Wre-Ii Lecture Notes

IV YEAR
I SEM
[WATER RESOURCES
ENGINEERING - II]
LECTURE NOTES
Author:Dr.V.Varalakshmi
Professor, Department of civil Engineering
Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology and Management
INDEX
UNIT UNIT NAME PAGE NO.

NO
SYLLABUS
I RESERVOIRS 1-27
II GRAVITY DAMS 28-53
III EARTH DAMS & SPILLWAYS 54-116
IV DIVERSION HEAD WORKS 117-147
V CANAL FALLS/CROSS DRAINAGE 148-164

WORKS
JNTUH PREVIOUS QUESTIONS 165-172
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 173-182
WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING-II (A70133)
IV Year B.Tech CE-I Sem L T/P/D C
4 - 4
SYLLABUS
UNIT-I
Storage works- reservoirs- types of reservoirs. Selection of site for reservoir, zones of storage of a reservoir,
reservoir, yield, estimation of capacity of reservoir using mass curve- Reservoir sedimentation- life of Reservoir,
Types of dams, factors affecting selection of type of dam, factors governing selection of site for a dam.
UNIT-II
Gravity Dams: Forces acting on gravity dam, causes of failure of a gravity dam, elementary profile and practical
profile of a gravity dam, limiting height of a low gravity dam, Factors of safety- stability analysis, Foundation for a
gravity dam, drainage and inspection galleries
UNIT-III
Earth dams: types of Earth dams, Causes of failure of earth dam, criteria for safe design of earth dam, seepage
through earth dam- graphical method, measures for control of seepage
Spill ways: Types of spillways, design principles of ogee spillways- spillway gates, Energy Dissipaters and stilling
Basins significance of jump height curve and tail water rating curve- USBR and Indian types of stilling basins.
UNIT-IV
Diversion head works: types of diversion head works- weirs and barrages, layout of diversion head work-
components. Causes and failure of Weirs and Barrages on permeable foundations,- silt Ejectors and Silt Excluders
Weirs on Permeable Foundations- Creep Theories- Bligh’s. Lane’s and khosla’s theories, Determination of uplift
pressure- various correction factors- Design principles of weirs on permeable foundations using creep theories- exit
gradient, U/s and D/s sheet piles- Launching Apron
UNIT-V
Canal falls- Types of falls and their location. Design principles of Notch fall and Sarada type fall. Canal regulation
works, principles of design of distributor and head regulators, Canal Cross Regulators- canal outlets, types of canal
modules, proportionality, sensitivity and flexibility.
Cross Drainage works: types, selection of site, design principles of aqueduct, siphon aqueduct and super passage.
Design of type II Aqueduct (under tunnel)
TEXT BOOKS:
1.Irrigation engineering and hydraulic structures by S.K. Garg, Khanna Publishers
2.Irrigation and water power engineering by Punmia & Lal, Laxmi publications pvt ltd. New Delhi
REFERENCES:
1.Irrigation and water resources engineering by G.L.Asawa, New Age International Publishers.
2.Theory and Design of Hydraulic structures by varshney, gupta &Gupta
3.Irrigation engineering by K.R.Arora
4.Irrigation Engineering by R.K.Sharma and T.K. Sharma, S.Chand Publishers
5.Introduction to hydrology by Warren Viessvann, Jr. Garyl, Lewis, PHI Oxford University Press.
Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of Technology and Management Author:Dr.V.Varalakshmi
UNIT-I
RESERVOIRS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river. Broadly
speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir. However, the term reservoir in
water resources engineering is used in a restricted sense for a comparatively large body of water
stored on the upstream of a dam constructed for this purpose. Thus a dam and a reservoir exist
together. The discharge in a river generally varies considerably during different periods of a year.
If a reservoir serves only one purpose, it is called a single-purpose reservoir. On the other hand,
if it serves more than one purpose, it is termed a multipurpose reservoir. The various purposes
served by a multipurpose seservoir include (i) irrigation (ii) municipal and industrial water
supply, (iii) flood control (iv) hydropower, (v) navigation, (vi) recreation, (vii)development of
fish and wild life, (viii) soil conservation and (ix) pollution control
1.2 TYPES OF RESERVOIRS

Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five types:
1. Storage (or conservation) reservoirs
2. Flood control reservoirs
3. Multipurpose reservoirs
4. Distribution reservoirs.
5. Balancing reservoirs
1. Storage reservoirs Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs because they
are used to conserve water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to. Store the water in the rainy
season and to release it later when the river flow is low store reservoirs are usually
constructed for irrigation, the municipal water supply and hydropower. Although the storage
reservoirs are constructed for storing water for various purposes, incidentally they also help
in moderating the floods and reducing the flood damage to some extent on the downstream.
However, they are not designed as flood control reservoirs.
2. Flood control reservoirs A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood
control It protects the areas lying on its downstream side from the damages due to flood.
However, absolute protection from extreme floods is not economically feasible. A flood
control reservoir reduces the flood damage, and it is also known as the flood-mitigation
reservoir. Sometimes, it is called flood protection reservoir. In a flood control reservoir, the
floodwater is discharged downstream till the outflow reaches the safe capacity of the channel
downstream. When the discharge exceeds the safe capacity. The excess water is stored in the
reservoir. The stored water is subsequently released when the inflow to reservoir decreases.
Care is, however, taken that the discharge in the channel downstream, including local inflow,
does not exceed its safe capacity. A flood control reservoir is designed to moderate the flood
and not to conserve water. However, incidentally some storage is also done during the period
of floods. Flood control reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit rapid
drawdown before or after the occurrence of a flood.
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3. Multipurpose Reservoirs A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to serve two

or more purposes. Most of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose reservoirs to store
water for irrigation and hydropower, and also to effect flood control.
4. Distribution Reservoir A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to tide over the
peak demand of water for municipal water supply or irrigation. The distribution reservoir is
helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It stores water during the period of
lean demand and supplies the same during the period of high demand. As the storage is
limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per demand for a day or so and not for
storing it for a long period. Water is pumped from a water source at a uniform rate
throughout the day for 24 hours but the demand varies from time to time. During the period
when the demand of water is less than the pumping rate, the water is stored in the distribution
reservoir. On the other hand, when the demand of water is more than the pumping rate, the
distribution reservoir is used for supplying water at rates greater than the pumping rate.
Distribution reservoirs are rarely used for the supply of water for irrigation. These are mainly
used for municipal water supply.
5. Balancing reservoir A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s of the main
reservoir for holding water released from the main reservoir.
1.3 INVESTIGATIONS FOR RESERVOIR PLANNING
The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning.

1. Engineering surveys
2. Geological investigation
3. Hydrologic investigations
1. Engineering surveys Engineering surveys are conducted for the dam, the reservoir and other
associated works. Generally, the topographic survey of the area is carried out and the contour
plan is prepared. The horizontal control is usually provided by triangulation survey,and the
vertical control by precise levelling.
(a) Dam site For the area in the vicinity of the dam site, a very accurate triangulation survey
is conducted. A contour plan to a scale of 1/250 or 1/500 is usually prepared. The contour
interval is usually 1 m or 2 m. The contour plan should cover an area at least upto 200 m
upstream and 400m downstream and for adequate width beyond the two abutments.
(b) Reservoir For the reservoir, the scale of the contour plan is usually 1/15,000 with a
contour interval of 2 m to 3 m, depending upon the size of the reservoir. The area-elevation
and storage-elevation curves are prepared for different elevations upto an elevation 3 to 5m
higher than the anticipated maximum water level (M.W.L).
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2. Geological investigations Geological investigations of the dam and reservoir site are done
for the following purposes.
(i) Suitability of foundation for the dam.
(ii) Watertightness of the reservoir basin
(iii) Location of the quarry sites for the construction materials.
3. Hydrological investigations The hydrological investigations are conducted for the

