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Chapter Two
Site Investigation (Soil Exploration)
2.1 Introduction:
Site Investigation: It is (all the office, field and laboratory works)
done in order to (explore the subsurface of soil or rock conditions)
at any given site to (obtain the necessary information required in
design and construction). Subsoil exploration is the first step in the
designing of a foundation system. It consists essentially of boring,
sampling and testing.
Usually, the proper program of soil investigation for a given project
depends on the:
 Type and the importance of the structure,
 The nature of the subsoil involved,
 Type of equipment available,
 Ground water condition, and
 The amount of money allocated for the exploration .

2.2 Planning of Site Investigation:

Soil exploration program for a given structure can be divided into
four phases:
1. Compilation of the existing information regarding the structure:
This phase consists of gathering information such as the type of
structure to be constructed and its future use, the requirements of local
building codes and the column and load-bearing wall loads.

2. Collection of the existing information for the subsoil condition:

Useful information can be obtained from the following sources:
a) Geologic survey maps,
b) County soil survey maps, and
c) Existing soil exploration reports prepared for the construction of
nearby structures.

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3. Reconnaissance of the proposed construction site:

The engineer should visually inspect the site and the surrounding
area. The type of vegetation at a site may indicate the type of subsoil.
Open cuts near the site provide an indication about the subsoil
stratification. Cracks in the walls of nearby structure(s) may indicate
settlement from the possible existence of soft clay layer or the
presence of expansive clay soils.

4. Detailed site investigation:

This phase consists of making several test boring at the site and
collecting disturbed and undisturbed soil samples from various depths
for visual observation and for laboratory tests.

2.3 Purposes of the Soil Exploration:

1. To access the general suitability of the site.
2. To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of
the soil and rock, which may affect the design and mode of
construction of proposed structure and foundation.
3. Obtaining disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for visual
identification and appropriate laboratory tests and performing some
field tests, if required.
4. Assessing any special construction problems with respect to the
existing structures nearby. To ensure its safety.
5. To locate the level of the ground water table, its seasonal variation,
observing drainage conditions from and into the site and methods
of controlling it.
6. To achieve safe and economical design of foundations (best type
and depth of foundation) and temporary works.
7. Estimation of the probable settlement of the structure.
8. To find out the sources of construction material and selection of
sites for disposal of water or surplus material.

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2.4 Methods of Site Investigation (Drilling):

Drilling or Boring: It is a procedure of advancing a hole into ground.

A- Direct Methods:
The direct method of soil exploration usually consists of sinking a
borehole at a predetermined location to the required depth by a
method suitable for the site and to obtain fairly intact (undisturbed)
samples of soils from every stratum encountered or at suitably
selected depths. The samples obtained are utilized to get necessary
information about the soil characteristics by means of laboratory tests.

1- Trail pits:
A pit is dug either by hand or by a backhoe. Probably in a test pit, the
engineer can examine in detail the subsoil strata and take disturbed or
undisturbed samples at the desired location.

Advantages:
- Inexpensive (Cheap),
- Simple excavation using ordinary tools,
- Simple and reliable for stratification and types of soils,
- Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pit,
Disadvantages:
- Used for shallow depths of (4-5)m,
- Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and costly,
- Unsuitable in granular soils below water level, and
- Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils

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2- Auger drillings:
2.1 Hand and portable augers:
- Types: a) Iwan auger (diameter up to 200 mm)
b) helical auger (diameter 50 mm)
c) Short flight Auger
Advantages:
- Inexpensive (low cost),
- Simple to operate and maintain,
- Not dependent on terrain, and
- Portable.
Disadvantages:
- Slow compared with other methods,
- Depth limited to about 6m,
- Labor intensive,
- Undisturbed samples can be taken only for soft clay deposit, and
- Cannot be used in rock, stiff clays, and dry sand soils.

