron
ger the soil

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08 Soils for Foundations

• Stability
▪ Generally, coarse-grained soils are less sensitive to moisture
content and more stable than finer grained soils.

• Imported soils: Brought from off site

▪ General purpose fill for raising grade: well-graded, coarse-
grained soil
▪ Drainage fill around foundations or under slabs: Gap grade
d or uniformly graded gravel with good drainage characteri
stics
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09 Exploration and Testing
▪ Determine the soil and water conditions beneath the site
• Test pits (터 파보기, 삽으로 구멍을 파보는 방법): not extend deeper than
roughly about 16 feet (3 m),
• Test boring (보링테스트, 지반에 구멍을 뚫어 지반을 조사): extend deeper than
test pit
• Load test (재하 시험, 재하판으로 하중을 가하여 하중-침하량 관계에서 지반의 지지력
을 구하는 시험): determine the stress the soil can safely carry and the amount
of settlement
• Penetration test (관입 시험, 63.5kg의 추를 75cm 높이에서 자유 낙하 시켜 표준
관입용 샘플러를 30cm 관입 시키는데 필요한 타격횟수를 측정): in-situ dynamic
penetration test designed to provide information on the geotechnical
engineering properties.

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 09 Exploration and Testing
• 터파보기 (Trial pit)
• 소규모 공사에서 얕은 지층의 토질, 지하수 등
의 상태 파악
• 굴착규모는 지름 60~90cm, 깊이 1.5~3.0m

• 보링테스트 (Test boring)

• 가장 보편적 조사방법
• 토질주상도 작성 가능
• Trial pit보다 더 깊은 토질 조사시 사용

* Source: 노인철, 건축시공, 문운당, 2015, p.63 (사진 좌)

: 히라구치 히데아키, 기초부터 배우는 건축시공, 기문당, 2014 (그림 우)
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09 Exploration and Testing

• 평판재하시험 (Plate bearing test)

• 구조물을 설치하는 지반에 직접 실시
• 하중-침하량의 관계에서 지반의 지지력을 산출하기 위함
• 재하판 지름의 2배에 해당하는 심도까지 적용
• 최소 3개소 시험, 재하판 직경의 5배이상 거리

• 표준관입시험 (SPT)
• Boring과 병행
• 지반의 밀실도를 N값(샘플러를 30cm 관입하는 데 요하
는 타격횟수)으로 판단

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EXCAVATION

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Overview of Earth Work

Ground Water
Control
Site
Excavation
Investigation

Retaining Wall &

Soil Monitoring Under Pinning
Support

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Characteristics of Earth Work
▪ High Possibility of “Change order”
• Based on the limited information; the design documents can be different from the
actual site condition (e.g., different soil condition, groundwater spill, deep bedrock..)

▪ High risk on schedule delay

• Public complaints or disputes related to cracks and settlement around buildings, as well as
noise, vibration, and dust
• Interference between structure and temporal facility (retaining wall & supports) for
earthwork

▪ Vulnerable to safety accidents

• Crack and settlement around buildings
• Strongly influenced by the weather conditions

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10 Excavation
• To place the footings out of reach of water and wind erosion (부식/침식)
• To place the footings at a depth where soil of the appropriate bearing
capacity

• Variety of excavating machines

• Bulldozers, shovel dozers, backhoes, bucket loaders, scrapers, trenching machines, power
shovels

• Sloped or benched excavation is less expensive than sheeted excavation, but requires a site without nearby pr
operty lines, adjacent structures, or other limits on excavation.
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10 Excavation Machines

Bulldozers Shovel dozers

Bucket loaders Scrapers Trenching machine

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10 Excavation Support

• Tiebacks leave the excavation unencumbered.

• Eventually, completed building foundation takes on role
of resisting soil pressures.
• Against soil and water pressures as the excavation dee
pens
• Temporary or Permanent

어스앵커

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10 Excavation Support

Earth Anchor Alpharium apt in Pangyo

Crosslot Bracing
on Samsung Digital City Site in Suwon
(by Pham Hai Chien in Contil, 2015)
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11 Soldier Beams and Lagging (엄지말뚝 공법)
▪ Before digging deep, H-pile of wide-flange steel section are driven or drilled into the
ground (1.5m apart) and are designed to withstand the lateral pressure exerted by the
surrounding soil
▪ Once the Solider beams are in place, horizontal support elements, such as timber lagging
or steel sheet piles are installed between the beams to create a retaining wall.
▪ Widely adopted when excavations are required.
▪ Fast and Easy to construct, but weak retaining force (wooden lagging)
▪ Not applicable when underground water level is high (weak against water-proof)

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11 Soldier Beams and Lagging (엄지말뚝 공법)
• Top: Soldier beams and lagging
• Middle: Soldier beams and shotcrete
• Bottom: Contiguous piers

Note also
tiebacks
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12 Steel Sheet Piling

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12 Steel Sheet Piling
▪ Steel sheet piles are long structural sections with a vertical interlocking system
that create a continuous wall. The walls are often used to retain either soil or water.
▪ Sheet pile can be re-used (economical)
▪ The depth of the retaining wall should be shallow (not deep)
▪ Easy and fast to construct, but high noise, vibration, and dust.