following purposes :
(i) To study the runoff pattern and to estimate yield.
(ii) To determine the maximum discharge at the site.
(i) Run off pattern and yield The most important aspect of the reservoir planning is to estimate
the quantity of water likely to be available in the river from year to year and seasons to season.
For the determination of the required storage capacity of a reservoir, the runoff pattern of the
river at the dam site is required. If the stream gauging has been done for a number of years
before the construction of the dam, the runoff pattern will be available from the record. It is
generally assumed that the runoff pattern will be substantially the same in future also. The
available record is used for estimating the storage capacity. The inflow hydrographs of two or
three consecutive bad years when the discharge is low are frequently used for estimating the
required capacity. However, if the stream gauging records are not available, the runoff and yield
have to be estimated indirectly by the empirical (or) statistical methods. These are :
(i) Runoff expressed as a percentage of rainfall.
(ii) Runoff expressed as a residual of rainfall after deducting losses due to evaporation,
transpiration and ground water accretion.
(iii) Run off expressed as a function of mean annual temperature and rainfall.
(ii) Maximum discharge The spillway capacity of the dam is determined from the inflow
hydrograph for the worst flood when the discharge in the river is the maximum. Flood routing is
done to estimate the maximum outflow and the maximum water level reached during the worst
flood. The methods for the estimation of the maximum flood discharge are:
(i) Empirical relations mostly correlated with the catchment area
(ii) Statistical methods
(iii) Unit hydrograph method
(iv) Flood frequency studies
Usually for big reservoirs, a 1000 years flood is taken for spillway design.
1.4 SELECTION OF SITE FOR A RESERVOIR
A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:
1. Large storage capacity The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir has a
large capacity to store water.
2. Suitable site for the dam A suitable site for the dam should exist on the downstream of the
proposed reservoir. There should be good foundation for the darn The reservoir basin should
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have a narrow opening in the valley so that the length of the dam is small. The cost of the
dam is often a controlling factor in the selection of a site for the reservoir.
3. Watertightness of the reservoir The geological conditions of the reservoir site should be
such that the reservoir basin is watertight. The reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not
suitable. The reservoir basins having shales, slates, schists, gneiss, granite, etc. are generally
suitable.
4. Good hydrological conditions The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir site
should be such that adequate runoff is available for storage. The catchment area of the river
should give high yield. There should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to evaporation,
transpiration and percolation.
5. Deep reservoir The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed after the construction
of the dam. A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow reservoir because in the former the
evaporation losses are small, the cost of land acquisition is low and the weed growth is less.
6. Small submerged area The site should be such that the submerged area is a minimum. It
should not submerge costly land and property. It should not affect the ecology of the region.
Monuments of historical and architectural importance should not be submerged.
7. Low silt inflow The life of the reservoir is short if the river water at the site has a large
quantity of sediments. The reservoir site should be selected such that it avoids or excludes the
water from those tributaries which carry a high percentage of silt.
8. No objectionable minerals The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not contain
any objectionable soluble minerals which may contaminate the water. The stored water
should be suitable for the purpose for which the water is required.
9. Low cost of real estate The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam,dwellings, roads.
railways, etc. should be low.
1.5 ZONES OF STORAGE IN A RESERVOIR:
The following are the various zones of storage in reservoir:
1. Useful storage The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and the
minimum pool level is called the useful storage. The useful storage is available for various
purposes of the reservoir. In most of the reservoirs, the useful storage is the conservation
storage of the reservoir. However, in the case of multipurpose reservoirs in which the flood
control is also a designed function, the useful storage is subdivided into (a) the conservation
storage for other purposes and (b) the flood control storage for the flood control, in
accordance with the adopted plan of operation of the reservoir. The useful storage is also
known as the live storage.
2. Surcharge storage The surcharge storage is the volume of water stored above the full
reservoir level upto the maximum water level. The surcharge storage is an uncontrolled
storage which exists only when the river is in flood and the flood water is passing over the
spillway. This storage is available only for the absorption of flood and it cannot be used for
other purposes.
3. Dead storage The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the dead
storage. The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary
operating conditions.
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4. Bank storage If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is temporarily stored by
them when the reservoir is full. The stored water in banks later drains into the reservoir when
the water level in the reservoir falls. Thus the banks of the reservoir act like mini reservoirs.
The bank storage increases the effective capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the
elevation-storage curve. However, in most of the reservoirs, the bank storage is small
because the banks are usually impervious.
5. Valley storage The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley upto the
top of its banks before the construction of a reservoir is called the valley storage. The valley
storage depends upon the cross section of the river, the length of the river and its water level.
The net increase in the storage capacity after the construction of a reservoir is equal to the
total capacity of the reservoir upto FRL minus the valley storage. However, this distinction
between the net storage capacity and the total storage capacity is not of much significance in
a conservation or storage reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for
different purposes. But in the case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net
storage capacity and the total storage capacity is quite important because the effective storage
for flood control is reduced due to the valley storage. The effective storage is equal to the
sum of the useful storage and the surcharge storage minus the valley storage in the case of a
flood control reservoir.
Fig.1.1 Zones of Storage In A Reservoir
1.6 STORAGE CAPACITY AND YIELD OF A RESERVOIR
1. Yield from a reservoir Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from a
reservoir in a specified period of time. The time period for the estimation of yield is selected
according to the size of the reservoir. It may be a day for a small reservoir and a month or a
year for a large eservoir. The yield is usually expressed as Mha-m/year or Mm3/year for
large reservoirs. As discussed later, the yield is determined from the storage capacity of the
reservoir and the mass inflow curve.
2. Safe yield (Firm yield) Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied
from a reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year. Generally, the lowest
recorded natural flow of the river for a number of years is taken as the critical dry period for
5
determining the safe yield. However, there is a possibility that a still drier period may occur
in future and the yield available may be even less than that determined on the basis of past
records. This factor should be kept in mind while fixing the safe yield. There is generally a
firm commitment by the organisation to the consumers that the safe yield will be available to
them. It is therefore also called the firm yield or the guaranteed yield.
3. Secondary yield Secondary yield is the quantity of water which is available during the
period of high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield. There is no firm
commitment (or guarantee) to supply the secondary yield. It is supplied on as and when basis
at the lower rates. The hydropower developed from secondary yield is sold to industries at
cheaper rates. However, the power commitment for domestic supply should be based on the
firm yield.
4. Average yield The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long period of time.
5. Design yield The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design
yield is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the amount of risk
involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of the consumers are reasonably
met with, and at the same time, the storage required is not unduly large. Generally, a
reservoir for the domestic water supply is planned on the basis of firm yield. On the other
hand, a reservoir for irrigation may be planned with a value of design yield equal to 1 2 times
the firm yield because more risk can be taken for the irrigation water supply than for
domestic water supply.
1.7 DETERMINATION OF YIELD OF A RESERVOIR

The yield from a reservoir of a given capacity can be determined by the use of the mass inflow
curve. In fact, this is the reverse process of that discussed in the preceding section. The following
procedure is used.
1. Prepare the mass inflow curve from the flow hydrograph of the river (Fig. 1.2).
2. Draw tangents AB, FG, etc. at the crests A, F, etc. of the mass inflow curve in such a way that
the maximum departure (intercept) of these tangents from the mass inflow curve is equal to
the given reservoir capacity.
3. Measure the slopes of all the tangents drawn in Step 2.
4. Determine the slope of the flattest tangent.
5. Draw the mass demand curve from the slope of the flattest tangent (see insect). The yield is
equal to the slope of this line
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Fig.1.2 Determination of Reservoir Capacity
1.8 STORAGE CAPACITY OF A RESERVOIR

Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water during
floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its most important
characteristics. The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends upon the topography of the
site and the height of dam. To determine the available storage capacity of a reservoir upto a
certain level of water, is calcuted by using following methods:
1.8.1 Area-Elevation Curve:

From the contour plan, the water spread area of the reservoir at any elevation is determined by
measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding contour. Generally, a planimeter is used for
measuring the area. An elevation-area curve is then drawn between the surface area as abscissa
and the elevation as ordinate.
1.8.2 Elevation-Capacity Curve:

The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is determined from the water spread area at
various elevations. An elevation-storage volume is plotted between the storage volume as
abscissa and the elevation as ordinate. Generally, the volume is calculated in Mm3 or M ham.
The following formulae are commonly used to determine the storage capacity (i.e. storage
volumes).
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Fig.1.3 area-elevation-capacity curve
1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the storage volume between
two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by
where h is the contour interval. Therefore the total storage volume V is
where n is the total number of areas.
2. Cone formula: According to the cone formula, the storage volume between two successive
contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by
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3. Prismoidal formula: According to the prismoidal formula, the storage volume between three
successive contours is given by
The total storage volume is
The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd numbers of areas (i.e. n should be
an odd number). In the case of even number of areas, the volume upto the last but one area is
determined by the prismoidal formula, and that of the last segment is determined by the
trapezoidal formula.
1.8.3 Combined Diagram:

It is the usual practice to plot both the elevation-area curve and the elevation- storage curve on
the same paper. It is important to note the abscissa markings as the areas and volumes increase in
the opposite directions.
1.9 RESERVOIR LOSSES
The main losses are described hereinafter.
1.9.1 Evaporation Losses They depend on reservoir area and are expressed in cm of water
depth. The other factors influencing evaporation are temperature, wind velocity, relative
humidity, proximity of other structures etc. Evaporation losses can be measured on
standard pans and after applying suitable coefficients, reservoir evaporation losses can be
evaluated. Cetyl alcohol is usually used for reducing evaporation losses in reservoirs.
Cetyl alcohol, also called hexadecanol is a waxy substance made from sperm whale oil.
When added to water, a mono-molecular layer is formed over the surface of water. The
invisible film is non-toxic and retards evaporation, while allowing free passage of rain,
oxygen and sunlight. The reduction in evaporation loss may be as high as 50 to 60
percent of natural evaporation. It is necessary to maintain the continuity of the cetyl
alcohol film all the time.
1.9.2 Absorption Losses: They depend on the type of soil forming the reservoir basin. They
may be quite large in the beginning, but gradually reduce as the pores get saturated.
1.9.3 Percolation or Seepage Losses:They are usually small but may be quite significant
where there may be continuous seam of porous strata or cavernous or fissured rock.
1.10 SEDIMENTATION IN RESERVOIRS
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Sedimentation in reservoirs is a difficult problem for which an economical solution has not yet
been discovered, except by providing a “dead storage” to accommodate the deposits during the
life of the darn. Disintegration, erosion, transportation, and sedimentation, are the different
stages leading to silting of reservoir.
1.10.1 Mechanism of Sedimentation

In many respects deposits in a reservoir resemble those in a delta, made by a stream where it
discharges into a lake or sea. These deposits are (i) bottom set beds, consisting of the fine
sediments brought in by the stream, (ii) the fore set beds formed of the coarser sandy sediments
(iii) top set beds consisting of coarser particles and (iv) density current deposits.
Fig.1.4 Mechanism of Sediment Deposition
As a general rule, progressively small sizes of material will be deposited beyond the delta front,
resulting in a gradual downward slope of the reservoir bed. It the stream carries an appreciable
wash load, however, much of this material may not settle out as the cross-sectional area of the
stream increases. Further more, the suspension may not mix completely with the clear water of
the reservoir because of its difference in specific gravity. Instead a gravity underflow (more
commonly but less appropriately known as a density current) may result which will move
through the entire length of the reservoir. Unless this portion of the flow is discharged at the
dam, it will collect as a submerged pool, forming an almost level floor in the deepest part of the
reservoir, where it will gradually compact. The sedimentation is a product of erosion in the
catchment area of the reservoir, and hence, lesser the rate of erosion the smaller is the sediment
load entering the reservoir.
1. 10.2 Factors Affecting Sedimentation

The following factors affect sedimentation
Extent of catchment area and the Unable nature of its different zones.
i. Amount of sediment load in the rivers.
ii. Type of rainfall and snowfall in each zone.
iii. Mean monthly and annual temperature in each zone.
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iv. Monthly and annual run-off from catchment or sub-catchment.

v. Slope of each zone of catchment.
vi. Vegetation in each zone of catchment.
vii. Geological formations of each zone and estimated relative weathering and erosion with
due regard to climatic conditions.
viii. Presence of upstream reservoir and extent of trapping of sediment therein.
ix. Amount of sediment flushed out through sluices.
x. Degree of consolidation of the accumulated sediment depending upon the extent of
exposure to air, sun and wind.
xi. Volume of water in the reservoir and its proportion to the mean annual flow in the river
i.e. capacity inflow ratio.
xii. Operation schedule of the reservoir.
1. 10.2 Reservoir Sediment Control
The following are the three general means of controlling reservoir silting.
1. Selection of reservoir site: If reservoirs of equal size could be constructed in either of the
two watersheds at approximately the same cost, the watershed having less erosion should
be preferred.
2. Control of sediment inflow: Small check dams may be constructed on all tributaries of
the main river. Vegetation screen on the catchment would go a long way in reducing
erosion.
3. Control of sediment deposit: The outlets may be opened at the time when there is
maximum inflow of sediment in the reservoir i.e. during monsoon periods; also ejection
of reservoir water at lower levels would help in reducing silt in the basin.
4. Removal of sediment deposit: Scouring, excavation, dredging etc. may be resorted to.
But these methods are expensive. Loosening the sediment and or pushing it towards the
sluices by mechanical means simultaneously with scouring would increase the
effectiveness of the scouring action to some extent.
5. Erosion control in the catchments area: Soil conservation methods, like afforestation,
control of grazing, terrace cultivation, provision of contour bunds, gully formation by
providing small embankments, where necessary, debris barriers, weed growth etc. all
help to control soil erosion and thus reduce sediment entry in the reservoir.
6. Proper designing and reservoir planning: the sediment trapped in the reservoir also
depends upon the reservoir planning. If the dam is constructed lower darn in the first
instance with provision in its structural design for its being raised in stages, as its capacity
is encroached, would be a better proposition. In some of the reservoirs, sluices may be
provided to take advantage of formation of density currents and thus eject a significant
share of Sediment load.
1. 10.3 Life of a Reservoir

