Reservoirs and Dams Engineering I

Fourth Year Students / 2019- 2020

University of Duhok
Water Resources Engineering Department

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 Subjects
Chapter one: Reservoirs Engineering

-Introduction
-Classification of Reservoirs: Storage Reservoirs, Flood Control Reservoirs,
Distribution Reservoirs, Single Purpose Reservoirs, Multipurpose Reservoirs,
Balancing Reservoirs.
-Storage Zones and water levels in a Reservoirs: Definitions of Water Levels,
Definitions of Storage Zones.
-Investigations for Reservoir Planning: Engineering Survey, Geological
Investigation, Hydrological Studies.
-Reservoir Capacity Design: Catchment yield, Reservoir yields, Flow Duration
Curve, Fixing Reservoir Capacity, Graphical Method Using Mass Curve,
Analytical method, Estimating Safe Yield for Reservoirs.
-Reservoir losses: Evaporation Losses, Absorption Losses, Percolation Losses.
-Soil Erosion: Factors affecting soil erosion, Types of soil erosion, (Sheet erosion,
Rill erosion, Gully erosion, Channel erosion, Watershed Erosion), Estimation of
channel erosion.
-Reservoir Sedimentation: Types of sediment load , Measurement of Sediment
Loads, Average annual sediment, Density Currents, Useful Life of Reservoir, Trap
efficiency, Estimation of Suspended Load, Control of Reservoir Sedimentation,
Effect of Sedimentation on a Reservoir.
- Reservoir site selection.

Chapter Two: Dams Engineering

-Introduction
-Classification of Dams: According to the use, Hydraulic design, Rigidity, Size.
-The types: Earth fill dam, Rock fill dam, Gravity dam, Arch dam, Buttress dam.
-Selection of Site for a Dam: Topography, Suitable foundation, Spillway
location, Availability of materials, Water tightness of reservoir, Shape of reservoir
basin, Small submerged area, Accessibility, Low sediments, Minimum overall
cost.
-Selection of Types of Dam.

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Chapter Three: Gravity Dam

-Introduction
-Advantages and Disadvantages of Gravity Dams
- Definitions, Axis of dam, Length of the dam, Structural height of dam, Hydraulic
height of dam, Maximum base width of the dam
-Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam: Primary Loads, (Weight of Dam, Water Load,
Uplift Pressure), Secondary Loads, (Silt Pressure, Wave Pressure, Ice Pressure),
Exceptional Load, Earthquake Load.
-Modes of failure and Criteria for Structural Stability, Overturning about Toe,
Compression or Crushing, Tension, Sliding, Principal and Shear Stresses
-Elementary Profile of a Gravity Dam, Base Width of Elementary Profile
Base width for no-tension, Base width for no-sliding, High and Low Gravity Dam
-Practical Profile of a Gravity Dam, Freeboard, Top Width, Design of High
Gravity Dam.
-Construction of Gravity Dams, Diversion of Stream, , Control of Cracking in a
Gravity Dam, Joints in a Gravity Dam, Shear Keys, Foundation Treatment, Surface
preparation, Grouting the foundation, Drainage system, Rolled Compacted
Concrete (RCC)

References
1-Dr. K.R. Arora ,(2006), Irrigation, Water Power and Water Resources
Engineering , 4th Revised Edition, Nai Sarak , Delhi.

2- SANTOSH KUMAR GARG,(2006), Irrigation Engineering and Hydraulic

Structures, First Reprint 19th Revised Edition, Khanna publishes, Nai Sarak , Delhi.

3- Dr. B.C.PUNMIA,Dr.PANDE B.B.LAL, ASHOK KUMAR JAIN, ARUN

KUMAR JAIN, (2009),Irrigation and Water Power Engineering,16th
Edition,published by Laxmi publications (p) Ltd., New Delhi.

4- R.K.SHARMA and T.K. SHARMA,(2008), Irrigation Engineering Including

Hydrology, Second Reprint Third Edition, Published by S. Chand and Company
Ltd,Ram Nagar, New Delhi.

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 Chapter one
Reservoirs Engineering
Introduction:
A reservoir is made by constructing a dam across a river or stream to impound
excess water during floods or rainstorms. The impounded water is used during
periods of low or no flow to meet continuous demand of irrigation, hydropower,
potable water, recreation and etc. In water resources engineering the term
reservoir is used for a large body of water stored on the upstream of a dam
constructed for this purpose, thus a dam and a reservoir exist together. Broadly
speaking any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir.

Fig.(1) Plan view of reservoir

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Various types of reservoirs are shown in Fig.( 2) below:
A. Reservoir created by damming a river,
B. A cascade formed from a series of river impoundments ,
C. Embanked reservoirs with controlled inflows and outflows to and from one
or more rivers.

Fig.(2) Various types of reservoirs

Reservoir configurations:

Fig. (3) below shows examples of the principal reservoir configurations:

A. Shallow, U shaped,
B. Deep, V shaped,
C. Deep, regular;
D. Shallow, regular
Embanked reservoirs are generally very simple in shape (from near-circular to
rectangular) and virtually uniform in depth (Fi. 3 C, D).

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 Fig.(3) Examples of the principal reservoir configurations

Longitudinal zones of reservoirs:

Longitudinal zonation of water quality conditions in reservoirs with complex
shapes formed by damming rivers are shown in (Figure 4) below.

Fig. (4): Longitudinal zonation of water quality conditions in reservoirs

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Classification of Reservoirs
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be classified into:

1- Storage Reservoirs
Storage reservoirs are constructed to store the water in the rainy season and to
release it later when the river flow is low. Storage reservoirs are usually
constructed for irrigation, water supply and hydropower.

