CIV2102: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Part II

By

Dr. Gilbert J. KASANGAKI

© 2013
 0.0 Subcourse Content
1. Elements of Physical Geology
2. Dynamic Geology
3. Minerals and Geological Materials
4. Geo-hydrology
5. Geotechnical Investigations
6. Elements of Rock Mechanics
7. Rock Mass Quality (RMQ)
8. Geotechnical Classification of Rocks
9. Excavations
5.0 Geotechnical Investigations
GI tends to top the list of project
items considered avoidable by many
5.1 Definition
Geotechnical Investigations of a site is an
assessment of the geologic and geotechnical
conditions of the proposed site for safe and
economic design and construction of the
proposed project.

The assessment is conducted both in the

field and in laboratory.
5.2 Purpose and Scope
Purpose
◦ The purpose of geotechnical investigations is to
obtain a reasonably accurate conception of the
properties of the soils and/or rocks underlying the
site in question.
◦ Such information is necessary for the
designer/planner to make an intellectual design/plan
e.g. of a foundation, earth dam or retaining wall.
5.2 Purpose and Scope
Scope
◦ The scope of geotechnical investigations
depends on:
Type and size of the project (small scale or large
scale?)

Soil and/or rock conditions (fairly homogeneous or

largely inhomogeneous?).
5.3 Stages of GI
Principal procedures
◦ A brief from the client: The process of
geotechnical investigations starts with the client’s
brief.

◦ Desk study: Every subsurface exploration should

be preceded by a review of all available information
concerning the geological and subsurface conditions
at or near the site.

◦ Site visits: After desk study, the investigation team

pays a visit to the site to appreciate the site surface
conditions.
5.3 Stages of GI
Principal procedures ........../cont’d
◦ Preliminary testing: depending on the nature of the
site and/or project size, some excavations and/or
boreholes may be made in the ground to supplement
the information so far obtained.

◦ Detailed testing: This is intended to obtain a more

refined information through both field and laboratory
tests. Field tests for in-situ properties may include
subsurface soundings and other geophysical testing,
in-place shear tests or pumping tests. Sampling may be
of disturbed or undisturbed or both.

◦ Analysis and Reporting: Following data collection,

analysis and reporting of the results is done.
5.4 Client’s Brief
Is a description of the client’s needs and
expectations clearly giving details of the project
and the required properties.
◦ Example: The case of Bujagali Substation.
5.5 Desk Study
All the available information concerning the geological
and subsurface conditions at or near site is reviewed.
◦ Geological maps and sections: These give a rough idea of
the type and nature of the rocks underlying the site.
◦ Any previous GI reports at or near the site: After desk
study, the investigation team pays a visit to the site to
appreciate the site surface conditions.
◦ In Uganda, information may be got from
Department of Geological Survey and Mines,
Entebbe; Makerere University Department of
Geology, Consultancy and construction firms etc
◦ Information can also be obtained from textbooks and internet
◦ Accurate site specific information is obtained by carrying out
detailed investigations.
5.5 Desk Study
Example of geological map
5.6 Site Visits
Should be undertaken before any financial
commitment is made and information to look
out for include:

◦ Site accessibility: Any successful investigation will require

that the site is accessible by the investigation team.

◦ The most probable subsurface conditions: This

influence the choice of exploration methods and the duration
of the investigation. Exposed slopes/excavations as well as
vegetation cover should be looked out for.

◦ Accommodation: Availability of suitable accommodation

should also be established at this stage of the investigation.

◦ Security in the area: Special arrangements may be

necessary to ensure security of workers and the equipment in
case the site is located in an insecure place.
5.7 Preliminary Testing

A few selected tests (usually field tests) are

carried out to obtain a rough idea of the
actual subsurface conditions at the site.

◦ Preliminary testing: depending on the nature of the

site and/or project size, some excavations and/or
boreholes may be made in the ground to supplement
the information so far obtained.

◦ Typically, One or two boreholes/trial pits are made.

Critical information at this stage include evidence of
bedrock and water table near ground surface, ease of
boring, suitability/feasibility of site for detailed
investigations.
5.8 Detailed Testing
At this stage, thorough assessment of the
subsurface conditions is made.
◦ Both filed and laboratory tests are performed:
The field tests give the properties of the material under
in-situ conditions while laboratory tests give properties
of the material under simulated field conditions.