2.2 Power (mechanical) Augers

Truck or tractor mounted type rig and equipped with continuous flight
augers that bore a hole 100 to 250 mm in diameter.
- Its types:
a) short flight auger
b) continuous flight auger
c) continuous flight auger with hollow stem
d) bucket auger
Advantages:
- Quick, used in clay, sand or silt soils.
- Used in uncased holes, therefore no need for using drilling mud.
- Undisturbed samples can be obtained quite easily, and
- Groundwater location can easily be identified and measured.
Disadvantages:
- Depth limited to about 15m. At greater depth, drilling becomes
expansive, and
- Site must be accessible to motorized vehicle.

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3. Wash boring:
- Water is pumped through a string of hollow boring rods and is
released under pressure through narrow holes in a chisel attached to
the lower end of the rods.
- The soil is loosened and broken up by the water jets and the up and
down movement of the chisel.
Advantages:
- The equipment can be made from local, low-cost materials, and it is
simple to use,
- Possible above and below the water table, and
- Suitable for most soils.
Disadvantages:
- Slow drilling through stiff clays, gravels, and Boulders,
- Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained,
- Water is required for pumping, and
- Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.

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4. Rotary Drilling:
- Continuous rock core by means of rotary diamond drill bit attached
to core barrel and drill rod.
- A drill-pipe and bit are rotated to cut the rock. Air, water, or drilling
mud is pumped down the drill-pipe to flush out the debris.

Truck mounted rotary drill rig

with hydraulic drive system

Advantages:
- Quick,
- Can drill any type of soil or rock, Common type for bed rock.
- Possible to drill to depths of over 40 meters,
- Operation is possible above and below the water table,
- Undisturbed soil samples or rock cores can easily be recovered, and
- Water and mud supports unstable formations.
Disadvantages:
- Expensive equipment,
- Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle,
- Water is required for pumping,
- Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level, and
- Rig requires careful operation and maintenance (additional time
required for setup and cleanup).

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5- Percussion (cutter) boring:

A method of forming a hole using a “bailer”, which is lifted, rotated
slightly and dropped onto the bottom of the hole. Water is circulated to
bring the soil cutting to the ground surface. Casing is required as well
as a pump to circulate the water.
Advantages:
- Simple to operate and maintain,
- Suitable for a wide variety of rocks,
- Operation is possible above and below the water table, and
- It is possible to drill to considerable depths.
Disadvantages:
- Slow, compared with other methods.
- Equipment can be heavy.
- Water is needed for dry holes to help remove cuttings, and
- Due to high disturbance of soil, the obtained samples can not be
used for testing.

Angle Drilling

- Foundation testing for bridge abutments

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B- Indirect Methods: During recent years, it have been used.

1. Geophysical methods:
Several types of geophysical exploration techniques permit a rapid
evaluation of subsoil characteristics, allow rapid coverage of large
areas, less expensive and are less dangerous than conventional
exploration by drilling. However, in many cases, definitive
interpretation of the results is difficult. For that reason, such
techniques should be used for preliminary work only.
Other advantages of geotechnical geophysics are related to site
accessibility, portability, and operator safety.
Geophysical equipment can often be deployed beneath bridges and
power lines, in heavily forested areas, in urban areas, on steeply slopes,
on pavement or rock, and etc.
Geotechnical geophysics can be used to select borehole locations and
can provide reliable information about the nature and variability of the
subsurface between existing boreholes.
Lastly, geophysical surveys can enable engineers to reduce the number
of required boreholes.

An isolated geologic structure

such as a limestone pinnacle
might not be detected by a
routine drilling program

a) Seismic Refraction Survey

• useful in obtaining preliminary information about the thickness of
the layering of various soils and the depth to rock or hard soil at a
site.
• conducted by impacting the surface, and observing the first arrival of
the disturbance (stress waves) at several other points from the shot
point. The impact can be created by a hammer blow or by a small
explosive charge. The first arrival of disturbance waves at various
points can be recorded by geophones. The time of the refracted
sound arrival at each geophone is noted from a continuous reader.

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b) Electrical resistivity method

• Four metallic spikes (electrodes) are driven into the ground at equal
intervals along a line. A known potential is then applied between the
outer most electrodes and the potential drop between the inner most
electrodes is measured. This enables to estimate the resistivity of
stratum from which the nature of the stratum is predicted.
• The resistivity of various soils depends primarily on their moisture
content and also on the concentration of dissolved ions in them.
Saturated clays have a very low resistivity; dry soils and rocks have
a high resistivity.
• Used to determine vertical and horizontal extent of soil strata.
• More effective for depth < 30m.