2-Flood Control Reservoirs

A Flood Control Reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood control.
It protects the area lying on its downstream side from damage due to flood.
When the discharge exceeds the safe capacity of a river, the excess water is
stored in the reservoir. The stored water is subsequently released when the
inflow to reservoir decreases. A flood control reservoirs is designed to moderate
the flood and not to conserve water.
Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice ways capacity to permit
rapid drawdown before or after the occurrence of flood.
A dam rarely is constructed only for flood control.
The flood control reservoirs are of two types:

Detention reservoirs:
A detention reservoirs stores excess water during floods and releases it after the
flood. It is similar to a storage reservoir but is provided with large gated
spillways and sluiceways to permit flexibility of operation.
In the earlier stages of a flood, the gates are left open and the water is released
subjected to the safe carrying capacity Q2 in Fig.(5) of the channel
downstream. In the later stages of the flood when the discharge downstream
exceeds the maximum capacity of the downstream channel, the gates are kept
partially closed. The curve ABC represents the natural inflow hydrograph of the
river during a flood. The curve ADE indicates the outflow hydrograph. When
the discharge is greater than Q2, the excess water is stored in the reservoir. When
the discharge is less than Q2 the stored water is released. Thus the effect of
reservoir on a flood is to reduce the peak discharge by absorbing a volume of
flood water when the flood is rising, and releasing the same later gradually when
the flood is receding.

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 Fig. (5) Details of Detention reservoir

Retarding Reservoirs: A retarding reservoir is provided with spillways and

sluiceways without gates. The maximum combined discharging capacity of all
spillways and sluiceways is limited to the safe-carrying capacity of the channel
downstream. The retarding reservoir stress a portion of the flood when the flood
is rising and releases it later when the flood is receding, However, in this case,
the discharge downstream cannot be controlled because there are no gates.
Fig. (6) shows the inflow hydrograph ABC and the outflow hydrograph ADE of
a retarding reservoir.

Fig. (6) Details of Retarding Reservoirs

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Advantages of Detention Reservoirs

1. The detention reservoirs provide more flexibility of operation and better

control of outflow than retarding reservoirs. Large reservoirs are usually
detention reservoirs.
2. The discharge from detention reservoirs on different tributaries of a river can
be adjusted according to the carrying capacity of the d/s channel.

Disadvantages of Detention Reservoirs

1. The detention reservoirs are more expensive than the retarding reservoirs
because of high initial cost and maintenance cost of gates and the lifting
machinery.
2. Due to the possibility of human error or negligence, a disaster can occur.

Advantages of Retarding Reservoirs

1. The retarding reservoirs are relatively less expensive than detention
reservoirs.
2. As the outflow is automatic, there is no possibility of a disaster due to human
error or negligence.

Disadvantages of Retarding Reservoirs

1. The retarding reservoirs do not provide any flexibility of operation as the
outflow is automatic
2. The discharge from retarding reservoirs on different tributaries of a river may
coincide and cause heavy flood in the river downstream.

Distribution Reservoirs
These reservoirs are connected to water supply network, water is withdrawn
from a distribution reservoirs when demand is greater than the average flow
pumping of a water plant.

Single Purpose Reservoir

If a reservoir is built to serve only one purpose e.g. for water supply hen it is
called a single purpose reservoir.

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Multipurpose Reservoirs
These reservoirs are provided to serve a number of purposes such as irrigation,
flood control, public water supply, recreation, navigation, fisheries, hydropower
production and etc. Multipurpose reservoirs are large in their size.
Balancing Reservoirs
A balancing reservoir is constructed downstream of a main reservoir to store
water in excess of irrigation and hydropower production water demand.

-Storage Zones and water levels in a Reservoirs

Fig. (7) shows a typical representation of different storage zones and water
levels in a reservoir.

Fig. (7) Storage zones and water levels in a reservoir

Definitions of Water Levels:

Minimum Pool Level or Minimum Water Level
Water can be withdrawn from a reservoir until this level. It coincides with the
level of the lowest outlet of a dam. When a reservoir supplies water for a
hydropower project, it lies higher than the lowest outlet.
Normal Pool Level (NPL)
It is called Full Reservoir Level (FRL) too. This is the highest level in a
reservoir that water can reach under normal operating conditions. Depending on
the type of spillway used in a dam, NPL coincides with the crest level of a
spillway or the top of its gates.
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Maximum Water Level (MWL)
It is the level of the maximum flood that can occur during economic lifetime of
a reservoir.
Definitions of Storage Zones:
Dead Storage
The water storage under minimum water level is named dead storage. Water
cannot be withdrawn from this zone because there is no outlet from it. Dead
storage is usually provided for sedimentation.
Live Storage
The water zone that is located between minimum water level and NPL is called
live or active storage. Water is withdrawn from this zone for all the purposes
that a reservoir has to serve.
Surcharge Storage
It includes the water between NPL and MWL. The water in this zone cannot be
controlled.
Bank Storage
During floods, water is stored in the banks of a reservoir. After depletion of
surcharge storage, water is drained back into the reservoir. In flood occurrences,
bank storage contributes largely in storing excess water.
Valley Storage
It is the storage capacity of a natural stream channel during a flood occurrence.
This storage is important when construction a dam for flood alleviation.

-Investigations for Reservoir Planning:

Three types of investigations are required in order to decide construction of a

reservoir at a proposed area.
1-Engineering Survey
2-Geological Investigation
3-Hydrological Studies
1-Engineering Survey
The proposed area for reservoir is surveyed in detail and contour maps are
prepared. Engineering surveying is done to achieve the following goals:
1- A suitable dam site can be proposed .
2-Establishing area-elevation curve: planimetring the area between successive

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contour line on a topographical map with a suitable scale.
3- Establishing storage-elevation curve using trapezoidal, cone, or prismoidal
method .
4- Identifying the properties (houses, farms) that will be flooded.