◦ Detailed testing is intended to obtain a more refined

information through both field and laboratory tests.
Field tests for in-situ properties may include subsurface
probing and other geophysical testing, in-place shear
tests or pumping tests. Sampling may be of disturbed or
undisturbed or both.

◦ Usually, to enable sampling and in-situ testing including

observations, boreholes and/or excavations are made.
The methods follow next.
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Drilling
◦ Wash borings: Components – a casing usually 1.5m
diameter pipe for supporting the ground, a weight for driving
the case into the ground, a derrick for handling the weight
and the casing, wash pipe 25mm in diameter and 1.5m or 3m
in length, horse pipe, pump and tub containing water.
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Wash borings
◦ Procedure: The equipment is setup as shown with the
casing driven about 1.0m into the ground. Water is circulated
from the tub through the swivel head into the wash pipe
from which it emerges at the chopping bit and rises in the
annular space between the wash pipe and the casing. As the
water circulates, the wash pipe is churned up and down and
is rotated at the bottom of each stroke to cut the material
loose. The hole is advanced by the churning and washing, and
additional casing is driven as needed.
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Rotary Core Drilling
◦ The most satisfactory method of assessing subsurface formations
at a significant depth below the ground surface
◦ It has a core barrel at its end with a detachable core bit or shoe.
During drilling, the cuttings are washed to the surface by a
stream of slurry pumped down the hollow drill rods,
The flushing medium also serves to cool the drilling bits,
Samples in from of cylindrical cores are recovered from the
drill holes,
The size of core barrel used and the drilling equipment used
should not be selected to minimise costs but rather to get
adequate information about the rocks.
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Rotary Core Drilling
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Comparison between Wash boring and Rotary Core
Drilling
◦ The essential features of wash boring and rotary core drilling are
the same except that the drill rods and cutting bits are rotated
and pressed mechanically while the hole is being advanced in the
latter case.
◦ In both cases, the cutting bit can be replaced by a sampling soon
when and as required
◦ The flushing fluid is water in the case of wash boring while mud
slurry is used in rotary drilling. The mud has an advantage of
forming a thin layer of cohesive materials around the casing thus
preventing cohesionless material from falling inside through the
holes.
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Drilling
◦ Auger borings: Shallow borings are almost universally
made by means of augers.

◦ Procedure: The auger is turned into the ground for a short

distance and then withdrawn with the material clinging on it.
The material is removed for examination, the auger again
inserted into the hole and turned further.

◦ It the hole fails to stand open to permit the insertion of the

auger because of squeezing from the sides or because of
caving, it must be lined with a casing having internal diameter
somewhat larger than the diameter of the auger.

◦ It is unsuitable for use in sands below groundwater

5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Drilling
◦ Auger borings:
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Drilling
◦ Auger borings:
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Test pits
◦ Involves excavation to expose the ground formation.
◦ Is probably the most satisfactory method of assessing ground
conditions, since the exposed material surface can be closely
inspected.
The dip of the strata can easily be measured,
Extent of weathering can easily be assessed,
Suitability of materials can be determined by trial with a pick or
compressed air tools
Samples can easily be cut for laboratory testing
However, the method is only economical when limited close to
the ground surface (~ 3.0m)
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Test pits
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Test pits
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Test pits
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Comparisons of drilling machines & methods
5.9 Boring Methods for Field Testing
Comparisons of drilling machines & methods
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Purpose
◦ Cuttings or washings from exploratory drill holes are
inadequate to furnish a satisfactory conception of the
engineering properties of the material encountered, or even
of the thicknesses and depths of various strata. On the
contrary, such evidence more often than not is misleading
and has been responsible for many failures.

◦ Proper identification of the subsurface materials

requires that samples be recovered containing all the
constituents of the material in their proper proportions.
Moreover, evaluation of the appropriate engineering
properties such as strength, compressibility or permeability
may require the performance of laboratory tests on fairly
intact samples.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Justification
◦ The expenditure of time and money increases rapidly as
the requirements become more stringent with respect
to the degree of disturbance that can be tolerated and
with increasing diameter of the sample.

◦ Therefore, on small projects or in the initial exploratory

stages of large or complex projects, it is usually
preferable to obtain relatively inexpensive, fairly intact
samples from the exploratory drill holes. On the basis
of the information obtained from these samples, the
necessity for more elaborate sampling procedures can
be judged.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods
◦ Split-spoon sampling in exploratory drill hole: To
obtain samples from exploratory drill holes, a sampling
spoon is attached to the bottom of the wash pipe or
drill rod in place of the bit and is lowered to the bottom
of the hole. It is forced or driven into the soil to obtain
a sample and is then removed from the hole.