2.5 Borings:
A) Logs of borings and records of tests results:
At the beginning, a map giving specific locations of all borings
should be available. Each boring should be identified (by number), and
its location documented by measurement to permanent features.

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The detailed information gathered from each borehole is presented in a

graphical form called the boring log. As a borehole is advanced downward, the
driller generally should record the following information in a standard log:
1. Name and address of the drilling company,
2. Driller’s name,
3. Job description and number,
4. Number, type, and location of boring,
5. Date of boring,
6. Subsurface stratification, which can be obtained by visual observation of
the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler, and thin-walled Shelby
tube sampler,
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and mud losses,
and so on,
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT,
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected, and
10.In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each run, the actual
length of coring, length of core recovery, and Rock quality designation,
RQD.
This information should never be left to memory, because doing so often
results in erroneous boring logs.

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Depending on the results of the laboratory tests and the field

observations, the actual subsoil profiles or logs of borings can more
accurately be sketched. In addition to, the actual description of soil
strata in each borehole is summarized within records of tests results.

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B) Number of boreholes:
There is no hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number of
borings. Obviously, the more boreholes and the closer they are spaced,
the more accurate the resulting geologic profile.
The spacing of borings can not be determined with absolute
exactness. They depend upon:
1. Nature and condition of soil.
2. The shape and extent of building.
3. Importance of the project (cost of boring).
 For some special structures:
- For individual buildings of less than 300m2 plan area, 3 boreholes
are the minimum (not to be on a straight line).
- For large sites or group of buildings, 5 boreholes are the minimum
(4 at corners and 1 at the middle).
- Retaining walls: minimum spacing 120m at centerline with some of
these BH located at both sides of the centerline.
- Slope stability problems: 3 to 4 BH at critical zones and at least one
BH outside the zone.

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C) Depth of boreholes:
For rough guidelines, the following criteria can be used for minimum
depths, from considerations of stress distribution or seepage:
1. Foundations:
• All borings should extend below all deposits such as top soils, organic
silts, peat, artificial fills, very soft and compressible clay layers.
• Boring should be sufficiently deep for checking the possibility of a
weaker soil at greater depth which may settle under the applied load.
• Deeper than any strong layer at the surface checking for a weaker
layer of soil under it which may cause a failure.
• The depth at which the net increase in stress due to the foundation or
building load is less than 5% of the effective overburden pressure.
• The depth at which the net vertical total stress increase due to the
foundation or building load is less than 10% of the stress applied at
foundation level (contact pressure).

 For group of overlapping stress zones footing or raft foundations,

explore to a depth equal 1.5B (B = least width of the group or raft).

 For heavy structures (pressure ≥ 200 kPa), the depth of borings should
be extended to 2B (width of footing).
 For strip footings, explore to not less than 3B (width of footing).
 For isolated footings, explore to 2 – 3B (width of footing).
 For multistory buildings, explore to:
(i) . (in meter).………for light steel or narrow concrete buildings ,

(ii) (in meter) ..……. for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings .

where : D =Depth of boring, Df =Depth of footing, and S =Number of stories .

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 If piled foundation is expected, depth of boring = (3 – 5) pile

diameter or (3m) into the bearing stratum.

2. Reservoirs: Explore soil to:

(i) The depth of the base of the impermeable stratum, or
(ii) Not less than 2 x maximum hydraulic head expected.

3. Roads, highways, and air fields:

The minimum depth is 5m below the finished road level, but should
extend below artificial fill or compressible layers.
In practice some realignment often occurs in cuttings, and side drains
may be dug up to 6m deep or to bore to at least 1.5 times the
embankment height in fill areas, and to at least 5m below finished road
level in cut.
4. Canals, deep cut and fill sections on side hills: Explore to at least to:
(i) 3m below the finished level in cut, or
(ii) B when B ≤ H, or (iii) H when B > H.

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5. Embankments:
The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the height of the
embankment and should ideally penetrate all soft soils if stability is to be
investigated. If settlements are critical then soil may be significantly
stressed to depths below the bottom of the embankment equal to the
embankment width.