Fig. (8) Contour map with dam axis represented

Fig. (9) Area-Elevation curve Fig.(10) Storage-Elevation curve

Fig.(11) shows the combined area and storage-elevation curve, these curves will
be useful in flood routing.

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 Fig. (11) Area elevation curve and capacity elevation curve

Determination of storage volume

1-Trapezoidal Rule
According to the trapezoidal formula, the storage volume between two
successive contours of areas A1, and A2 is given by,
Δ𝑉1 = (𝐴1 +𝐴2)

Where, h is the contour interval.

Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by
𝑉 = Δ𝑉1 + Δ𝑉2 + Δ𝑉3 + ⋯ = Σ Δ𝑉

𝑉 = [𝐴1+2𝐴2+2𝐴3+⋯+2𝐴𝑛−1+𝐴𝑛]
Where n is the total number of areas.

2-Cone Formula
According to the cone formula, the storage volume between two successive
contours of areas 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 is given by,

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Δ𝑉1= (𝐴1+𝐴2+√ )

The total volume V is given by:

𝑉 = Δ𝑉1+Δ𝑉2+Δ𝑉3+⋯=ΣΔ𝑉
3-Prismoidal formula
According to the prismoidal formula, the storage volume between 3 successive
contours is given by,

Δ𝑉1= (𝐴1+4𝐴2+𝐴3)

The total volume is given by

𝑉= [(𝐴1+𝐴𝑛) +4(𝐴2+𝐴4+𝐴6 …) + 2(𝐴3+𝐴5+𝐴7+⋯)]

Where 𝐴3, 𝐴5 etc. are the areas with odd numbers, 𝐴2, 𝐴4, etc. are the areas
with even numbers, 𝐴1and 𝐴𝑛 are respectively the first and the last area.

The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd numbers of areas
(i.e. n should be an odd number). In the case of even number of areas, the
volume up to the last but one area is determined by the prismoidal formula, and
that of the last segment is determined by the trapezoidal formula.

Example 1:

Table below shows the elevation-area data for a reservoir. Estimate the reservoir
storage capacity. FSL is at elevation of 225 m.
Elevation (m) 200 205 210 215 220 225
Area (ha) 300 800 1000 1500 2000 2500

Solution: By trapezoidal rule: n=6 and h=5 m

𝑉 (𝐴 𝐴 (𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 ))

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𝑉 ( ( ))

By prismoidal rule:

𝑉 (𝐴 𝐴 (𝐴 𝐴 ) 𝐴 )

𝑉 ( ( ) )

𝑉 ( )

𝑉
By cone rule:

Δ𝑉1= (𝐴1+𝐴2+√ )

Δ𝑉1= (300+800+√ )

Elevation (m) Area (ha) ∆V

200 300 2650
205 800 4491
210 1000 6208
215 1500 8720
220 2000 11227
225 2500
Total Volume ha-m 33295

2- Geological Investigations:
Geological investigations are required to give detail information about the
following:
1-Water tightness of reservoir basin.
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2- Stability of foundation for the dam.
3- Geological and structural features such as folds, faults, fissures etc.. and their
existence in the foundation.
4- Type and depth of deposits.
5- Location of permeable and soluble rocks.
6- Location of quarry sites for material required for the dam construction and
availability of sufficient quantities.

3- Hydrological studies
Hydrological studies are done to:
1-Study the runoff pattern and to estimate the yield.
2-Estimate the design flood.
For the design of spillways, a design flood must be selected.
Design flood is a flood that a hydraulic structure can pass safely, selected after
economic and hydrologic considerations.
From the hydrological studies the following data should be collected:
1- Quantity, distribution and intensity of rainfall and snowfall.
2- The maximum, mean and the minimum runoff expected from the catchment
that drains into the proposed reservoir. To achieve this, stream flows should be
collected and analyzed.
3-Estimating the yield that is required to satisfy water supply, irrigation and
power generation with a probability of 100%, 75% and 90%.
4- Maximum intensity of floods, their duration and probability of frequency of
their occurrence.
5-Estimating irrigation, hydropower and water supply demand.
6- Rate of sedimentation of the reservoir.
7- Rate of evaporation from the reservoir.

-Reservoir Capacity Design:

Definitions:
Catchment yield: Is the annual amount of the volume of water that passes the
outlet of a catchment. Usually, rainfall data of 35 years or more if available, is
analyzed to know the annual yield, this yield varies from year to another, design
of a reservoir’s capacity depends upon catchment yield.
Reservoir yield: It is the amount of water that can be supplied by the reservoir
in a specified interval of time. The time interval may vary from a day for small
reservoir to a month or year for big reservoir.
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 Safe yield (Firm yield): It is the maximum quantity of water that can be
supplied from the reservoir with full guarantee during the worst dry period .

Design Yield: That yield which can be taken for design purposes and its value is
usually smaller than the safe yield for water supply purposes and slightly larger
than the safe yield for irrigation purposes.

Secondary yield: The quantity of water available in excess of safe yield. This
kind of yield is only available during periods of high inflows and it can be used
either to generate extra hydropower or to irrigate extra land.

Average yield: The arithmetic average of the safe and secondary yields
considered for a number of years.

Computing the design or the dependable catchment yield

The dependable yield, corresponding to a given dependability percentage P, is

determined from the past available data of the last 35 years or so.
The procedure which is adopted to compute the dependable rainfall value for a
given dependability percentage P is as below:
1- The available rainfall data of the past N years is arranged in the descending
order.
2- The order number m, given by the equation, is then computed and
rainfall value corresponding to this order number in the tabulated data will
represent the required dependable rainfall value.
3- If the computed value of m is a fraction , the arithmetic mean will be taken.

Example 2:

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18
 For P=60%

Flow Hydrograph: Is the relation between discharge and time at a certain cross
section in a river.