◦ Various sizes of the sampling spoon exist ranging from

as low as 40mm internal diameter and 300mm to
600mm in length. The commonly used diameters
100mm and 150mm and the length is 450mm. The pipe
is split lengthwise hence the name split spoon.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................../cont’d
◦ When the sample-containing spoon is brought out of
the whole, the sample is examined and classified. A
portion of the material is put in an airtight container for
transportation to the laboratory for index properties
determination.

◦ Cohesive soils obtained using sampling spoons retain

most of its characteristics and hence are termed
undisturbed samples. Samples of high permeability on
the other hand are almost always thoroughly compacted
whether the soil in-situ is loose or even fairly dense. In
such cases it is not possible to obtain relative density of
the in-situ material even though it is more relevant than
the character of the soil particles themselves.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................../cont’d
◦ A simple and widely used method of obtaining at least
some information concerning the degree of
compactness or stiffness of the material consists of
counting the number of blows of the drop weight
(63.5kg) required to drive the sampling spoon a
specified distance (760mm) into the ground. This
procedure is termed Standard Penetration Test
(SPT).

◦ Question: Is it possible to sample cohesionless

material such as sand and gravel?
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Thin-walled tube samplers: These are used when a
reliable information concerning the shearing resistance
or stress-strain characteristics is required. Depending
on the thickness of the tubes, degree of disturbance of
the samples is reduced to the minimum compatible with
the benefits to be obtained from the information.

◦ Whatever type of sampler used, a certain amount of

disturbance of the soil is inevitable. The degree of
disturbance depends on the manner in which the
sampler is forced or driven into the ground. The
greatest disturbance is caused by driving the sampler by
successive blows.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Piston samplers: One of the disadvantages of tube
samplers is the disturbance associated with driving them
into especially cohesive non-uniform materials. The
various in-situ soils are not represented at their true
depths due to the influence of friction and adhesion.
Material tend to rise faster in the sampler during the
first blows and the reverse is true during the last blows.

◦ These conditions are greatly improved by providing the

sampling tube with a piston that closes the lower end of
the tube until the sampler has arrived at the level of the
top of the sample to be taken.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Sampling combined with coring: Sampling by
forcing thin-walled tubes into the ground cannot be
done if the material is too stiff or compact to permit
penetration without damaging the cutting edge or
buckling the tube. Moreover, even if a tube could be
advanced the resultant disturbance would especially in
brittle materials would be excessive.

◦ Under these circumstances, a sampler in which rock-

cutting techniques are adopted may prove satisfactory. It
incorporates a spring which helps it retrieve into the
cutting barrel when drilling in hard material. As the bit
cuts through the material, the samples enters the
enclosed sampling tube.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Hand-carved sampling in clay: On construction
projects involving shafts, cuts or tunnels in clay, the
opportunity may exist to recover undisturbed samples
without the necessity for drill holes.

◦ To obtain a large-diameter undisturbed sample in an

open excavation or tunnel, the clay around the location
of the proposed sample is carefully carved away, leaving
a block somewhat larger than the sample standing in the
form of a pedestal. A suitable container/sampler is then
used to obtain the sample. Unless the effect of stress
relief is significant, samples obtained this way are less
disturbed compared to the previous methods.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Block sampling in boreholes: To reduce the stress
relief associated with carving block samples, the sample
may be trimmed while submerged in a drill hole with
water or bentonite slurry.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Quality of samples: It is clear from the foregoing that
all samples experience disturbance; moreover, generally,
the better the quality of the sample the more expensive
and time-consuming its recovery is likely to be.
Therefore depending the project size and site
conditions the expense of obtaining high quality samples
may not be justified and vice versa.

◦ Therefore a quantitative measure of the quality of

samples should be used. One such measure is the
volumetric strain of a specimen when subjected in an
oedometer test to the in-situ vertical stress.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ Sampling in sand: A distinction must be made
between sampling above and below water table. Above
water table the soil moisture imparts to the sand a
trace of cohesion which enables such sand samples to
be secured from drill holes for identification by means
of sampling spoons equipped with catchers. Less
disturbed samples can be recovered by means of thin-
walled piston samplers.