6. Dams:
Because of the critical factor is the safety against seepage and
foundation failure, boreholes should penetrate not only soft or unstable
materials, but also permeable materials to such a depth that seepage
patterns can be predicted.
• For earth structures, a depth equal to 1.5 times the base width of the
dam, and
• For concrete structures, a depth between 1.5 and 2.0 times the height
of the dam.

7. Retaining walls, slopes stability problems: Explore to :

• 0.75 to 1.5H (wall height) or 1.5B (wall base width) whichever is
greater below the bottom of the wall or its supporting piles, in
addition to;
• It must be below an artificial fills or compressible layers, and deeper
than possible surface of sliding.

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2.6 Sampling and samples:

A- Types of samples:
During the boring, three types of representative soil samples should
be collected which are valuable to geotechnical engineers; these are as
follows:
1- Disturbed samples:
- Taken during boring in plastic bags.
- Used mainly for classification purposes.
2- Undisturbed samples:
- Special types of tubes are used such that the structure of the grains
is approximately the same as that in the site.
- Very difficult to obtain for various reasons.
- Used to determine the mechanical properties of soil.
1) Shear strength parameters
2) Consolidation characteristics
3) Permeability
4) Stress strain relationship (Young’s modulus)

3- (SS) samples:
Which are taken from standard split spoon sampler used in a standard
penetration test (SPT) that performed at different intervals depending
on the stratification of the soil.
4- Remolded samples:
- Disturbed samples compacted in special molds.
- For research purposes.

B- Sample disturbance:
1. Effect of area ratio:

For stiff clay < 20%, for soft clay ≤ 10% and samples with Ar > 20%
Considered as disturbed samples.

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2. Recovery ratio:

A recovery ratio of 1 indicates that, theoretically, the sample did not

become compressed from friction on the tube. A recovery ratio greater
than 1.0 would indicate a loosening of the sample from rearrangement
of stones, roots, removal of preload.

3. Effect of friction and adhesion (Inside clearance):

where Ci = inside clearance = (0.3 – 0.4)% and not more than 1% .

4. Effect of the way in which the force is applied to the spoon by
pushing or driving or by constant rate of penetration.

C- Causes of disturbance:
1- Due to advancing the borehole (during boring):
a) Sample friction on the sides due to auger rotation.
b) Samples below water table may drain during covering process.
c) Volume displacement of the tube.
2- Due to changes in prevailing conditions:
a) Loss of hydrostatic pressure may cause gas bubble voids to form
in the sample.
b) Changes in water and effective stresses during drilling.
c) Samples are always unloaded of the in-situ confining pressure
with some unknown resulting expansion.
d) Working environment (temperature).
e) Handling and transporting a sample from the site to the lab. and
transferring the sample from sampler to the test machine.

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Distribution of Disturbance

D- Soil Samplers:
1- Open Drive Sampler:
- Consist of a length of steel tube with a cutting shoe attached to one
end of the tube while the other end is connected to sampler head and
boring rod.
- Usual internal diameter = 100 mm, length = 450 mm, Ar = 30%.
- Suitable for clayey soils.

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2- Thin Walled Samplers: (Shelby or U100)

- The tube itself has a cutting edge.
- Used for soft to firm clay.
- Diameter = 35 to 100 mm, length = 400 to 500 mm, Ar = 10%.

Shelby Tube Sampler

3- Split Barrel Sampler:

- Consist of a tube, which is split longitudinally into two halves, a
shoe and a sampler head.
- Internal diameter = 35 mm, External diameter = 50 mm, Ar = 100%.
- Used with standard penetration test (SPT) in sand.

Split Barrel Sampler: Open sampler with soil sample and cutting shoe.

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4- Piston Sampler:
- Consist of a thin walled tube filled with a piston which prevent water
or loose soil from entering the tube.
- Diameter = 35 to 100 mm.
- Used for soft clay and can be used for silts and silty sand.