The Mass Curve: Represents the relationship between the accumulation of

flow from the beginning to the end of a certain period of time, the area under
the flow hydrograph up to certain time (t1) is equal to the ordinate of the mass
curve to that time.

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Flow Duration Curve: The flow duration curve is a plot that shows the
percentage of time that flow in a stream is likely to equal or exceed some
specified value of interest. For example, it can be used to show the percentage
of time river flow can be expected to exceed a design flow of some specified
value (e.g., 5 m3/s), or to show the discharge of the stream that occurs or is
exceeded some percent of the time (e.g., 80% of the time), and usually used for
studying the reliability of hydropower- power generation and irrigation.

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How is it calculated?
1-Rank average discharges for period of record from the largest value to the
smallest value, involving a total of n values.
2- Assign each discharge value a rank (M), starting with 1 for the largest
discharge value.
3- Calculate exceedence probability (P) as follows:
P = 100 * [ M / (n + 1) ]
P = the probability that a given flow will be equaled or exceeded (% of time)
M = the ranked position on the listing
n = the number of events for period of record

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Relation between Inflow, Outflow, and Storage Capacity

Fixing the Reservoir Capacity from the Inflow and Outflow Data
The capacity of reservoir may be determined by determining the storage needed
to accommodate the given inflow minus the given outflow, this involves to
know the Stream flow data at the reservoir site a long range of river flows that
contain at least one drought period.
There are two methods for determining required capacity of a reservoir,
graphical method and analytical method.

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Graphical Method Using Mass Curve
The simplest method of estimating minimum capacity for a reservoir is the mass
inflow curve.
Mass Inflow Curve: Is a curve which represents the cumulative flow in a
reservoir at any particular instance. It is a plot between cumulative inflow in the
reservoir with time. The mass curve continuously rise and the periods of no flow
would be indicated by horizontal lines. The slope of the mass curve at any time
gives the rate of inflow at that time.
Periods of high inflow rate on a mass curve have a steep slope. Whereas, dry
periods are such as holes in a mass curve. Fig. (12) shows a hydrograph and its
corresponding mass curve.

Fig. (12) Hydrograph and the corresponding mass curve

Demand Curve: It is a plot between accumulated demand of water from the

reservoir with time. If demand of water is at constant rate, then the demand
curve becomes a straight line. But if it is variable, it does not remain a straight
line, rather it will be a curve.
Depending on the shape of demand curve i.e. (straight line or curve) the
procedure for evaluating reservoir capacity varies slightly.

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Steps for evaluating the capacity of a reservoir with a constant demand rate:
-Draw the inflow mass curve.
-At the high points of the mass curve draw a tangent line that its slope equals the
demand rate.
-Find the maximum vertical distance between the tangent lines and the mass
curve.
-The largest vertical distance is the minimum required storage capacity,
(Figure13) illustrates the applied procedure.

Fig. (13) Estimating required storage capacity

At point A1 reservoir is assumed to be full. From A1 to C1 inflow rate is lower

than demand rate, therefore water is drawn from the storage. From point C1
onward the inflow rate is increasing and it is greater than demand and the
reservoir is refilling again until it gets to its maximum capacity under normal
conditions at point F1. It is worth mentioning that at C1 reservoir is considered to
be at its lowest storage. From F1 to A2 water is spilling over spill way. It is
important to know that demand lines must intersect the mass curve at a point.
Otherwise, the reservoir will not refilling.

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 The procedure for finding minimum reservoir storage in case of a variable
demand depends on the shape that both flow and demand mass curves take when
sketched together. If the pattern is such as in the Fig. (14), then the minimum
required storage is the maximum ordinate between the two curves.

Fig. (14) Variable Demand

Example 3:
The average annual inflow of a river for 11 years is as follows:
Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970
Inflow 1750 2650 3010 2240 2630 3200 1000 950 1200 4150 3500
(m3/sec)
Using the graphical method, determine the minimum storage capacity (in Mha.-m)
required to meet a demand of 2000 (m3/sec) throughout the year.

Solution:
1 (m3/sec) = 1 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 31.536 × 106 m3 /year= 3153.6 ha-m / year
Yearly demand = 3153.6 × 2000 = 6.3 Mha-m
Inflow, 1960 = 1750 × 3153.6 = 5.52 × 106 ha-m = 5.52 Mha-m

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 Cumulative
Inflow in Inflow in
Year Inflow
(m3/sec) (Mha-m)
(Mha-m)
1960 1750 5.52 5.52
1961 2650 8.35 13.87
1962 3010 9.49 23.36
1963 2240 7.06 30.42
1964 2630 8.29 38.71
1965 3200 10.09 48.80
1966 1000 3.15 51.95
1967 950 3.00 54.95
1968 1200 3.78 58.73
1969 4150 13.09 71.82
1970 3500 11.04 82.86

Fig. shows the mass inflow curve. The tangent is drawn at the crest at the slope of
6.3 Mha-m per year. The maximum intercept is 7.7Mha-m.
Storage capacity = 7.7Mha -m

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Example 4:
The monthly inflow data for a critical period at a proposed reservoir site is in the
table, also monthly demand is tabulated. Estimate the minimum storage capacity.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Inflow (Mm^3) 5.0 3.5 6.5 6.0 3.0 6.5 75.0 60.0 35.0 25.0 6.0 7.0
Demand (Mm^3) 13.0 15.6 18.1 13.0 20.7 25.9 13.0 15.6 10.4 20.7 25.9 31.1