◦ However, in most unsaturated sands the sampling

operation is likely to cause a change in volume of the
material that enters the sampler.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Sampling methods ................/cont’d
◦ In such cases, the most suitable procedure for acquiring
natural density is to carve the samples from a shaft
excavated for that purposed.

◦ The situation is more complicated when sampling

saturated sands. As such, lowering of water table is the
common approach employed to enable a successful
operation. Other methods are freezing method and use
of compressed air to create suction,.
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Common sampling tools
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Comparison of sampling tools and methods
5.10 Sampling from Boreholes
Comparison of sampling tools and methods
5.11 Subsurface Sounding
Purpose
◦ Subsurface soundings are used for exploring layers of
soils with an erratic structure. They are also used to
make sure that the soil does not contain exceptionally
soft spots located between drill holes and to get
information on the relative density of soils with little or
no cohesion.

◦ Experience shows that erratic soil profiles are far more

common than regular ones. The result of test borings in
subsoil with an erratic structure leave a dangerously
wide margin for interpretation unless the spacing
between drill holes is small, and the cost of a set of
closely spaced drill holes is likely to be cost prohibitive
unless the area under investigation is also small.
5.11 Subsurface Sounding
Purpose
◦ Fortunately, significant changes in the character of
subsoil are commonly associated with a change in
resistance of soil to penetration. The variation of
penetration resistance of a soil along vertical lines can
be determined rapidly at moderate expense by tests
known as subsurface soundings.

◦ The tool used to make the tests is a penetrometer.

One of the most widely used procedures for measuring
resistance to penetration is the standard penetration
test (SPT) in which the penetrometer is the standard
split spoon itself. There are generally two methods of
subsurface sounding: static and dynamic sounding
5.11 Subsurface Sounding
Static sounding methods
◦ Several static sounding methods have been developed
since 1917 including one by Swedish State Railways in
1917, Danish Railways in 1927, and Department of
Public Works in the Netherlands in 1935. Of these, the
Dutch Cone has found wide application. In its original
form it consists of a 60o cone with a base area of
1000mm2 attached to the lower end of a 15mm rod
surrounded by a 20mm pipe.

◦ The cone is pushed 0.5m into the ground at a rate of

10mm/s by one or two men who apply part of their
weight to a crossbar attached to the upper end of the
rod.
5.11 Subsurface Sounding
Static sounding methods
◦ It should be noted that the Dutch Cone has been
refined and mechanised, and in some models has been
equipped with electric sensors for rapid and detailed
investigation of many deposits.

◦ The most widely used mechanical device is the

friction-cone penetrometer or push-cone
penetrometer capable of measuring the friction
resistance or adhesion separately from the end
resistance. The use of the cone resistance qc in design, as
well as information derived from penetrometer data, is
not discussed in this course.
5.11 Subsurface Sounding
Dynamic sounding methods
◦ Dynamic sounding methods consist of driving a rod or
casing with a drive point into the ground by means of a
drop hammer and measuring the number of blows to
achieve a given penetration.

◦ The most widely used procedure is the standard

penetration test (SPT), its main limitation being its
unsuitability in investigating deposits consisting largely of
cobbles or boulders owing to the small size of the
spoon. Such conditions require more rugged pieces of
equipment. Under some circumstances, H-piles have
been used to give qualitative information.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
Purpose
◦ Boring and sampling provide the means for identifying
the types of soil at a site. The samples furnish material
for determining index properties and, if undisturbed
samples are obtained, for tests in the laboratory.

◦ Soundings may provide indirect information regarding

the types of soil and their consistency. In cohesive soils,
static soundings can be interpreted to indicate the
shearing resistance of the material, whereas in granular
materials both static and dynamic soundings provide
data from which the relative density or angle of internal
friction can be estimated.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
Purpose
◦ When the critical material have been identified and
evaluated with respect to the requirements of the job, it
is often found necessary to determine their engineering
properties as accurately as possible.

◦ Although in some instances the required information

can best be obtained by testing undisturbed samples, the
disturbance due to sampling and handling may be
appreciable, more reliable data can often be obtained by
investigation of specific properties by in-situ tests.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests
◦ Vane tests: One of the most versatile and widely used
devices for investigating undrained shear strength and
sensitivity of soft deposits are the vane shear apparatus.
In its simplest form, it consists of a four-bladed
rectangular vane fastened to bottom of a vertical rod.