The dead storage provided in reservoir capacity is allowed for sedimentation. Actually all the
sediment load does not go in dead storage. It encroaches upon live storage also. The
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encroachment and its distribution depend upon many factors such as reservoir operation, valley
characteristics, capacity inflow ratio, sediment content in the inflow etc. The useful life of a
reservoir is taken till its capacity is reduced to about 20% of’ the designed capacity.
The rate of sedimentation is higher in the initial stages and it decreases with years. This is due to
fall in the trap efficiency of the reservoir, consolidation and shrinkage of deposits and formation
of delta.
1.11 BASIC TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1. Full reservoir level (FRL) The full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water level to
which the water surface will rise during normal operating conditions. The effective
storage of the reservoir is computed upto the full reservoir level. The FRI is the highest
level at which water is intended to be held for various uses without any passage of water
through the spil1way. In case of dams without spillway gates, the FRL is equal to the
crest level of the spillway. However, if the spillway is gated, the FRL is equal to the level
of the top of the gates. The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level (FTL) or
the normal pool level (NPL).
2. Normal conservation level (NCL) It is the highest level of the reservoir at which water
is intended to be stored for various uses other than flood. The normal conservation level
is different from the FRL as the latter may include a part of the flood. However, if there is
no storage for flood upto FRL, the normal conservation level and the FRL become
identical.
3. Maximum water level (MWL) The maximum water level is the maximum level to
which the water surface will rise when the design flood passes over the spillway. The
maximum water level is higher than the full reservoir level so that some surcharge
storage is available between the two levels to absorb flood. The maximum water level is
also called the maximum pool level (MPL) or maximum flood level (MFL).
4. Minimum pool level The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to which the water is
withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary conditions. The minimum pool level
generally corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (or sluiceway) of the dam.
However, in the case of a reservoir for hydroelectric power, the minimum pool level is
fixed after considering the minimum working head required for the efficient working of
turbines. The storage below the minimum pool level is not useful and is called the dead
storage.
5. Demand curve: A demand curve is a plot between accumulated demand with time.
The demand curve representing a uniform rate of demand is a straight line having the
slope equal to the demand rate. A demand curve may be curved also indicating variable
rate of demand.
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Fig.1.5 Demand curves

6. Mass Inflow curve: the reservoir capacity corresponding to a safe yield is determined
with the help of mass inflow curve and demand curve. A mss inflow curve is a plot
between the cumulative inflow in the reservoir with time.
The curve continuously rises as it shows accumulated inflow. If there is no inflow during
certain period, the mass inflow curve will be horizontal during that period. The mass
inflow curve will rise sharply during the period of high flood. Thus the steepness of the
mass inflow curve show relatively dry periods
Fig.1.6 Mass Inflow Curve

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1.12 DAMS
A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a
reservoir on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes. A dam and a reservoir
are complements of each other.
Fig.1.7 structure of dam
 Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing a
roadway or walkway over the dam.
 Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the crest.
 Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.
 Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.
 Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure for the
passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.
 Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right end of
dam are fixed to.
 Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at transverse or
longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are generally
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provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may also be used
to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
 Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation in
the reservoir.
 Free board: the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the full supply level on the
reservoir
1.12.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

Dams can be classified according to different criteria, as given below:
(a) Based on Function Served:

Depending upon the function served, the dams are of the following types -
1. Storage dams:
Storage (or conservation) dams are constructed to store water during the rainy season when there
is a large flow in the river. The stored water is utilized later during the period when the flow in
the river is reduced and is less than the demand. The water stored in the reservoir is used for a
number of purposes, such as irrigation, water supply and hydropower. Storage dams are the most
common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified otherwise.
2. Detention dams:
Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention dam retards the flow in the river
on its downstream during floods by storing some flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is
reduced to some extent. The water retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a
controlled rate according to the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the detention
dam. Thus the area downstream of the dam is protected against flood.
3. Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). A diversion dam is usually of low height and has a
small storage reservoir on its upstream. The diversion dam is a sort of storage weir which also
diverts water and has a small storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used
synonymously.
4. Debris dams:
A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and drift wood flowing in the
river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively clear
(b) Based on Hydraulic Design:

On the basis of hydraulic design, dams may be classified as
1. Overflow dams:
An overflow dam is designed to act as an overflow structure. The surplus water which cannot be
retained in the reservoir is permitted to pass over the crest of the overflow dam which acts as a
spillway. The overflow dam is made of a material which does not erode by the action of
overflowing water. Generally, cement concrete is used in overflow dams and spillways. Most of
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the gravity dams have overflow sections for some length and the rest of the length as a non-
overflow dam. The overflow dam is also called the spillway section.
2. Non-overflow dams:
A nonoverflow dam is designed such that there is no flow over it. Because there is no overflow, a
non-overflow dam can be built of any material, such as concrete, masonry, earth, rockfill and
timber. However, sometimes the nonoverflow dam is provided for the entire length and a
separate spillway is provided in the flanks or in a saddle away from the dam.
(c) Based on Rigidity:

On the basis of the rigidity, the dams are classified into 2 types:
1. Rigid dams:
A rigid dam is quite stiff. It is constructed of stiff materials such as concrete, masonry, steel and
timber. These dams deflect and deform very little when subjected to water pressure and other
forces.
2. Non-rigid dams:
A non-rigid dam is relatively less stiff compared to a rigid dam. The dams constructed of earth
and rockfill are non-rigid dams. There are relatively large settlements and deformations in a non-
rigid dam. Rockfill dams are actually neither fully rigid nor fully non-rigid. These are sometimes
classified as semirigid dams.
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(c) Based on the structural action:

This is the most commonly used classification of dams. Based on the structural action, the dams
are classified as
(1) Gravity dams:

A gravity dam resists the water pressure and other forces due to its weight (or gravitational
forces). Thus the stability of a gravity dam depends upon its weight. The gravity dams are
usually made of cement concrete. (i.e. axis is straight from one abutment to the other) and are
called straight gravity dams.
The gravity dams are generally straight in plan However, Sometimes they are slightly curved in
plan, with convexity towards the upstream and are called curved-gravity dams (Hoover dam).
The gravity dams are approximately triangular in cross-section, with apex at the top. The gravity
dams are generally more expensive than earth dams but are more durable. They are quite suitable
for the gorges with very steep slopes. They require strong rock foundation.
Examples: The gravity dams were made of stone masonry, (Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (AP),
Krishnaraja Sagar Dam (KN), Gandhi Sagar Dam (MP),
Advantages
 Gravity dams are quite strong, stable and durable.
 Gravity dams are quite suitable across moderately wide valleys and gorges having steep slopes
where earth dams, if constructed, might slip.
 Gravity dams can be constructed to very great heights, provided good rock foundations are
available.
 Gravity dams are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway section. Earth dams cannot be
used as an overflow section. Even in earth dams, the overflow section is usually a gravity dam.
 Gravity dams are specially suited to such areas where there is very heavy downpour. The slopes
of the earth dams might be washed away in such an area.
 The maintenance cost of a gravity dam is very low.
 The gravity dam does not fail suddenly. There is enough warning of the imminent failure and the
valuable property and human life can be saved to some extent.
 Gravity dam can be constructed during all types of climatic conditions.
 The sedimentation in the reservoir on the upstream of a gravity dam can be somewhat reduced by
operation of deep-set sluices.
Disadvantages
 Gravity dams of great height can be constructed only on sound rock foundations.
 These cannot be constructed on weak or permeable foundations on which earth dams can be
constructed. However, gravity dams upto 20 m height can be constructed even when the
foundation is weak.
 The initial cost of a gravity dam is usually more than that of an earth dam. At the sites where
good earth is available for construction and funds are limited, earth dams are better.
 Gravity dams usually take a longer time in construction than earth dams, especially when
mechanised plants for batching, mixing and transporting concrete are not available.
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 Gravity dams require more skilled labour than that in earth dams.
 Subsequent raising is not possible in a gravity dam.
(2) Earth dams:

An earth dam is made of earth (or soil). It resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear
strength of the soil. Although the weight of the earth dam also helps in resisting the forces, the
structural behaviour of an earth dam is entirely different from that of a gravity dam. The earth
dams are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at flanks (abutments). The foundation
requirements are less stringent than those of gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the sites
where the foundations are less strong. They can be built on all types of foundations. However,
the height of the dam will depend upon the strength of the Reservoir Earth Dam foundation
material.
The section of an earth dam can be homogeneous when the height of the dam is not great.
Generally, the earth dams are of zoned sections, with an impervious zone (called core) in the
middle and relatively pervious zones (called shells or shoulders) enclosing the impervious zone
on both sides. If the earth dam is built on a pervious foundation, a concrete cutoff wall or a steel
sheet pile line is also provided in the continuation of the core section. Moreover, a drainage filter
or a rock toe is provided on the downstream to carry away the water that seeps through the dam
and its foundation.
Examples: Rongunsky dam Rusia, Nurek dam, Rusia, New Cornelia dam, USA and
Tehri dam India.
ADVANTAGES
 Earth dams are usually cheaper than gravity dams if suitable earth for construction is
available near the site.
 Earth dams can be constructed on almost all types of foundations, provided suitable measures
of foundation treatment and seepage control are taken.
 Earth dams can be constructed in a relatively short period.
 The skilled labour is not required in construction of an earth dam. Earth dams can be raised
subsequently.
 Earth dams are aesthetically more pleasing than gravity dams.
 Earth dams are more earthquake-resistant than gravity dams.
Disadvantages
 Earth dams are not suitable for narrow gorges with steep slopes.
 An earth dam cannot be designed as an overflow section. A spillway has to be located away
from the dam.
 Earth dams cannot be constructed in regions with heavy downpour, as the slopes might be
washed away.
 The maintenance cost of an earth dam is quite high. It requires constant supervision.
 Sluices cannot be provided in a high earth dam to remove slit.
 An earth dam fails suddenly without any sign of imminent failure. A sudden failure causes
havoc and untold miseries.
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(3) Rockfill dams:

A rockfill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large size. An impervious membrane is
placed on the rockfill on the upstream side to reduce the seepage through the dam. The
membrane is usually made of cement concrete or asphaltic concrete. In early rockfill dams, steel
and timber membrane were also used, but now they are obsolete. A dry rubble cushion is placed
between the rockfill and the membrane for the distribution of water load and for providing a
support to the membrane. Sometimes, the rockfill dams have an impervious earth core in the
middle to check the seepage instead of an impervious upstream membrane. The earth core is
placed against a dumped rockfill. It is necessary to provide adequate filters between the earth
core and the rockfill on the upstream and downstream sides of the core so that the soil particles
are not carried by water and piping does not occur. The side slopes of rockfill are usually kept
equal to the angle of repose of rock, which is usually taken as 1.4:1 (or 1.3:1). Rockfill dams
require foundation stronger than those for earth dams. However, the foundation requirements are
usually less stringent than those for gravity dams.
Examples:Thiem dam (PJ), Ramganga dam (UP).
Advantages
 Rockfill dams are quite inexpensive if rock fragments are easily available.
 Rockfill dams can be constructed quite rapidly.
 Rockfill dams can better withstand the shocks due to earthquake than earth dams.
 Rockfill dams can be constructed even in adverse climates.
Disadvantages
 Rockfill dams require more strong foundations than earth dams.
 Rockfill dams require heavy machines for transporting, dumping and compacting rocks.
(4) Arch Dams:

An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the upstream side. An arch dam
transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by arch action. An arch
dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with strong flanks which are capable of resisting the
thrust produced by the arch action. The section of an arch dam is approximately triangular like a
gravity dam but the section is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have a single curvature
or double curvature in the vertical plane. The arch dam requires good quality concrete for
resisting the stresses.Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more economical and are
used in practice.
Examples: Iddukki in Kerala
Advantages
 An arch dam requires less concrete as compared to a gravity dam as the section is thinner.
 Arch dams are more suited to narrow, V-shaped valley, having very steep slopes.
 Uplift pressure is not an important factor in the design of an arch dam because the arch dam
has less width and the reduction in weight due to uplift does not affect the stability.
 An arch dam can be constructed on a relatively less strong foundation because a small part of
load is transferred to base, whereas in a gravity dam full load is transferred to base.
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Disadvantages
 An arch dam requires good rock in the flanks (abutments) to resist the thrust. If the
abutments yield, extra stresses develop which may cause failure.
 The arch dam requires sophisticated formwork, more skilled labour and richer concrete.
 The arch dam cannot be constructed in very cold climates because spalling of concrete occurs
due to alternate freezing and thawing.
 The arch dams are more prone to sabotage.
 The speed of construction is relatively slow.
(5) Buttress Dams:

Buttress dams are of three types: (i) Deck type, (ii) Multiple archtype, and (iii) Massive-head
type. A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses. Buttresses are
triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
Buttresses are compression members. The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported
between the buttresses, which are usually equally spaced. In a multiple-arch type buttress dam
the deck slab is replaced by horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are usually of
small span and made of concrete. In a massive-head type buttress dam, there is no deck slab.
Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the buttresses are flared to form massive heads which
span the distance between the buttresses. The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity
dams. But they are not necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form
work, reinforcement and more skilled labour. The foundation requirements of a buttress dam are
usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam.
Advantages
 Buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams.
 The uplift pressure is generally not a major factor in the design of buttress dams.
 Buttress dams can be constructed on relatively weaker foundations.
 Power house and water treatment plants, etc. can be housed between buttresses.
 The ice pressure is relatively less important because ice tends to slide over the inclined deck.
 The vertical component of the water pressure on deck prevents the dam against overturning
and sliding failures.
 Buttress dams can be designed to accommodate moderate movements of foundations without
serious damages.
 Heat dissipation is better in buttress dams. Therefore, the speed of construction is more.
 The back of the deck and the foundation between buttresses are accessible for inspection.
 Buttress dams can be easily raised subsequently by extending buttresses and deck slabs.
Disadvantages
 Buttress dams require costlier formwork, reinforcement and more skilled labour.
Consequently, the overall cost of construction may be more than that of a gravity dam.
 Buttress dams are more susceptible to damage and sabotage.
 Buttress dams cannot be constructed in very cold climates because of spalling of concrete.
 Because the upstream deck slab is thin, its deterioration may have very serious effect on the
stability.
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(6) Steel Dams:

A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin plate on its upstream face. Steel dams
are generally of two types: (i) Direct-strutted steel dams, and (ii)Cantilever type steel dams. In a
direct strutted steel dam, the water pressure is transmitted directly to the foundation through
inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent supporting the upper part of the
deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This arrangement introduces a tensile force in the
deck girder which can be taken care of by anchoring it into the foundation at the upstream toe.
Advantages
 Steel dams can be constructed with great speeds with the modern methods of fabrication.
 The steel dams are usually statically determinate. Hence the section can be designed with
more confidence and more economically.
 Steel dams are usually cheaper than gravity dams.
 If properly fabricated, there is very little leakage through a steel dam.
 Steel dam can easily withstand stresses due to unequal settlements.
Disadvantages
 Steel dam cannot be designed as overflow dams because they are unable to withstand stresses
due to vibrations and shocks of spilling water on thin steel section.
 Steel dams require strong and deep anchorages in foundation.
 Steel dams require careful regular maintenance.
 The life of steel dam is short.
 There is concentration of bearing stresses at the points of contact of the members.
(7) Timber Dams:

A timber dam consists of a framework made of timber with a facing of timber planks. The
framework is comprised of struts and beams. It transfers the water pressure on the upstream
planks to the foundation. The timber dams are mainly of three types: (i) A-frame type, (ii) Rock-
filled crib type, and (iii) Beaver type. The A-frame type timber dam is built of timbers and
planks making the shape of English letter A. The stability depends upon the weight of the water
on the deck and upon anchorage of sills. The sill is fixed to a ledge rock by wedge bolts or
anchor bolts for proper anchorage. The struts are fixed to the sill and are held in position by
crossbracing and batten blocks. The wales are then fixed on the struts and the whole structure is
thoroughly drift-pinned to form a bent. These bents are usually spaced 2 to 4 m apart, depending
upon the height of the timber dam and the size of the timber members used. Transverse
members, called studs, are then placed across the bents, and a suitable lagging is nailed to them
to form the upstream deck to retain water. In rock-filled crib rock type of timber dam, cribs of
timber members are drift-bolted together. The timber members are generally of round or square
section and are placed at 2.5 m centres in both directions. The bottom members of the cribs are
generally pinned to the rock foundation. The space between various members is filled with rock
fragments or boulders to give stability. A top plank is then placed on the cribs. A beaver type
timber dam consists of timber members of round section forming a bent. The butts of all the
timber members point downstream. Spacer logs are placed between the butts and driftpinned to
the other logs. The tips of the timber members pointing upstream are also driftpinned together.
The bottom members are fixed to the foundation with anchor bolts. A plank is placed on the bent
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to form a deck. Sometimes, a mat made of brushwood or the branches of the trees is used as a
deck. The upstream slopes are not steeper than 2: 1. This type of timber dam is used for low
heights. Timber dams are generally used as temporary dams. These are short lived, but if well-
designed, constructed and maintained, they may last even 30 - 40 years. The timber dams are
used at places where timber is available in plenty and the height of the dam is low. However,
because of shortage of timber, these dams are becoming obsolete.
Advantages
 The initial cost of timber dams is low when timber is available in plenty.
 Timber dams can be constructed on any type of foundation.
 Timber dams are suitable when construction is for a short period.
 The design and construction of timber dams is easy.
 Timber dams can be constructed at a great speed.
Disadvantages
 The life of timber dams is short.
 The leakage through a timber dam is quite high.
 The maintenance cost of a timber dam is high.
 Timber dams cannot be constructed for great height.
(e) Based on Materials of Construction:

Based on the materials used in construction, the dams are classified as follows: (1) Masonry
dam, (2) Concrete dam, (3) Earth dam, (4) Rockfill dam, (5) Timber dam, (6) Steel dam, (7)
Combined concrete-cum-earth dam, and (8) Composite dam.
1.12.2 SELECTION OF SITE FOR A DAM
A dam is a huge structure requiring a lot of funds. Extreme care shall be taken while selecting
the site of a dam. A wrong decision may lead to excessive cost and difficulties in construction
and maintenance. The following factors shall be considered when selecting the site of a dam.
1. Topography:
As far as possible, the dam should be located where the river has a narrow gorge which opens
out upstream to create a large reservoir. In that case, the length of the dam would be small and
the capacity of the reservoir on its upstream would be large. In case there is a confluence of two
rivers in the selected reach, the dam should be located downstream of the confluence to take
advantage of the flow of both rivers. The dam should be preferably located where the river bed is
high, to reduce the height and cost of the dam.
2. Suitable Foundation:
Suitable foundation should exist at the site for the particular type of dam. If suitable foundation
is not available but it can be improved by adopting various measures, the site may be considered
for selection. However, in that case, the cost of such measures should not be excessive. For
gravity dams of great height, sound rock is essential. However, earth dams can be constructed on
almost any type of foundation provided suitable measures are adopted.
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3. Good Site for reservoir: As the dam is constructed to store water in the reservoir, so the site
should have the following characteristics to make a good site for a reservoir:
i) Large storage capacity: The topography of the site should be such that the reservoir has a
large capacity to store water.
ii) Shape of reservoir basin: The reservoir basin on the upstream of the dam should preferably
be cup-shaped, with a flat bottom but steep slopes.
iii) Watertightness of the reservoir: The geological conditions of the reservoir site should be
such that the reservoir basin is watertight. The reservoir sites having pervious rocks are not
suitable. The reservoir basins having shales, slates, schists, gneiss, granite, etc. are generally
suitable.
iv) Good hydrological conditions: The hydrological conditions of the river at the reservoir site
should be such that adequate runoff is available for storage. The catchment area of the river
should give high yield. There should not be heavy losses in the catchment due to evaporation,
transpiration and percolation.
v) Deep reservoir: The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed after the construction
of the dam. A deep reservoir is preferred to a shallow reservoir because in the former the
evaporation losses are small, the cost of land acquisition is low and the weed growth is less.
vi) Small submerged area: The site should be such that the submerged area is a minimum. It
should not submerge costly land and property. It should not affect the ecology of the region.
Monuments of historical and architectural importance should not be submerged.
vii) Low silt inflow: The dam site should be such that the reservoir would not silt up quickly.
The life of the reservoir depends upon the rate of silting. The site should be selected such that
it avoids or excludes the water from those tributaries which carry a high percentage of silt,
i.e. if any tributary carries relatively large quantity of sediments, the dam should be
constructed upstream of the confluence of that tributary with the river.
viii) No objectionable minerals: The soil and rock mass at the reservoir site should not
contain any objectionable soluble minerals which may contaminate the water. The stored
water should be suitable for the purpose for which the water is required.
4. Spillway site:
A good site for a spillway should exist at or near the darn site. The valley should be sufficiently
wide to locate the spillway if it is an integral part of the dam. If the spillway is to be located
separately, the best site of spillway is that in which there is a saddle near the dam site which is
separated from it by a hillock. In that case, the main dam can be located in the gorge and the
spillway can be constructed in the saddle.
5. Availability of materials:
The dam requires a large quantity of material for its construction. Suitable type of material in
sufficient quantity should be available at or near the dam site to reduce the cost.
6. Accessibility:
The site should be easily accessible. It should be preferably well-connected by a road or a
railway line. This would facilitate transportation of labour, materials and machinery.
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7. Healthy surroundings:
The surroundings of the site should be healthy and free from mosquitos so that the labourers can
comfortably live in colonies constructed near the dam site.
8. Low cost of real estate:

The cost of real estate for the reservoir site, dam, dwellings, roads, railways, etc. should be low.
9. Minimum overall cost:

The site should be such that it entails the minimum overall cost of the project, including
subsequent maintenance. Generally, two or three probable sites are selected and rough estimates
are made. The site which entails the minimum overall cost can be tentatively selected.
10. Other considerations:

For the development of a particular backward area, the dam may be constructed in that region.
Sometimes political considerations and public opinion may affect the site of a dam.
1.12.3 SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM

Selection of the most suitable type of dam for a particular site requires a lot of judgment and
experience. It is only in exceptional cases that the most suitable type is obvious. Preliminary
designs and estimates are usually required for several types of dams before making the final
selection on economic basis. Various factors which govern the selection of type of dam are
discussed below:
1. Topography and valley shape.