Solution:
Accumulate inflow and demand values are in table below

Cumulative Cumulative
Inflow Demand
Month Inflow demand
(Mm3) (Mm3)
(Mm3) (Mm3)
Jan 5.0 13.0 5.0 13.0
Feb 3.5 15.6 8.5 28.6
Mar 6.5 18.1 15.0 46.7
Apr 6.0 13.0 21.0 59.7
May 3.0 20.7 24.0 80.4
Jun 6.5 25.9 30.5 106.3
Jul 75.0 13.0 105.5 119.3
Aug 60.0 15.6 165.5 134.9
Sep 35.0 10.4 200.5 145.3
Oct 25.0 20.7 225.5 166.0
Nov 6.0 25.9 231.5 191.9
Dec 7.0 31.1 238.5 223.0

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 The minimum storage capacity is 76 Mm3

Fixing the Demand for a Reservoir of a Given Storage Capacity:

Fixing the demand for a given reservoir capacity, may also be done with the help
of mass curve of inflow. In this case the tangent is drawn to the high point of the
mass inflow curve in such a way that the maximum departure from the mass curve
is equal to the reservoir capacity, the slope of the line represent the demand of the
reservoir. In Fig. below a mass inflow curve is given, if the storage capacity is 750
ha-m, the minimum value 1230 ha-m represents the demand (or the safe yield) of
the reservoir.

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Analytical method
The procedure of this method is as below:
1-The deficit and surplus of available water is determined i.e. ( )
2-Thehighest value of cumulative deficit or cumulative surplus represents the
minimum value of storage capacity in case of uniform demand.
3- In case of non-uniform demand cumulative deficit represents the minimum
value of storage capacity.

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Example 5: (Solve by graphical method and analytical method)

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31
Example 6: (Solve by analytical method)

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33
-Reservoir losses
a-Evaporation Losses
They depend on reservoir area and are expressed in cm of water depth. The
other factors influencing evaporation are temperature, wind velocity, relative
humidity, proximity of other structures etc. Evaporation losses can be measured
on standard pans and after applying suitable coefficients, reservoir evaporation
losses can be evaluated.

b-Absorption Losses
They depend on the type of soil forming the reservoir basin, they may be quite
large in the beginning, but gradually reduce as the pores get saturated.
c-Percolation or Seepage Losses
They are usually small but may be quite significant where there may be
continuous seam of porous strata or cavernous or fissured rock.

Example 7:
Given below are monthly inflow during a low-water period at the site of a
proposed dam, the corresponding monthly evaporation and precipitation at a
nearby station and the estimated monthly demand for water. Prior water rights
require the release of full natural flow or 10hectares-m, whichever is least.
Assume that 30% of the rainfall on the land area to be flooded by the reservoir
has reached the stream in the past. Use a net increased pool area of 500 hectares
and a coefficient of pan of 0.72. Find the required storage.

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 Pan Precipi Demand
Flow
Month evaporation tation (ha-m)
(ha-m)
(cm) (cm)
Jan 8.6 2.2 0.8 14.5
Feb 2.2 2.3 1.2 15.8
Mar 1.8 3.1 0 16.2
Apr 0.0 8.6 0 16.8
May 0.0 12.8 0 17.5
Jun 13.5 15.6 4.8 18
Jul 280.6 12.3 12.2 18
Aug 510.2 10.6 18.6 17
Sep 136 10 8.6 16.5
Oct 52.5 8.6 1.5 16
Nov 20.6 5.8 0 15.8
Dec 12.3 3 0 15

Solution:
𝑛( )

𝑛( )
𝑛 𝑛 ( ) ( )
𝑛 𝑛 ( )
( ) ⁄

𝐴 𝑛 ( )
( ) 𝐴 𝑛 𝑛

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 Pan D.S
Flow evaporation Rainfall
Rainfall Demand Release Adjusted Requir. Acc.
Month ha- ha-m on Res. ha-m inflow Storage storage
evap. (cm) ha-m
m ha-m ha-m ha-m ha-m
(cm)

Jan 8.6 2.2 0.8 14.5 7.92 2.8 8.6 -5.12 -19.62 -19.62

Feb 2.2 2.3 1.2 15.8 8.28 4.2 2.2 -4.08 -19.88 -39.5

Mar 1.8 3.1 0 16.2 11.16 0 1.8 -11.16 -27.36 -66.86

Apr 0.0 8.6 0 16.8 30.96 0 0 -30.96 -47.76 -114.62

May 0.0 12.8 0 17.5 46.08 0 0 -46.08 -63.58 -178.2

Jun 13.5 15.6 4.8 18 56.16 16.8 10 -35.86 -53.86 -232.06

Jul 280.6 12.3 12.2 18 44.28 42.7 10 269.02 251.02

Aug 510.2 10.6 18.6 17 38.16 65.1 10 527.14 510.14

Sep 136.0 10 8.6 16.5 36.0 30.1 10 120.1 103.6

Oct 52.5 8.6 1.5 16 30.96 5.25 10 16.79 0.79

Nov 20.6 5.8 0 15.8 20.88 0 10 -10.28 -26.08 -26.08

Dec 12.3 3 0 15 10.8 0 10 -8.5 -23.5 -49.58

-Soil Erosion
Soil erosion in a watershed is the detachment of soil particles from soils surface
by rainfall and its consequent transport by water runoff. There are other factors
such as wind and landslide that also cause soil erosion but considering reservoir
sedimentation, the soil erosion caused by water is the most significant
contributor. Raindrops have a dual action on soil particles. Firstly, raindrops
loosens soil particles by decreasing the shear strength among them. Secondly,
when raindrops flows over the detached particles, it exerts a shear force upon
them, thus transporting the soil particles.

36
Factors affecting soil erosion
The factors that affect erosion are listed in the table below along with their impact.

Types of soil erosion

Sheet erosion
It is the movement of soil from raindrop splash and runoff water. It typically
occurs evenly over a uniform slope without formation of elementary channels.
Deposition of eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the slope in low areas. Soils
most vulnerable to sheet erosion are overgrazed and cultivated soils where there
is little vegetation to protect and hold the soil. The existence of sheet erosion can
be verified by observing the muddy flow from fields.
Rill erosion
Rills are elementary channels formed because of concentration of surface runoff.
These are temporary features and facilitate channeling of overland flow. The
flow in rills cuts the surface, detaches and transports the sediments in surface
runoff.