◦ The standard vane has a height-to-diameter ratio of 2

and is 55mm or 65mm in diameter. The vane is pushed
into the ground to the desired depth before the torque
is applied to rotate the vane at a rate of 0.1o/s. The
shearing resistance of the soil is calculated from the
torque and dimensions of the vane. To determine
sensitivity, the vane should be rotate rapidly through
several revolutions to remould the material.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ............../cont’d
◦ Pressuremeter: The pressuremeter provides
information about the stress-strain properties and
strength of a soil by expanding the walls of a drill hole
while the radial pressure and corresponding radial
deformation are measured. The device usually consists
of three cylindrical cells with flexible walls: an upper
guard cell, middle measuring cell and the lower guard
cell.

◦ The assembly is lowered into a drill hole of the same

nominal diameter as the cells and the cells are inflated.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ................/cont’d
◦ The measuring cell is inflated by increments of water
pressure; the water pressure is measured to indicate the
radial pressure applied to the surrounding medium, and
the volume of water is observed as a measure of the
average radial displacement during the increment.

◦ The guard cells are also inflated using either gas or water to
the same or somewhat smaller pressure as the measuring
cell, to ensure a nearly cylindrical two-dimensional state of
stress around the measuring cell by reducing end effect.
Note that the measuring-cell pressure should be
corrected for the difference in elevation between the
cell and the pressure gauge and for the pressure
required to inflate the cell without external
resistance as well as for expansion of cell under
pressure.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ......................./cont’d
◦ Groundwater level tests: The behaviour of
subsurface material is profoundly influenced by the
presence of water in the voids, by the soil’s permeability,
and by stress in the water. At a minimum, an adequate
subsurface investigation requires determination of the
elevation of groundwater table together with enough
information to assess the permeability of the various
components of the soil mass.

◦ The groundwater table, groundwater level or

phreatic surface is defined as the elevation at which
the pressure in the water is atmospheric.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ............../cont’d
◦ Above groundwater level, the subsurface material may
be fully or partially saturated, but the water is held in
the voids by capillary and the stress in the water is
negative with respect to atmospheric pressure.

◦ In principle, if a drill hole stands open or is supported by

perforated or screened tube, water will ultimately fill
the hole to an elevation corresponding to the phreatic
surface. This principle provides definitive results,
however, only in soils such as gravels and sands which
are permeable enough to furnish water to the drill hole
without significantly altering the groundwater
conditions.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ................/cont’d
◦ Two commonly and widely used methods to determine
groundwater level are the observation wells and the
piezometer test methods. The observation wells
consist of a pipe connected to a screened or slotted
section that is lowered into the drill hole, whereupon
the casing is withdrawn. The depth of the water in the
pipe is determined by sounding, or a float can be
installed that actuates a recording device at the ground
surface.

◦ In order to capture the variations of the water level

over an extended period of time, permanent
observation wells are recommended.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests .................../cont’d
◦ In contrast to observation wells, which may be open to
the entire column of soil through which they pass,
piezometers measure the water pressure at selected
level in the formation. In its simplest form, a piezometer
is similar to an observation well, except that the
screened or slotted section at the bottom of the pipe
has a length of a meter or less and is embedded in a
pocket of sand. The rest of the drill hole is backfilled
with an impervious material as the casing is withdrawn.

◦ The equilibration limitations associated with

observation wells also apply to piezometers.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
Possible groundwater conditions
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests .................../cont’d
◦ Geophysical tests: These can be used to determined
various kinds of information regarding subsurface
conditions without the aid of borings or soundings.

◦ Most geophysical methods are based on the

dependence of the field properties of force on the
location of boundaries between the substances that
occupy the field. The field of force may already exist, e.g.
gravitational field or magnetic field, or it may be created
artificially for instance by sending an electric current
through the ground located between two electrodes
embedded in the ground.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ...................../cont’d
◦ The geometry of field of force in a perfectly
homogeneous medium is independent of the physical
properties of the medium. It is simple and can be
determined accurately by theory.

◦ A second group of geophysical methods known as

seismic methods, is based on the dependence of the
rate of propagation of the elastic waves on the elastic
properties of the media through which the waves travel.
If a wave arrives at the boundary between two media
with different elastic properties, part of it is reflected
and part is refracted.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ................./cont’d
◦ To determine the position of the internal boundary, for
instance between a hard and soft medium, a small shock
is produced at the ground surface by a hammer blow or
by firing an explosive in a shallow hole, and the time is
measured at which the reflected or the refracted wave
arrives at different points on the surface.