The choice or the type of dam for a particular site depends to a large extent on the topography
and the valley shape. The following are the general guidelines. (a) If the valley is narrow, V-
shaped and has sound rock in bed and abutments, an arch dam is generally the most suitable
type. (b) If the valley is moderately wide, V-shaped and has sound rock in bed, a gravity dam or
a buttress dam may be quite suitable. (c) For a low rolling plain country, with a fairly wide valley
and alluvial soil or boulders in the bed. an earth dam or a rockfill dam may be quite suitable.
2. Geology and foundation conditions.

A dam is a very huge structure. All the loads acting on the dam, including its own weight, are
ultimately transferred to the foundations. While selecting the type of dam for a particular site,
geologic character and thickness of rock, inclination of the bedding planes, existing faults and
fissures, permeability of strata, etc. affect the selection. Most suitable type of dam for different
types of foundation is usually determined as follows:
(a) Rock foundation: Any type of dam can be constructed on good rock foundation. Such
foundations have high bearing capacity and resistance to erosion and percolation and are ideal
for all types of dams. The most suitable type of dam for a particular site will depend upon other
factors such as availability of construction material and spillway site, etc. If seams and fractures
exist in the rock, these should be sealed by consolidation grouting. If the rock is disintegrated at
surface, it should be removed and further
disintegration should be stopped by taking suitable measures.
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(b) Gravel and coarse and foundation: The bearing capacity of foundation consisting of gravel
and coarse sand is low. For such foundations, earth dams and rockfill dams are usually selected.
However, gravity dams of low height can also be selected. There is considerable seepage through
these foundations. Cutoff walls or sheet piles are generally provided in the foundation to reduce
seepage and to prevent piping.
(c) Fine sand and silt foundations: These foundations are generally suitable only for earth dams
and low concrete dams. In such foundations, there are a number of problems such as excessive
settlement, piping, seepage erosion at the d/s toe and liquefaction failures. Suitable measures are
adopted before the construction of dams.
(d) Clay foundation: In general, clay foundations are not suitable for the construction of a dam.
These foundations have very low bearing capacity. Moreover, the settlements are quite large,
especially if the clay is nominally-consolidated or under-consolidated. In over-consolidated
clays, the settlements are relatively small. In some special cases, low earth dams can be
constructed on such foundations after properly treating and consolidating the foundations. The
maximum height of dam that can be permitted at a site would depend upon the shearing strength
and consolidation characteristics of clay. Undisturbed samples are usually taken to determine the
properties of clay.
(e) Non-uniform foundations: Non-uniform foundations may consists of soils of different types
of a combination of soils and rocks. Such foundations are not good for the construction of dams
and should be avoided as far as possible. If unavoidable, special designs are adopted and
appropriate foundation treatments are required.
3. Availability of construction materials:

The construction of a dam requires a huge quantity of construction material. While selecting the
type of dam, the availability of the required construction materials should be considered. If a
particular material is available in abundance at or near the dam site, the maximum use of that
material should be made to reduce the cost. The materials which are not available near the site
should be either avoided or the minimum use shall be made of such materials. For example, if
suitable aggregates such as crushed stone, gravel and sand are available, a gravity dam may be
suitable. On the other hand, if suitable soil is available in large quantity, an earth dam may be
cheaper.
4. Overall cost:
The overall cost is perhaps the most important factor which affects the selection of the suitable
type of dam for a particular site. The initial cost of the dam depends upon the availability of
material, the quantity of material required, labour and the construction methods. The cost of
subsequent maintenance
depends upon the durability of the materials used and the type of construction. The dam with a
minimum overall cost is usually the best.
5. Spillway size and location:

A spillway is an overflow structure provided at or near the dam site to discharge excess flood
water to downstream. The size of the spillway mainly depends on the maximum discharge. The
selection of the most suitable type of dam for a particular site is sometimes governed by the size
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and location of spillway. In a gravity dam, the spillway section and nonoverflow section can
easily be provided side by side. Therefore, if a large spillway is required and there is no separate
location to keep the spillway away from the dam, a gravity dam will be more suitable than an
earth dam. In special cases, overflow spillways are also provided along with earth dams and
rockfill dams, but a long divide wall between the main dam and the spillway is required to keep
the flow away from the dam.
6. Earthquake hazards:
If the dam site is located in a seismic zone, the most suitable type of the dam is one which can
resist the earthquake shock without much damage. Earth dams and rockfill dams are generally
more suitable for such sites, provided suitable modifications are made in the design. However,
by adopting suitable measures and considering various forces and factors affecting the seismic
design, other types of dams can also be provided.
7. Climatic conditions:
Climatic conditions should also be considered while selecting the type of dam. In extremely cold
climates, buttress and arch dams should be avoided. These dams have thin concrete sections and
are easily damaged due to spalling of concrete which occurs due to alternate freezing and
thawing. Similarly, if there are frequent rains and the climate is extremely wet, it will be difficult
to control water content of the soil and compaction in an earth dam. Therefore, earth dams
should be avoided.
8. Diversion problems:
During the construction of the dam, the river water has to be diverted so that construction can be
done in dry. If the river water cannot be diverted through a suitable tunnel (or channel) located in
one of the flanks (abutments), it has to be passed over the partly constructed dam when the
construction is done in the other part. In such a case, an earth dam cannot be provided, and the
choice will be more in favour of a gravity dam or any other type of concrete dams.
9. Environmental considerations:
The dam and its appurtenant works should be aesthetically acceptable and they should not have
any adverse effect on ecology and environment. Generally, earth dams are more suitable than
concrete dams for aesthetical consideration. They merge easily with the natural environment in
the valley. Sometimes, a particular reach of the river has good scenic beauty for recreational
facility which is likely to be spoiled by construction of a high dam and creation of a large
reservoir. In such a case, the dam site maybe shifted. Alternatively, a low diversion dam may be
constructed to divert the water to an offstream
reservoir developed at a suitable site away from the dam to preserve the site for recreation.
10. Roadway:
If a wide, straight roadway is to be provided over the top of dam, an earth dam or a gravity dam
is more suitable than an arch dam or a buttress dam.
11. Length and height of dam:
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If the length of the dam is great and the height is low, an earth dam is generally better than a
gravity dam. On the other hand, if the length is small and the height is great, a gravity dam is
better.
12. Life of dam:

If the expected life of the project is long, a concrete dam is usually preferred. Earth and rockfill
dams have moderate life, whereas timber dams have short life.
13. Miscellaneous considerations:

Sometimes the selection of the type of dam is made due to other miscellaneous considerations.
For example, if earth-moving machines are cheaply available at the site, an earth dam may be
preferred. Similarly, if mixing plants, batching plants, etc. are already available near the site, a
gravity dam or a buttress dam may be selected. Likewise, if cheap labour is locally available, a
masonry dam may be preferred to a concrete dam.
27
UNIT-II
GRAVITY DAMS
2.1 GENERAL
A gravity dam derives its stability from the force of gravity of the materials in its section. The
dead weight of the body of the dam and the manner of its distribution in the section is such so as
to withstand the forces of water impounded in the lake behind it and other forces consequent
there to.
2.2 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF DAM SITE

A site for gravity dam is expected to satisfy the following requirements.
i. A narrow gorge at dam site, opening upstream.
ii. Sound rock able to resist static and dynamic forces including earthquakes.
iii. Stable valley and abutment slopes.
iv. Foundations having same value of elastic constants preferable.
v. The foundations and reservoir walls watertight, resistant to erosion, and other detrimental
effects of wetting, drying, freezing and thawing.
vi. Good location for spillways and power house.
vii. Availability of good construction material near by
viii. Proximity of construction facilities, like electric supply, road and rail communications etc.
2.4 FORCES ACTING ON A GRAVITY DAM

1. Water pressure
2. Weight of dam
3. Uplift pressure
4. Pressure due to earth quake
5. Wave pressure
6. Silt pressure
7. Ice pressure
8. Wind pressure
2.4.1 WATER PRESSURE ON DAM

Water pressure on dams can be calculated by the law of hydrostatics, wherein the pressure at any
depth 'h' is given by 'wh' t/sq m, acting normal to the surface. Where the dam has a sloping
upstream face, the water pressure can be resolved into its horizontal and vertical components; the
vertical component being given by the weight of water prism on the upstream face and acts
vertically downwards through the centre of gravity of the water area supported on the dam face.
Referring to fig. 4.6 the total horizontal pressure (H) on a section of the dam per unit width is
given by wh2/2 (in t); where w is unit weight of water = 1 t/m3 and h is height in m.
The vertical weight Ww can be evaluated by the area of the trapezium and multiplied by w, the
unit weight of water.
28
The total pressure acts at a distance h/3 from the base of dam, hence the moment about
base, in t.m = (wh3/6).
2.4.2 WEIGHT OF DAM AND APPURTENANT STRUCTURE

The weight of the dam and concrete structure over it, can be computed by taking unit weight of
concrete as 2.4 t/m3. The computations of weight of dam should allow for the reduction due to
openings of size larger than 1 metre. Smaller openings may be neglected for calculation of
weight as well as stresses.
The weight of the structures constructed on the dam should be estimated with fair amount of
accuracy. These include the weight of gates, gantry on the top of dam and weight of towers at
roadway level. The cross section of the dam may be divided into several triangles and rectangles
and the weights W1, W2, W3 etc. of each of these may be conveniently computed along with their
lines of action. The total weight W of the dam acts at the centre of gravity of the section.
2.4.3 UPLIFT FORCES