37
Gulley erosion
Gullies are formed when confluence of many rills lead to the formation of a
major rill. When a major rill becomes deeper and steeper a gulley is formed.
Gullies are capable of cutting and transporting larger amounts of sediments.
Enlarged gullies become permanent topographic features.
Channel erosion
Channels are permanent topographic features formed due to confluence of
gullies. Channel erosion includes stream bed and bank erosion and flood plain
scour. Channel erosion is significantly larger than sheet erosion.
Figure 14 shows a schematic representation of the first three types of the soil
erosion.

Figure 15: Schematic representation of soil erosion types

-Reservoir Sedimentation

The sediments are produced in the catchment of the river by erosion. Rivers
carry a large amount of sediment load along with water, these sediments are
deposited in the reservoir on the upstream of the dam because of reduction of
velocity. Sedimentation reduces the available capacity of the reservoir. With
continuous sedimentation, the useful life of the reservoir goes on decreasing.
The processes of deposition of sediments in a reservoir is called Reservoir
Silting or Reservoir Sedimentation.
The sediment load of a river depends upon the following factors:

38
1-Nature of soil in the catchment: If the soil in the catchment is loose and
easily erodible, the sediment load is large. on the other hand, if the soil is hard
and non-erodible, the sediment load is quite small.
2. Vegetal Cover: If the catchment area has no vegetal cover, the soil is easily
eroded and the sediment load is large.
3. Topography of the catchment: In case of catchments having steep slopes,
the sediment load is large because of high velocity of water.
4. Intensity of rainfall: If the intensity of rainfall is high, the discharge in the
river is increased and the sediment load is large.
Reservoir sedimentation cannot be prevented but it may be reduced to some
extent. Catchments having prolific sources of sediments should be avoided.

Types of sediment load:

1- Suspended load: The suspended load is that part of the sediment load which
is held in suspension against gravity by the vertical component of the eddies of
the turbulent flow. The suspended load usually consists of fine materials
dispersed throughout the river cross-section.

2-Bed load: The bed load is that part of the sediment load which remains in
contact with the bed when moving with water. It consists of relatively coarser
materials.

Measurement of Sediment Loads:

1- Suspended Load: Samplers are used to take samples of water at various

depths in a river to determine the suspended load. The samples are filtered and
the sediment is collected. The collected sediments are then dried and weighed.
The sediment load is usually expressed as parts per million (ppm). It is
computed by dividing the mass of the sediment of the sample by the total mass
of the sample and multiplying by one million (106). Various types of samplers
are available for taking samples.

2- Bed load: There is no practical method for the measurement of bed load in
the river. It has been found in practice that the bed load is usually 5 to 25 percent
of the suspended load. An average value of 15% is generally taken.

39
When the river with a large sediment load approaches a reservoir, the velocity
and turbulence of water are greatly reduced. The larger suspended load particles
and most of the bed load particles get deposited in the head reaches of the
reservoir and a delta is formed (Figure16). However, the finer particles remain
in suspension and they travel some more distance into the reservoir. Some very
fine particles may remain in suspension for a much longer period. These
particles may finally escape to the downstream of the darn through the sluices,
spillways or penstocks.

Density Currents: A density current consists of flow of one fluid under another
fluid of a slightly different density (Figure 16). In a reservoir, the density
currents occur because of flow of sediment-laden water under clear water in the
reservoir. The sediment-laden water has a slightly different density. The
difference in density may also occur because of dissolved materials or
temperature difference. A density current maintains its identity because it does
not mix readily with the reservoir water. When the silt-laden water enters the
reservoir as a density current, it plunges downwards and moves towards the dam
along the bed of the reservoir below the water surface. Reservoir sedimentation
can be decreased by about 2 to 10 percent by venting out the density currents
though sluices of the dam.

Figure 16: Reservoir sedimentation (Density Currents)

40
Useful Life of Reservoir

All reservoirs ultimately get filled with sediment. The river carries sediments to
the reservoir which are deposited in the reservoir. The deposition of sediments
gradually decreases the available storage capacity of the reservoir. If the annual
sediment inflow is large compared with the reservoir capacity, the useful life of
the reservoir would be very short. While planning a reservoir, it is essential to
consider the rate of sedimentation to know whether the useful life of the
proposed reservoir will be sufficiently long. The rate of sedimentation in the
reservoir depends on the trap efficiency.

Trap efficiency: The trap efficiency (ƞt) is defined as the percent of the total
inflow sediment which is retained in the reservoir. Thus Trap efficiency,

ƞt = ( ) × 100

From the observations of the rate of sedimentation of existing reservoirs, it has

been found that the trap efficiency of a reservoir depends upon the
(capacity/inflow) ratio. Thus,

Ƞt = f (capacity/inflow)

Figure 17: Trap efficiency

The curve relating the trap efficiency and the capacity-inflow ratio on the basis
of sedimentation data of existing reservoirs is shown in (Figure 17).

41
The trap efficiency decreases with the age of the reservoir because the available
capacity gradually decreases due to sedimentation. Generally, the useful life of a
reservoir is considered to be over when its capacity is reduced to about
(10- 20) % of the designed capacity. Most of the reservoirs are planned to have a
useful life of 100 years. Approximate sedimentation may be assumed at the rate
of 0.1 to 0.20 hac-m per year per sq. km of the drainage area of the river.
The volume occupied by the sediment in the reservoir can be computed from the
mass (or weight) of the sediment after assuming a reasonable value of the mass
density (or specific weight) of the deposited sediments. The useful life of the
reservoir can be estimated by determining the total time required to fill the
designated sediment storage volume.
The following procedure is used to estimate the useful life of a reservoir. It is
assumed that the capacity, the annual inflow, the annual sediment load, the trap
efficiency and the mass density of the deposited sediments are known.