◦ Seismic methods can also be used to determine directly

the velocity of propagation of seismic waves. These
waves are of two kinds: Compressive (P) and shear (S)
waves. In P-waves, the medium moves forward and
backward in the direction of propagation while in
S-waves the motion is transverse to the direction of
propagation.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ...................../cont’d
◦ The velocities are characteristic for different media and,
for a given medium, of its stiffness and relative
density. Knowledge of velocities is particularly useful in
judging the effectiveness of compaction of sands and
gravelly sands in connection with their susceptibility to
liquefaction.

◦ Because the velocity of P-waves is different above and

below the groundwater table whereas the S-waves is
not, the latter velocity is evaluated more often. In
cross-hole tests, at least two vertical holes cased with
plastic pipes are spaced at least 3m apart.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ............/cont’d
◦ In one of the holes, at successive depths, a vertical
impulse if delivered to the wall of the hole by a vibrator
or a blow to the top of a rod with a short enlargement
in contact with the wall at the bottom of the rod.

◦ The time of the impulse and that of arrival of S-wave at

the same depth in the adjacent hole are recorded, and
the velocity is calculated as the distance between the
holes divided by the elapsed time.

◦ In contrast to the SPT N-values, the shear wave

velocities represent average properties for the
intervening medium rather than discrete, sometimes
scattered, numerical values.
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
5.12 Other In-
In-situ Tests
The tests ..................../cont’d
◦ In civil engineering, only the seismic and electrical
resistivity methods are used to any significant extent,
sometimes in conjunction with each other.

◦ The principal application of the seismic method is to

locate the surface of the bedrock. If the thickness of the
overlying weathered rock layer is small and not too
uneven, the results are usually reliable.

◦ On the other hand, the resistivity method has been

found useful in defining the boundaries between media
of low resistivity such as soft clays and soft organic
deposits, and materials of higher resistivity such as
sands, gravels or bedrock.
5.12 Laboratory Tests
overview
◦ Soil samples and rock cores are for the most part
tested in the laboratory. Rock cores are occasionally
field tested.

◦ Rock cores are tested in the laboratory primarily for

basic and index properties, since engineering properties
of significance are not usually represented by an intact
specimen. Laboratory tests of intact specimens, the
property measured, and the application of the test in
terms of the data obtained are summarised in the
following Table 2.2.

◦ Details of the individual tests is out of scope of this

course and will not be discussed.
5.12 Laboratory Tests
5.12 Laboratory Tests
5.12 Laboratory Tests
overview
◦ Soil samples are tested for basic and index properties
and for engineering properties when high-quality
undisturbed samples are obtained (generally limited to
soft to hard intact specimens of cohesive soils lacking
gravel size or larger particles). Laboratory soil tests, the
property measured, and the application of the test in
terms of the data obtained are summarised in the
following Table 2.3.

◦ Details of the individual tests is out of scope of this

course and will not be discussed.
5.12 Laboratory Tests
5.12 Laboratory Tests
5.13 Analysis and Reporting
◦ The last stage of site investigation is results analysis and
reporting.Typically, the report constitute the following:

◦ Cover page
◦ Introduction
◦ Scope of the works
◦ Field work
◦ Laboratory tests
◦ Results and discussion
◦ Conclusions
◦ References
◦ Appendices
1.2 Further Reading
◦ Burt L. () Handbook of geotechnical investigation,
◦ Hunt R.E. (2007) Geotechnical investigation Methods: A field guide for
Geotechnical Engineers, CRC Press,Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton.
◦ Hunt R.E. (2005) Geotechnical engineering investigation handbook, 2nd Edition,
Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton.
◦ Lawrence D.W. () Geotechnical engineering investigation,
◦ National Highway Institute (1997) Training course in geotechnical and
foundation engineering: Subsurface exploration, NHI Course No. 13231 –
Module 1, Publication No. FHWA HI-97-021.
◦ Terzaghi K., Peck R.B. & Mesri G. (1996) Soil mechanics in engineering practice,
3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
◦ U.S Army Corps of Engineers (2001) Engineering and Design: Geotechnical
Investigations, Engineer Manual No. 1110-1-1801, Department of the Army US
Army Corps of Engineers,Washington, DC.