2.7 TESTING:
As a rule, undisturbed samples (U) can be tested for strength and
compressibility to determine the stress strain characteristics of the
material, in addition to classification and chemical tests. Whereas,
disturbed (D) or (SS) samples as available were mainly used for
physical and geotechnical analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
The tests performed on each type of the three different soil samples
are as follows:

1. Laboratory tests:
The obtained samples should be tested according to the procedure of
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the British
Standards (BS) whichever is appropriate. The test program of the
samples includes the followings:

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a) Classification Tests:
 Natural water content,  Wet and dry unit weights.
 Atterberg’s limits,  Specific gravity, and
 Sieve and Hydrometer Analysis,

b) Compaction Test:
Modified Procter compaction test must be carried out on some soil
samples. The main aim of this test is to obtain the maximum dry
density and the relevant optimum moisture content (OMC).
c) Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests:
 Direct shear test,
 Unconfined or Triaxial compressive strength test, and
 One-dimensional consolidation test.

d) Chemical Tests:
 Sulphate Content (SO3-2 )%,  Total Soluble Salts (T.S.S.),
 Organic Matter Content (ORG.)%,  PH- value,
 Carbonate Content (CO3-2), and  Chlorides Content (Cl-1)%.

2. Field tests:
During the subsoil exploration, several field tests as given in Table
can be performed depending on the
- Available testing equipments,
- Required parameters for design of foundations, and
- The economic point of view.

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1. FIELD LOAD TEST

It is a method to investigate the stress-strain (or load-settlement)
relationship of soils. Then, the results are used in estimating the bearing
capacity. In this test, the load is applied on a model footing and the
amount of load necessary to induce a given amount of settlement is
measured.
Round plates from (150 – 750)mm in diameter are available as well as
square plates of (1.0 ft2) area. The minimum thickness of plate (1 inch or
25.4mm).

1.0 ft2
25.4 mm

Round plate square plate

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Procedure of load test as given by ASTM D110-72:

1. Excavate a pit to width at least 6 times as wide as the used plate, and to
the depth that the foundation is to be placed.

If it is specified that three sizes of plates are to be used for the test, the
pit should be large enough so that, there is an available spacing between
tests of 3 times the diameter (D) of the largest plate. This is useful for
studying the size effect of footings.

2. A square loading plate 2.5cm thick and (30 x 30) cm is placed on the
surface of the soil at the bottom of the pit. There should not be any
surcharge load placed on the soil within a distance of (60cm) from
around the plate.
3. A vertical load is placed on the plate in increments and settlements
are recorded as an average from at least three dial gauges accurate to
(0.025mm) that attached to an independent suspension system. Load
increment should be approximately 1/10 of the estimated allowable
soil pressure. For each load increment, settlement readings should be
taken at regular intervals of not less than (1 hr) until there is no
further settlement. The same time duration should be used for all the
loading increments.
4. The test is continued until a settlement of 25mm is observed or until
the load increments reached 1.5 times the estimated allowable soil
pressure.
5. If the load is released, the elastic rebound of the soil should be
recorded for a periods of time equal to the same time durations of
each applied load increment.

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6. The result of each test can be represented graphically as follows:-

(a) Settlement versus log time curve (for each load increment),
(b) Load-settlement curve (for all increments) from which qult is obtained

 For cohesive soil (bearing capacity is independent of footing size):

 For cohesionless soil (bearing capacity increases with size of footing):

 Settlement for both cohesive and Cohesionless soils:

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For c – Φ soil (bearing capacity from two-plate load tests ;Housel, 1929):

Where:
V = total load on a bearing area,
A = contact area of footing or plate,
q = bearing pressure beneath A,
P = perimeter of footing or plate, and
s = perimeter shear.

This method needs data from two plate load tests so that above
equation can be solved for q and s (for given settlement). After the
values of q and s are known, then the size of a footing required to carry
a given load can be calculated.