Interlocking
edgers

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13 Soil mixing
• Columns of soil strengthened with portland cement and
water are created prior to excavation.

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13 Soil mixing
• Soil mixed slope support, with soldier beams, walers, and
tiebacks

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13 Slurry Wall (Diaphragm Wall)
▪ Deep wall structures made of concrete, reinforced concrete or binding agents in the
building ground.
▪ Expensive, but low noise, vibration.
▪ Effective waterproofing, low settlement around the building.

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14 Dewatering
• The process of removing water from the soil or excavation site to create a
dry and stable work environment.
• It prevents soil erosion, and enable construction activities to proceed
without the hindrance of excess water.

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14 Dewatering
• Higher volumes of water: use well points or barrier wall
• Excavations must be kept free of standing water.
• Sump: Remove water by pumping as it accumulates in pits

*Water table: 지하수면

Two methods of keeping an excavation dry, viewed in cross section. The water sucked from well points depresses the
water table in the immediate vicinity to a level below the bottom of the excavation. Watertight barrier walls work only if
their bottom edges are inserted into an impermeable stratum that prevents water from working its way under the walls.
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14 Dewatering

Dewatering Defects at Samsung R&D Center in Seoul

(Report by Seung-Yoon Lee et al, 2013)

Steel Sheet Piling at the Incheon airport(2013) 41

14 Dewatering
• Well points, header pipe, and dewatering pump

• Remember: If the ground is

made of a clay material, it
has a strong water retention
force, making it difficult to
apply.
• In other words, well points
method is effective for sand
materials.

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FOUNDATIONS

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15 Foundations
• Shallow footings occur close to the bottom of the sub
structure.
• Deep footings extend to deeper, more competent soil.

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16 Column Footing

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17 Wall (Strip) Footing

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18 Slab on grade, Crawlspace, and Basement

Three types of substructures with shallow foundations. The slab on grade is

the most economical under many circumstances. A crawlspace is used under
a raised floor structure and gives easier access to underfloor piping and
wiring than a slab on grade. Basements provide usable space.

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19 Mat Foundation

• Close to bottom of substructure…

• A type that supports the entire load of the superstructure
with one foundation slab

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 19 Mat Foundation: Lotte world tower case

✓ 30 hours in total
✓ About 1000 m^3 per hour
✓ Total pouring volume 31,203 m^3

Source: 김정진 외(2015), 현장탐방: 롯데월드타워 신축공사 현장, 건축시공학회지 49

 19 Mat Foundation: Case

[KNN 뉴스]역대 최대 콘크리트 타설 - YouTube [Link] 50

20 Deep Foundations
• Where the soils directly below the building substructure
are weak or unstable, deep foundations transmit building
loads to deeper, stronger, or more stable soils.

pile

Caisson
Pier
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21 Piers
• Drilled into earth
• Steel reinforcing is being lowered into the drilled hole. Next, concrete
will be poured.

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22 Piles
• Driven into the earth
• May be made of steel, wood, or precast concrete (pictured here).

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23 Pile Cap
• Share loads among clustered piles

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24 Minipiles (Pin Piles)
• Pressed or rammed into place
• Used here for soil stabilization.

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25 Helical Piles (Screw Piles)
• A form of prefabricated deep foundation
• Made up of a steel shaft and with a number
of low pitched plates of a circular composition
welded along the shaft.
• High load capacity, easy installation, cost-effectiveness,
and resistant to corrosion and decay.

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26 Rammed aggregate piers (쇄석다짐말뚝)
▪ Ground improvement
▪ Permits shallow footings to be used where deeper types might
otherwise be required.
▪ Can be installed in almost all soil conditions, provides higher bearing
pressure.

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 28 Underpinning

• Strengthening existing foundation

* Source: 히라구치 히데아키 저, 홍정석 역, 기초부터 배우는 건축시공, 기문당, 2014.(그림)

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28 Underpinning
• Building super-structure temporarily supported on cribbi
ng while underpinning work proceeds.

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Homework #2
Please watch Youtube Videos on construction heavy equip
ment (e.g., backhoe, graders, scrapers…)
You should know their roles.

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