1. Determine the capacity-inflow ratio from the annual inflow volume and the
initial capacity of the reservoir.
2-Find the trap efficiency from (Fig. 17) for the capacity-inflow ratio
3. Divide the available storage in different portions. Generally, it is divided into
10 portions. Compute the capacity-inflow ratio when the capacity is reduced to
(say) 90% of the initial capacity.
4. Determine the trap efficiency for the capacity-inflow ratio found in step (3).
5. Find the average of the trap efficiencies found in steps (2) and (4). This is the
trap efficiency with which the sedimentation takes place when the capacity is
reduced by first 10% (in this case).
6. Multiply the average annual sediment load by the average trap efficiency to
determine the amount of sediment deposited annually.
7. Convert the deposited sediment from mass (or weight) units to the volume
units by dividing the mass (or weight) of the sediment by the mass density (or
specific weight).
8. Determine the number of years required for filling the 10% capacity of the
reservoir by dividing this 10% capacity by the annual volume of sediment found
in step (7).

42
 9. Repeat the above steps and find out the number of years required for filling
the successive 10% 0f the capacity till only 20% of the capacity is left, i.e. 80%
of it is silted.
10. Calculate the sum of the number of years required to fill successive 10% of
the capacity. This Sum total is equal to the useful life of the reservoir.

Example 8: A reservoir has a capacity of 3. 6 Mha-m up to the level of the

spillway crest. The average annual inflow is 1.5 Mha-m of water. If the average
annual sediment inflow is 3 × (1011) kg, determine the following:

(a) The useful life of the reservoir, assuming that the usefulness of the reservoir is
terminated when two-third of the total capacity is filled with sediments.
(b) The storage capacity at the end of 30 years.
(c) The period in which the reservoir will be completely filled up to the crest level.
Assume mass density of sediments as 1100kg/m3.
Consider only 6 divisions of the total storage capacity.

Solution:
Annual sediment inflow = 3 X (1011) kg

( )
= m3 = 272.73 Mm3 = 0.0273 Mha-m
Annual inflow of water = 1.5 Mha-m
Initial capacity-inflow ratio = = 2.4
Storage capacity at the end of useful life = 1/3 × 3.6 = 1.20 Mha-m
Capacity inflow ratio = = 0.80
Volume of sediment deposited in 30 years = 30 X 0.0273 = 0.82 Mha-m.
Storage capacity at the end of 30 years = 3.60 - 0. 82= 2.78 Mha-m
Capacity- inflow ratio = = 1.85
When the reservoir is completely filled with the sediment, Capacity- inflow
ratio= 0.0.
The calculations are shown in the table below. The values of the trap
efficiency are obtained from (Figure 17).

43
 (a)Useful life of reservoir = 22 .4+22.6+22.7+22.8 = 90.5 years
(b) Storage capacity at the end of 30 years = 2.78 Mha-m
(c) Total life of reservoir=159.8 years.

Example 9:
Table below gives the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity inflow
ration. Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of
36 Mm3, if the average annual flood inflow is 72 Mm3 and average annual
sediment inflow is 2,20,000 tons. Assume a density of the sediment equal to 1.2
gm/cm3. The useful life of the reservoir will terminate when 80% of its initial
capacity is filled with sediments.

Solution:
20% of the reservoir capacity is 7.2 Mm3. So let’s decrease reservoir capacity by
7.2 Mm3 at each step.
To find the required time for losing the first 7.2 Mm3:
The initial C/I=0.5 and its corresponding trap efficiency is 0.96 from table.
The C/I becomes 0.4 when the reservoir capacity decreases to 28.8 Mm3 and its
trap efficiency will be 0.95. So Ƞave for this period is 0.955.

44
 𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑛𝑛

Deposited Volume
Volume ƞ Time
C/I ƞ sediments Sediments
Mm3 Average Years
tones m3
36 0.5 0.96
28.8 0.4 0.95 0.955 210100 175083.3 41.1

21.6 0.3 0.94 0.945 207900 173250 41.6

14.4 0.2 0.91 0.925 203500 169583.3 42.5

7.2 0.1 0.88 0.895 196900 164083.3 43.9

∑=169.1
Suspended Load
In order to calculate the suspended load, the variation of sediment concentration
in a vertical section of stream flow must be computed. Figure 18 shows the
vertical distribution of suspended load concentration. The equations stated
below with Figure 18 can be used to calculate the average concentration of
suspended load at a given reach of stream.

*( )( )+ ------------- (1)

Figure 18: Vertical distribution of suspended load

45
Where
Cy: concentration at depth y from bed
Ca: concentration at depth a from bed
yo: flow depth
y:depth from bed
a: depth from bed where sediment concentration is measured
z: Rouse number (is a non-dimensional number in fluid dynamics which is used
to define a concentration profile of suspended sediment and which also
determines how sediment will be transported in a flowing fluid).