2. DYNAMIC OR STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT):

This test consists of driving the standard split-barrel sampler of
dimensions (680 mm length, 30 mm inside diameter and 50 mm outside
diameter) a distance of 460 mm (18'') into the soil at the bottom of the
boring. This was done by using a 63.5 kg (140 Ib) driving mass (or
hammer) falling "free" from a height of 760 mm (30"). Then, counting
the number of blows required for driving the sampler the last 305 mm
(12") to obtain the (N) number (neglecting the No. of blows for the
upper first 150 mm).
Used as an estimate of the shear strength of soils. It goods for
cohesionless soils for which undisturbed samples cannot easily be
obtained and give a rough results for cohesive soils.
Note: The SPT- value is rejected or halted in any one of the following cases:
(a) if 50 blows are required for any 150mm increment, or
(b) if 100 blows are obtained (to drive the required 300 mm), or
(c) if 10 successive blow produce no advance .

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Corrections for N-value :

(1) W.T. Correction (in case of presence of W.T.):
For N > 15 : and

For N 15:
 If N-value is measured above water table, no need for this correction.

(2) Overburden pressure Correction (CN):

(1) N-values for a depth corresponding to an effective overburden
pressure of 110 kPa is considered to be a standard. For p′o > 25 kPa a
correction factor (CN) should be used.

• If , no need for overburden pressure correction .

(2) OR the following equation can be used as proposed by Bazaraa (see

Bowles)
for p′o < 75 kPa .

for p′o > 75 kPa .

Where,
X1 = 0.04 and X2 = 0.01

(3) Energy ratio, Rod length and Boreholes diameters correction:

It appears reasonable to standardize the field penetration number as a
function of the input driving energy and its dissipation around the
sampler into the surrounding soil. The N-value to an average energy
ratio of 60% (N60).

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Correlations for N60 in Cohesive Soil

Hara, et al. (1971) suggested the following correlation between the
undrained shear strength of clay (cu) and N60:

Mayne and Kemper (1988) obtained the relationship

It is important to point out that any correlation mentioned above is only

approximate.

Correlation between Angle of Friction and N60

Factors affecting N-value :

1. Variation of hammer height of fall.
2. Friction along the guides (rope, Pulley).
3. Disturbed shoe of the spoon.
4. Inadequate cleaning of borehole.
5. Poor setting of spoon.
6. Failure to maintain the hydrostatic pressure in the hole (quick sand).
7. Careless of the crew.
8. Avoiding stones and obstructions.

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3. STATIC (DUTCH) CONE PENETRATION TEST (CPT):

- Preferable for soft cohesive deposits (fine sands, silty fine sands and clay).
- Pushing hydraulically a steel cone (diameter = 35.7 mm and apex angle 60°)
at a rate of 10-20 mm/sec and recording the required force and hence the
stress (qc) can be calculated using the following equation:

qc= (force required)/(base area = 10 cm2)

- Position (1) the cone is seated; position (2) advances the
cone tip to measure qc; position (3) advances the friction
sleeve to measure qs; and position (4) advances both tip
and sleeve to measure qt = qc + qs. Therefore, at any
required depth, the tip and sleeve friction resistances qc
and qs are measured then used to compute a friction ratio
(fR) as:

The data obtained are used for:

(1) bearing capacity,
(2) settlement analysis, soil classification, and
(3) Estimating Φ; Dr for sands and Su for cohesive soils.

- For sand and coarse silt, use the following table data.

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Based on the cone penetration tests on the soils in the Venice Lagoon
(Italy), Ricceri et al. (2002) proposed a similar relationship for soil with
classifications of ML and SP-SM as

Advantages:
1. Fast and economical.
2. Gives a continuous resistance of the strata.
3. Gives skin friction of soil (used for piles).
4. More reliable for sand below water table.
5. No boring is required.
Disadvantages:
1. Unsuitable for gravelly soils and stiff clays.
2. Does not reveal the types of soils encountered.
3. No samples are taken.
4. Test depth 15 to 20 m.

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4. VANE SHEAR TEST:

• It is a field test used to determine the in-situ shearing resistance
(undrained shear strength) of soft to medium clay and silt clay.
• Valuable in sensitive clays where it is difficult to obtain truly
undisturbed samples .
• Inserting a four bladed vane in the undisturbed or remolded soil at
required depth and rotating it from the surface through link rods to
determine the torsion force required (T) to cause a cylindrical surface
to be sheared by the vane.

5. Water table location:

6. Permeability test:

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2.8 Report writing:

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