Figure 19: Graph of Rouse suspended load distribution equation

46
 Example 10:
During a flood time, a sample is taken in a stream of depth 1 m, the
concentration of this sample was found to be 20,000 ppm, the sample was taken
at 5 cm from bed. If z is calculated to be 0.5, find the average concentration of
suspended sediments at that reach, assume that bed load is 15% of average
suspended load, what is total sediment load?
Solution:
a- by curve
Using Figure 19, assume values for (y-a) / (yo-a), use the curve for z = 0.5 read
C / Ca ratio and calculate the value of C , find the arithmetic mean of C.
b- by equation

Y C
(y-a)/(y0-a)
(m)
C /Ca (ppm)
0.1 0.145 0.557 11140
0.2 0.24 0.408 8160
0.3 0.335 0.323 6460
0.4 0.43 0.264 5280
0.5 0.525 0.218 4360
0.6 0.62 0.180 3600
0.7 0.715 0.145 2900
0.8 0.81 0.111 2220
0.9 0.905 0.074 1480

∑
𝐴 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

Estimation of Suspended Load from Flow Duration and Sedimentation

Rating Curves
Procedure for estimating suspended sediment load using flow duration and
sedimentation rating curves:

47
1-Construct flow duration curve
2-Construct sedimentation rating curve
3-Divide the flow duration curve into 10 to 20 intervals
4-Find the midpoint of each probability interval (pi)
5-Find discharge Qi corresponding to each pi from Figure (20 )
6-Find sediment load Qs corresponding to each Qi
7-Find the probable daily sediment load (∆p. Qs) and volume of water ((∆p. Q)
8-To estimate sediment load/year: ∑ ∆p. Qs × 365

Example 11:
Flow duration curve (Figure 20) of a gauging station at the outlet of watershed is
shown below. The sediment rating curve is given by the equation Qs=0.8 Q1.84
where Qs is the suspended load in tones/day and Q is discharge in m3/s.
Estimate:
1- The annual total sediment yield of the watershed assuming that bed load is
5% of the suspended load.
2- The annual average concentration of suspended load.

Figure 20: Flow duration curve

48
Solution:
Mean Expected
Daily Sediment Volume
Frequency Q Qs Load Water
range (%) ∆pi % pi % m3/s tones/day tones/day (m3/s)
0.1-1 0.9 0.55 250 20668 186.0 2.25
1-5 4 3 200 13708 548.3 8
5-10 5 7.5 160 9092 454.6 8
10-15 5 12.5 135 6651 332.6 6.75
15-20 5 17.5 120 5355 267.8 6
20-30 10 25 100 3829 382.9 10
30-40 10 35 80 2540 254.0 8
40-50 10 45 65 1733 173.3 6.5
50-65 15 57.5 50 1070 160.4 7.5
65-80 15 72.5 40 709 106.4 6
80-90 10 85 25 299 29.9 2.5
90-95 5 92.5 15 117 5.8 0.75
95-99.9 4.9 97.45 10 55 2.7 0.49
Total 2904.7364 72.74

𝐴𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝑛𝑛

𝐴 𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

-Control of Reservoir Sedimentation

In order to increase the useful life of a reservoir, the rate of deposition of
sediments in the reservoir should be decreased. The following measures are
usually taken to reduce the reservoir sedimentation.

49
 1. Selection of suitable site: The reservoir should be at the location where the
sediment inflow is low.

2. Proper design: The rate of sedimentation is low in the reservoirs of small

capacity. The reservoir may be designed in such a way that its capacity increases
in stages. Initially, a reservoir of smaller capacity is created by constructing the
dam to a lower height. After a portion of the reservoir gets filled up with
sediments, the height of the dam is then increased.

3. Provision of sluices: An adequate number of sluices should be provided at

different levels in the dam to discharge sediment-laden water to the downstream.

4. Creating large reservoirs: As far as possible, large reservoirs should be

created. Although the trap efficiency of the large reservoirs is high, it does not
increase linearly with an increase in capacity. Therefore the useful life of a large
reservoir is longer than that of a small reservoir, if all other factors remain
constant. Of course, the cost of larger reservoir will also be more.

5. Control of sediment inflow: The inflow of sediments to a reservoir can be

controlled by the following methods.
(i) Check dams. A check dam is a small dam constructed on a stream to trap the
sediments carried by the stream. Check dams are constructed on the tributaries
carrying large quantity of sediments.

(ii) Vegetation screens. Vegetal cover on the catchment reduces the impact of
rain drops and hence minimizes erosion. Vegetal screen is developed by
promoting the growth of vegetation.

6. Control of sediment deposition: Sediment deposition in a reservoir can be

reduced to some extent by operating the sluices such that the water containing
high sediment load is quickly discharged through them to the downstream.

7. Physical removal of sediments: Physical removal of the deposited sediment

is rarely practical and economically feasible. Sometimes the sediments are
removed by loosening them and then scouring them through the sluices. Sluice
50
gates near the base of the dam may also be used for flushing out the sediments
downstream. However, their removal does not extend far upstream of the dam
and is rarely effective.
Sometimes sediments are removed by ordinary earth-moving machines, but this
method is quite expensive and is used only when the excavated sediments have
some sale-value.
8. Soil conservation: Soil conservation methods commonly used are terraces,
strips cropping and contour farming. These methods reduce the velocity of flow
of water and hence erosion.

Effect of Sedimentation on a Reservoir

1-Reservoir silting gradually reduces the storage capacity. Even before a
reservoir becomes full with sediments, it may fail to supply for the expected
demands fully.
2-When a river deposits its load into a reservoir then it tends to erode its bed
downstream of dams. In long term this might have adverse impacts on the
morphology of the river and its wildlife.
3-If the intakes and water outlets are not placed properly or sedimentation
succeed the expected rates then they cannot function properly.
4-The escaped fine sediments through water outlets to power and water supply
plants, will cause abrasion of blades of turbines and pumps. Consequently this
will lead to a decline in their efficiencies or even their temporal shut down.
Reservoir site selection
1-The reservoir should be of sufficient capacity decided by hydrological studies.
2-The reservoir site should exclude water from tributaries having high percent of
silt.
3-The reservoir basin should be sufficient water tight so that the water may not
leak from it.
4-The reservoir site should be above the area to be irrigated and the water should
normally flow under gravity acceleration.
5-The value of property and land submerged by water should be much less than
the benefits expected from the project.
6-The site should be have good water tight rock for foundation.
7-It is economical if the site is in the vicinity of access road, electric and water
supply.

51