Recent trends for evaluating uplift forces is based on the phenomenon of seepage through
permeable material. Water under pressure enters the pores and fissures of the foundation material
and joints in the dam. The uplift is supposed to act on the whole width of the foundation. The
pressure at heel is taken equal to whu where w is the unit weight of water and hu is the water head
at the heel. On the downstream, the value is whd, where hd is the tail water depth at the toe. If
there are no drainage galleries or if they are choked, the uplift is assumed to vary linearly from
whu to whd (Fig. 4.8)
(i) If drainage galleries are working, the reduction in water pressure head at the gallery is
taken as 2/3 of the difference between whu and whd or net pressure being
29
It is assumed that the uplift pressure are not affected by earthquake forces because of
their transitory nature.
2.4.4 PRESSURE DUE TO EARTHQUAE

Seismic forces envisage the consideration of loads on the structure during an earthquake. The
physical action of the earthquake is to rock the structures, which collapse when the shaking is
severe. The intensity of an earthquake is measured on the basis of damage caused by it. The
effect of an earthquake is to impart a momentary acceleration to earth crust in the direction in
which the wave is traveling at that instant. The intensity scales, in terms of a friction of g,
acceleration due to gravity, are based on the acceleration of vibratory motion.
The earthquake wave may travel at any inclination through the foundation; it is usual to consider
a vertical and horizontal acceleration acting separately. Theoretical calculations indicate that the
distribution of hydrodynamic pressure due to an earthquake on the upstream face of dam is
nearly parabolic. The following formula of U.S.B.R (after C.N. Zanger) may be used to evaluate
pressure intensity due to earthquake
where Pe = Pressure intensity in t/m2

= Horizontal seismic coefficient e.g o.1 in earthquake intensity of 0.1 g
w = Unit weight of water = 1 t/m3
h = Maximum depth of reservoir in m
C = A coefficient, given as below :
where
z = Depth in m from top of reservoir to the point under consideration
Cm depends on upstream slope and
= angle in degrees that the upstream slope of the dam makes with the horizontal.
The total pressure Pe on the portion of the dam up to depth z from top is given by
Pe = 0.726 Pe z.
The moment Me about the plane upto which pressure is taken is given by
Me = 0.299 Pe z2
A horizontal acceleration towards the reservoir causes a momentary increase in water pressure as
the foundation and dam accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement
30
owing to its inertia. Thus the force is taken acting in the opposite direction of the earthquake
acceleration.
When the upstream face is partly vertical and partly sloping two cases arise.
(i) When the vertical portion is more than half the depth; the entire face is taken vertical/
(ii) When the vertical portion is less than half the depth; the slope of the face is given by the line
joining the heel to the water surface level at the upstream face.
Effect of Vertical Earthquake Acceleration On account of earthquake the gravity acceleration is

increased or decreased according to the direction of earthquake tremor thereby affecting the
weight of both masonry and water in the same proportion. The increase in gravity acceleration in
down ward direction therefore causes increase in weights of both the dam and the water and they
have to be multiplied by (1+av) while decrease in gravity acceleration, which results due to
upward movement causes decrease of weight which have then to be multiplied by (1-av). [av =
vertical earthquake acceleration coefficient]. Consequently, stresses may be computed directly
from stresses for normal conditions. However the effect on horizontal water and silt pressure
may be neglected for small and medium dams (C.W.C Criterion). Thus the net effect of the
vertical earthquake acceleration may be summarized as below :
1. On sloping faces of the dam the weight of the water above the slope should be modified by the
appropriate acceleration factor.
2. The unit weight of the concrete should also be modified by this acceleration factor.
3. For high and important dams, the components of water pressure normal to the upstream face
of the dam is modified by the given acceleration factor i.e. taken as 1 +av or 1-av times the
normal pressure.
2.4.5 WAVE PRESSURE

Wind blowing over the reservoir area causes a drag on the surface. The effect of the drag is to
pull the surface along the direction of wind and thus ripples and waves are formed. The
following formulae given by Molitor Stevenson may be used to evaluate the height of waves.
for F < 32 km, and

hw = 0.032 V.F for F > 32 km
where hw = height of waves in metre
V = wind velocity in km per hour
F = fetch or the straight length of expanse in km
The pressure intensity due to waves is given by the formula (in t/m2)
Pw = 2.4 w.hw (4.9)
The total pressure is given by the relation (in t)
Pw = 2.0 w.hw2.
and the moment (in t.m) can be found with respect to the centroid of the pressure diagram
(Fig. 4.10) which is 3 hw/8 above reservoir level.
31
2.4.6 SILT PRESSURE ON DAM

The weight and pressure of submerged silt is to be taken in addition to the water weight and
pressure. The weight acts vertically on the slope and pressure horizontally exactly in the same
way as the corresponding forces due to water.
The horizontal pressure due to silt load is taken as (0.36 h12/2) where h1 is the height to which the
silt would be deposited. The combined horizontal pressure due to water and silt would therefore
be 1.36 (h12/2). For calculating the vertical pressure, the density of the wet silt may be taken as
1.92 t/m3.
Experimental and analytical procedures have both shown that an earthquake acceleration up to
about 0.3 g is only about half as effective in silt or soil masses, as it is in water. This is due to the
internal shear resistance of the soil. Since the unit weight of water is nearly half that of silt, the
increase in silt pressure due to earthquake is ignored.
2.4.7 ICE PRESSURE ON DAM

The ice pressure is more important for dams constructed in the cold countries or at higher
elevations. the ice formed on the water surface of the reservoir is subjected to expansion and
32
contraction due to temperature variations. The coefficient of thermal expansion is five times
more than that of concrete, the dam face has to resist the force due to expansion of the dam, at
the reservoir level and its magnitudes varies from 2.5-15kg/ cm3 depending upon tempearature
variation. An average value of 5kg/cm2 may be taken as allowable under ordinary conditions.
2.4.8 WIND PRESSURE ON DAM

In designing a dam section, wind pressure is generally not considered. It may be taken as
100 to 150 kg/m2 for the area exposed to the wind pressure.
2.5 MODES OF FAILURE –STABILITY REQUIREMENT

following are the modes of failure of gravity dam
1) Over turning
2) Sliding
3) Compression or crushing
4) Tension
2.5.1 OVERTURNING
The overturning of the dam section takes place when the resultant force at any section cuts the
base of the dam downstream of the toe. In that case the resultant moment at the toe becomes
clockwise (or -ve). On the other hand, if the resultant cuts the base within the body of the dam,
there will be no overturning. For stability requirements, the dam must be safe against
overturning. The factor of safety against overturning is defined as the ratio of the righting
moment (+ ve MR) to the overturning moments (- ve M0) about the toe
The factor of safety against overturning should not be less than 1.5.
2.5.2 SLIDING RESISTANCE
Many of the loads on the dam are horizontal or have horizontal components which are resisted
by frictional or shearing forces along horizontal or nearly horizontal planes in the body of the
dam, on the foundation or on horizontal or nearly horizontal seams in the foundation. A dam will
fail in sliding at its base, or at any other level, if the horizontal forces causing sliding are more
than the resistance available to it at that level. The resistance against sliding may be due to
friction alone, or due to friction and shear strength of the joint. Shear strength develops at the
base if benched foundations are provided and at other joints if the joints are carefully laid so that
a good bond develops. Shear strength also comes into play because of the interlocking of stone in
masonry dams.
If the shear strength is not considered the factor of safety is known as factor of safety against
sliding. It is defined as the ratio of actual coefficient of static friction (µ) on the horizontal joint
to the sliding friction. the sliding factor is the minimum coefficient of friction required to prevent
33
sliding if ΣH = sum of horizontal forces causing sliding and ΣV is the net vertical forces the
sliding factor tanθ is given by
And factor of safety against sliding (F.S.S) is
The factor of safety against sliding shall be computed from the following equation and shall not
be less than 1.0.
2.5.3 COMPRESSION OR CRUSHING

In order to calculate the normal stress distribution at the base, or at any section, let ∑H be the
total horizontal force, ∑V be the total vertical force and R be the resultant force cutting the base
at an eccentricity e from the centre of the base of width b (Fig.), which is equal to b/2 - x
where x is the distance of the resultant force R from the toe given by
The normal stress at any point on the base will be the sum of the direct stress and the bending
stress. Thus, direct stress σcc is
and bending stress σcbc at any fibre at distance y from Neutral Axis is
Since
34
Fig.Normal stress distribution at the base
For rectangular section of 1 m wide and b m deep; and y b/2 for extreme fibre at toe or heel,
hence the total normal stress pn is given by
The positive sign will be used for calculating normal stress at the toe, since the bending stress
will be compressive there, and negative sign will be used for calculating normal stress at the
heel. Thus, the normal stress at the toe is
and the normal stress at the heel is
Fig. shows the normal stress distributions for a general case when the pressure at both toe and
heel are compressive. Evidently, the maximum compressive stress occurs at the toe and for
safety, this should not be greater than the allowable compressive stresses both for the dam and
foundation materials. When the eccentricity e is equal to b/6 we get
2.5.4 TENSION:
From equation for the normal stress at the heel it is evident that if e > b/6, the normal stress at
35
the heel will be -ve or tensile as shown in Fig. When the eccentricity e is greater than b/6 a crack
of length lc will develop due to tension which can be calculated as
No tension should be permitted at any point of the dam under any circumstance for moderately
high dams. For no tension to develop, the eccentricity should be less than b/6.
2.6 PRINCIPAL AND SHEAR STRESSES
2.6.1 PRINCIPAL STRESS:

Consider an elementary triangular section at either the heel or the toe of the dam section such
that stress intensities may be assumed to be uniform on its faces. The face of the dam will be a
principal plane as water pressure acts on it in the perpendicular direction, with no accompanying
shear stress. Since the principal planes are mutually at right angle, the plane AB, considered at
right angles to the face AC, well also have only a normal stress on it, and will be the other
principal plane. The forces acting on the elementary section are shown in Fig. Let ds, dr and dy
be the lengths of AC, AB and BC; p = intensity of water pressure; σ1 = principal stress on plane
AB; = shear stress; and pn = normal stress. Considering unit length of the dam, the normal
forces on the planes AB, BC and CA are respectively σ1 dr, pn dy and p ds. Resolving all the
forces in the vertical direction, we get
But
36
therefore
Hence
If pe is the intensity of hydrodynamic pressure due to an earthquake, then the principal stress
is given by
This equation is known as the principal stress relationship, and is applicable to both upstream
and downstream faces. It should be noted, however, that for the upstream face σ1 will always be
less than p. Hence σ1 is the minor principal stress and p is the major principal stress for the
upstream face. For the downstream face σ1 will always be greater than p, so σ1 is the major
principal stress and p is the minor principal stress. However, for the downstream side, the worst
condition will be when there is no tailwater, and hence p will be zero and σ1 will be maximum.
If pe’ is the intensity of hydrodynamic pressure of tailwater due to an earthquake
the principal stress at the downstream becomes
2.6.2 SHEAR STRESS:

Resolving all the forces in the horizontal direction, we get
Substituting the value of σ1 we get
The above equation is applicable for downstream side only. For the upstream side, the magnitude
of will be the same but its direction will be reversed. If tailwater is neglected (p = zero), the
shear stress at the downstream side will be maximum. Considering the hydrodynamic pressure
due to earthquake, the shear stress at downstream is given by
37
Similarly, the shear stress for the upstream side is given by
2.7 ELEMENTARY PROFILE OF A GRAVITY DAM

In the absence of any force other than the forces due to water, an elementary profile will be
triangular in section, having zero width at the water level, where water pressure is zero, and a
maximum base width b, where the maximum water pressure acts. Thus, the section of the
elementary profile is of the same shape as the hydrostatic pressure distribution diagram. For
reservoir empty condition, a right angled triangular profile as shown in Fig., will provide the
maximum possible stabilising force against overturning, without causing tension in the base.
This is so because the weight of the dam acts at distance b/3 from the upstream face and is closer
to it. If any triangular profile, other than the right angled one, is provided, its weight will act still
closer to the upstream face to provide a higher stabilising force, but tension will be developed at
the toe when the dam is empty.
We shall consider main three forces (weight of the dam, water pressure, and uplift pressure)
acting on the elementary profile of a gravity dam:
(1) weight of the dam (W):
38
1
𝑊= 𝑏𝐻 𝜌𝑤
2
where 𝜌 = specific gravity of dam material
W = unit weight of water
(2) Water pressure (P)
1 1
𝑃 = 2 𝑤 𝐻2 acting at 3 𝐻 from the base
(3) Uplift pressure (u) :
1
𝑈 = 𝑐. 𝑤. 𝑏. 𝐻
2
Where c = uplift pressure intensity coefficient
2.7.1 BASE WIDTH OF THE ELEMENTARY PROFILE

The base width of the elementary profile can be found under two criteria: (1) No Tensile Stress
Criterion, and (2) No Sliding Criterion.
2.7.1.1 No Tensile Stress Criterion:

We have already seen that when reservoir is empty, for no tension to develop, the resultant
should act at the inner third point. For the reservoir full condition, for no tension to develop, the
resultant R must pass through the outer third point.
Taking the moment of all forces about M2 and equating it to zero (since the moment of R about
M2 is zero), we get
1 𝐻 1 𝑏 1 𝑏
𝑤𝐻2 . + 𝑐𝑤𝑏𝐻. − . =0
2 3 2 3 2𝑏𝐻𝜌𝑤 3
6
Multiplying all the terms by 𝑤𝐻 we get
H2 + cb2-b2ρ = 0
b2 (ρ-c) = H2
𝑏 = 𝐻/√𝜌 − 𝐶
If uplift is considered as per IS Code then C = 1 so
𝑏 = 𝐻/√𝜌 − 1
and if it is not considered then C = 0 thus
𝑏 = 𝐻/√𝜌
2.7.1.2 Stability or No Sliding Criterion:
For no sliding to occur, horizontal force causing sliding should be balanced by the frictional
forces opposing the same. Hence
𝑃 = 𝜇(𝑊 − 𝑈)
1 1 1
𝑤𝐻2 = 𝜇 ( 𝑏𝐻𝜌𝑤 − 𝑐𝑏𝑤𝐻)
2 2 2
𝐻
𝑏=
𝜇 (𝜌 − 𝐶 )
39
if uplift is neglected
𝐻
𝑏=
𝜇. 𝜌
The width provided for the elementary profile should be greater of the width given by the both
criteria.
2.7.1.3. Stresses Developed In the Elementary Profile

The equation for normal stress in general is
For full reservoir condition in elementary profile e = b/6 and V= (W-U)
Hence full reservoir case the normal stress at toe is
The corresponding stress at heel will be
2.7.1.4 Principal Stress at toe:
But
hence
2.7.1.5 Shear stress at the toe:
40
Since the normal stress at the heel is zero, the principal stress and shear stress will be zero at
heel.
2.7.1.6 Reservoir empty condition:

When the reservoir is empty, the only force acting on the elementary profile will be its weight,
acting through the first third point M1. Hence V = W, and e = -b/6 so shear stress is zero and the
maximum compressive normal stress equal to principal stress at the heel or toe thus
2.8 LIMITING HEIGHT OF A GRAVITY DAM

The only variable in the expression for the principal stress σ 1 at the toe is H. The maximum value
of this principal stress should not exceed the allowable stress (f) for the material. In the limiting
case
𝑓 = 𝜎1 = 𝑤𝐻 (𝜌 − 𝐶 + 1)
From which, the limiting height Hlim is given by
f
𝐻𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
w(ρ − c + 1)
For finding the limiting height Hlim, it is usual not to consider the uplift. Hence, putting C = 0,
we get,
f
𝐻𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
w(ρ + 1)
If the height of the dam is more than Hlim, the maximum compressive stress will exceed the
permissible stress and that condition is undesirable.
This equation for the limiting height defines the distinction between a low and a high gravity
dam. A low gravity dam is the one in which the height H is less than Hlim so that maximum
compressive stress is not greater than the allowable stress. For a concrete dam (ρ = 2.40, w=
9.81KN/m3and f=2940kn/ m2), the limiting height is about 88 m.
If the height of the dam to be constructed is more than that Hlim , the dam is known as high
gravity dam. For such a dam, the section will have to be given extra slopes to the upstream and
downstream sides, below the limiting height, to bring the compressive stress within the
permissible limits, as illustrated in Fig
41
2.9 PRACTICAL PROFILE OF A GRAVITY DAM

We have already seen that the elementary profile of a gravity dam is triangular in shape, having
zero width at the top. However, a truly triangular section is not practical nor is it necessarily the
most economical section. The elementary profile of the gravity dam is only a theoretical profile.
However such a profile is not possible in practice because of the provision of (i) top width or
roadway at the top, (ii) additional loads due to the roadway, and (iii) freeboard.
FREEBOARD:
Freeboard is the margin provided between the top of dam and H.F.L. in the reservoir to prevent
the splashing of the waves over the non-overflow section. It incidentally also takes care of any
unforeseen floods in the reservoir.
Freeboard
The freeboard adopted shall be one and a half times the corresponding wave height hw above
normal pool elevation or maximum reservoir level, whichever gives the higher crest elevation for
the dam. The freeboard above maximum reservoir level shall, however, be in no case less than
0.9 m. Wind velocities of 120 km/h over water in the case of full pool condition and 80 km/h
over water in case of High Gravity Dam Zone Hlim Limit of Low Gravity Dam maximum
reservoir condition are generally assumed for calculation of wave heights. However, modern
practice is to provide a maximum free board equal to 3 to 4 % of the dam height, though free
board equal to 5 % or more might prove economical.
Top width:
If some top width T = AD is provided for the elementary section ABC, the resultant of the dam
section will be shifted to the u/s when the reservoir is empty. AM1 is the inner third point line,
and MI is the line passing through the centroid of the added triangle ADE. Both these lines
intersect at point H. For all sections below plane FHG, the resultant will, therefore, be shifted to
the left of line AM1, causing tension at the down stream face when the reservoir is empty. This
will, therefore, require the provision of u/s batter FC1 below the plane FHG. In order to find the
depth h' of the plane FHG below which u/s batter is required, we have
42
Thus for heights greater than h’, u/s batter will have to be provided. The centroidal line MIJ
intersects with the outer-third point line AM2 at J. Hence, when the reservoir is full, the resultant
of all sections below the plane KJE is shifted to the u/s side. In order to bring the resultant back
to the outer third point line, for the sake of economy, the slope of d/s face may be flattened,
bringing it from EB to position EB1. Thus, due to the provision of some top width T, the net
economical section will be ADEB1C1F as shown in Fig. It can be seen that as the top width is
increased, the u/s batter is increased while the d/s slope is decreased. The increase in masonry
volume due to provision of top width is counter-balanced by the reduction in the d/s slope at
lower levels. It can be shown, that within limits, the masonry added for the provision of top
width decreases, rather than increases, the total masonry volume in the dam. However, the most
economical top width is the
function of height of dam. Creager has shown that the most economical top width, without,
considering earthquake effects, is found to be about 14 % of the height of dam. However, for
dams of low height, the top width provided on the basis of economy (ie.14 % of height) may
have to be increased from other practical considerations, such as provision of roadway on the top
etc. Thus due to provisions of freeboard and top width, some masonry is to be provided to the
upstream side and some masonry is removed from the downstream side to eliminate tension
and/or to economize. Fig. shows the dimensions of the practical profile of a gravity dam.
43
2.10 STABILITY ANALYSIS

The stability analysis of a given gravity dam section may be carried out by the following
methods:
1. Gravity method
(a) Graphical Method
(b) Analogy method
2. Trail load twist method
3. Slab analogy method
4. Lattice analogy method
5. Experimental methods
(a) Direct method
(b) Indirect method
(c)
2.10.1 GRAVITY METHOD:
This is an approximate method in which the dam is considered to be composed of parallel sided
vertical cantilevers each of which is free to act without supporting or interfering with the
adjoining cantilevers. The loads are forces are resisted entirely by the weight of the individual
cantilevers of unit length. Other methods of design and analysis are complicated and time
consuming and hence preliminary calculations are always done with the help of this method
(a) Graphical Method:

In the graphical method the dam section is divided into horizontal section 1-1,2-2,3-3 etc. at
some suitable interval or at the places where slope changes. For each section the sum of all
horizontal forces (∑H) and the sum of all vertical forces (∑V) acting above that section are
calculated and their line of action is located graphically. This is done for each section and finally
a line is drawn joining the point at which the resultant cut the various sections. The resultant
force so obtained should evidently lie with in the middle third for no tension to develop. This
procedure is adopted bothe for the reservoir full condition as well as reservoir empty condidtion.
Both the lines of resultant pressure so obtaines should lie in the middle third portion.
44
(b)Analytical Method:
the stability analysis by analytical method is done in the following steps:
1. Consider unit length of the dam. Calculate all the vertical loads acting. They include the
weight of the dam, weight of water acting on the inclined faces, uplift pressure and inertia
forces due to vertical acceleration. Find their algebraic sum (∑V)
2. Find out the sum of horizontal forces ∑H and the horizontal pressure due o dynamic
pressure.
3. Find out the sum of over turning moments (∑Mo) and the sum of righting moments (∑MR) at
the toe. Also find the algebraic sum of all the moments as under
4. Findout the location i.e., x of the resultant force R from toe, by relation
5. Find out the eccentricity e of the resultant R, from the centre by the relation,
6. Find out the normal stress at the toe of the dam
Also find normal stress at heel by expression
45
Some times, the normal compressive stress are found by ignoring the uplift.
7. Find out the principal and shear stresses at the toe and heel by equations
8. Find out the factor of safety against sliding by the expression:
9. Find the factor of safety against sliding by the following expressions
Where ∑V is the net vertical load inclusive of the uplift.
2.10.2 TRAIL LOAD TWIST METHOD:

In this method the dam is assumed to be divided into vertical cantilever elements and horizontal
be am elements each of which occupies the entire volume of the dam. As the structural behavior
of dam with joints eyed but not grouted is different from the one with joints keyed and grouted
each of these cases is dealt with separately.
(a)joints keyed but not grouted:

if the transverse joints between the adjacent cantilever blocks are only keyed but not grouted
then the horizontal beams will behave as shear beams and the horizontal elements will be
subjected to twisting in the horizontal as well as vertical planes. Thus in this case the entire dam
may be assumed to be made up of the cantilever structure and twisted structure.
The load acting on the dam due to water pressure is divided between the cantilever structure and
the twisted structure in such a manner that the computed deflection for any point in the dam
considered as point in the cantilever structure will be identical with its computed deflection,
considered as a point in the twisted structure.
The division of loading which will cause identical deflections at any point in the dam considered
in each of the two structural systems is found by successive trails. The process is repeated for all
the points in the dam. The stresses are then computed from the forces and moments thus known.
(b) joints keyed and grouted:

If the traverse joints between the adjacent cantilevers are keyed and grouted then the entire will
become a monolithic structure.
46
Thus in the case the horizontal beams will capable of taking bending movement in addition to
shear and hence an additional structure designated as beam structure is introduced for resistance
to bending in the horizontal elements the entire dam in this case may be assumed made up of
cantilever structure twisted structure and beam structure.
The load acting on the dam due to water pressure is now divided between these three structural
systems in such a manner that the computed deflections are identical for any point in the dam
considered in each of the three structural systems. The division of loading which will cause
identical deflections at any point in the dam considered in each of the three structural systems is
found by successive trails. The process is repeated for all the points in the dam. The stress are
them computed from the forces and movements thus known.
2.10.3 Slab analogy method:

according to this method the dam is considered and the analysis carried out is similar to the
calculation of stresses in bridge slabs. It is a time consuming and laborious method.
2.10.4 Lattice analogy method:

According to this method, the dam is considered to be composed of diagonally braced square
frames. The analysis though simple than the slab analysis method is quite cumbersome.
2.10.5 EXPERIMETAL METHODS

(a) Direct method (three dimensional model analysis):
in this method geometrically similar three dimensional models, which are exact replica of the
prototype are made of elastic materials. The models are located in similar manner as the
prototype. The model is then acted upon by various pressures preoperational to those of
prototype. In order to simulate the high water pressure acting on the prototype , a liquid of high
specific gravity such as mercury may be used or the effect may be obtained by the jetting action
of water. The deflections ocuuringat various points of the ,model are there after measured. Then
form correlation developed between the model and prototype for the stress and deflection, the
stesses for the prototype can be obtained. This method is quite useful for the analysis of high
dams.
(b) Indirect method (Photoelastic model analysis):

Photoelastic method and methds of magnetic and electrical analogy are usually considered under
the indirect methods of determing the stress in the model and hence in the prototype dam. In case
of Photoelastic method, the stresses in the Photoelastic model are determined by an optical
instrument known as Photoelastic polarisecope, where in a polarized light passes through the
model while it is under load. Studies employing Photoelastic models are limited. Usually the
study is carried out to supplement an analysis by determinimg regions of stress concentration.
The material used for the photoelastic models must be elastic, isotropic and free from initial or
residual stresses.
2.11 DESIGN OF GRAVITY DAMS:

The preliminary design is always done by the two dimensional method or gravity method in
which the is thought to be composed of a number of cantilevers of unit length acting independent
of adjacent cantilevers.
47
2.11.1 Multiple step method of design of gravity dam:

For the economic design of gravity dam the section of the dam is divided into various zones.
Each zone is designed in such a way that all the requirements of stability are satisfied.
Zone 1
This is the portion aa,bb of the dam situated above the maximum reservoir level when noise
exists the height of zone 1 is controlled by free board requirements and the width is determined
by practical considerations or economy for the whole section. In the case of ice sheet the height
of block 1 is fixed on the consideration of sliding of the zone due to ice pressure.
Zone 2
This is the portion of the dam in which both the u/s & d/s faces remain vertical. The position the
bottom plate cc of zone 2 is such that resultant forces when the reservoir is full, passes through
the out third point of plane cc, when reservoir is empty the line of resultant lies well with in the
middle throughout the height of zone 2.
Zone 3
In this zone the u/s face continues vertical while the d/s face is inclined the line of the resultant
continuous to coincide with d/s extremely of middle third when the reservoir is fall the position
of bottom plane dd, of zone 3 iss located such that when the reservoir is empty the lines of
resultant passes through the u/s middle third point.
Zone 4
In this zone the upstream surface is also begins to batter so that the lines of resultant along the
corresponding extremities of middle third. The position of lower limit plane ee,of this zone is
governed by the criterion that the max inclined pressure at d/s to for reservoir full condition is
just equal to the allowable limit. The design of zone 4 , specially the height as wellas both u/s &
d/s slopes are determined by trail and error method b dividing zone 4 into blocks. Low dams are
with in limit of zone 4 zone 5,6,7 are applicable only for high dam.
Zone 5
In this zone the downstream face is flattened so that the max inclined pressure at d/s to e under
reservoir full condition remains with in the working stress thus the resultant reservoir full
condition remain well with in the middle third. For reservoir empty condition the resultant
continues to intersect the u/s extremity of the kern. The lower limit of zone 5 is marked by plan
ff, where inclined compressive stress on the u/s hul reaches the permissible limit for the reservoir
empty condition.
Zone 6
In this zone the conditions of the design are determine by the max pressure at both u/s and d/s
faces under reservoir empty and full conditions respectively. The line of the resultant lie well
with in the middle third . The position of the bottom plane gg, is reached when the inclined
pressure at d/s to e is just reaches its max .value .
Zone 7
48
The max compression at the downstream to e exceeds the working limit. This zone is usually
eliminated by the revision of the entire design . if the height of dam is so large that it is more the
position of the plane gg, of zone 6 various changes are made in the upper zones. So that the
height of dam lies with in the zone 6 .
2.11.2 SINGLE STEP METHOD OF DESIGN OF HIGH DAMS:

The high dams going beyond zone 4 it is found that the shape of u/s and d/s slopes are sometimes
obtained of unusual shape above fig shows a typical section of high dam obtained by multiple
step method. The u/s face has step slope while the d/s slope has convex slope outwards. A
convex faced under compression whether smoothly curved or polygonal, may be subject to
tensile stresses on surface parallel to the face . such shape is usually not desirable since the outer
layer of such a section tends to buckle outward. Hence the whole section may have to be revised
in such a way that such a reversed curvature is avoided. The simple method would be to start the
redesign work from the top converting the whole dam into a single block controlled by the rules
of zone 6.
From above fig shows the section of the same high dam designed by the single step method . in
this method the u/s slope is kept vertical for depth to the determined by trail. If may preliminarily
be fixed by eqa . such that plane fg passes through the intersection of the middle third line ah and
the centurial line mh of the top width triangle. After this height , both the u/s and d/s faces are
given such slops that the max inclined pressure at both u/s and d/s face under the condition of
reservoir empty and full reach their max values simultaneously. This is to be accomplished ,
check computations will show that all the stability requirements for the reservoir full or empty
conditions are satisfied at all points above the base.
From the above fig shows the sections of a high dam , designed both by the single step method
and multiple step method. It is quite clear from the two sections that the multiple step designed is
more economical for the upper portion of the dam. The single step method section is under
stressed at all the points except at the base. Hence if the height of the dam is less , multiple step
design method would give substantial saving in material.
49
2.12 JOINTS
Most concrete dams are sub-divided into a number of blocks to relieve the thermal stresses and
subsequent cracking in the body of the dam. To control the formation of cracks in mass concrete,
vertical transverse contraction (monolith) joints will generally be spaced uniformly across the
axis of the dam about 50 feet apart. Joints are classified as
Construction Joints: Construction joints, usually called horizontal joints are necessary since the
entire work of concreting the whole dam cannot be completed in one stretch. The concreting is,
therefore, done in various stages. In solid gravity dams, the height between horizontal joints is
usually limited to about 1.5 m. This height between two successive construction joints or
horizontal joints is known as lift. Evidently, this height is· limited to the necessity of providing
sufficient cooling between pours. For the first layer immediately on the rock, half this amount,
i.e. 0.75 m height is adopted as the lift. Modern treatment of the surface and good concrete create
automatic water-tight horizontal joints, and as such no provisions, such as water stops or
keyways etc., are made in the horizontal joints. The contraction joints, though provided for
different purpose, also serve as construction joints
Contraction Joints: Contraction joints are mainly provided to avoid cracks caused due to
shrinkage of concrete due to temperature. A contraction joint is formed vertical or inclined
surface between masses of concrete/ masonry placed at different times. They divide the dam into
convenient sized monoliths to permit convenient and systematic construction and to prevent the
formation, owing to volume changes that cannot be prevented, of haphazard ragged cracks.
 Transverse Joints
50
For dams transverse joints normal to dam axis are given. These joints are 12 to 18 metre
centres apart, usual spacing being 15 m. These joints are thus man made cracks (Fig.4.3)
which allow the contraction of the concrete on the two sides to relieve thermal stresses. The
edges of the transverse or contraction joint at the face are chamfered to give a pleasing
appearance and to avoid spalling. Such chamfers are 4 x 4 cm on non-overflow blocks and 2
x 2 cm on the downstream face of overflow blocks.
 Longitudinal Joints
As height of the dam increases, base thickness approaches a limiting dimension beyond
which condition favorable to vertical cracking parallel to axis is created. To prevent
uncontrolled cracks, longitudinal joints are provided. They serve the same purpose in one
block of the dam as the transverse joints in the dam as a whole. Spacing of these joints vary
from 15 to 50 metre. Where the longitudinal joints approach the downstream face of the dam,
the joint is turned normal to the face to avoid feather-edging of concrete. A gap is often
provided at the inclined portion of the joint which is later dry packed. Extension of
longitudinal joints in the upstream face is undesirable; should be terminated at a minimum
distance of 4-5 metre from the face. These joints are staggered in adjacent blocks.
2.13 KEYS
Keys are invariably provided in longitudinal joints to permit the transfer of shearing stresses
from one block to the other. However, their provision in the transverse joints in optional. The
adjoining surfaces of each side of the joint are given such a shape as to be interlocked together
for the transfer of stresses. Keyways give a measure of shearing strength required at times when
the dam is only partly full and the lines of first principal stress are not parallel to the joints.
Water stops are provided in both the types of joints, to prevent leakage of water. Water stops are
also sometimes known as water bars. Water stops may be either of metal, such as annealed
copper, steel, monel, metal or sheet lead, or of natural or synthetic rubbers and plastics such as
polyvinyl chloride. Metal water stops are provided only in the case of non-yielding foundations.
For other cases of yielding foundation, rubber water bars are preferred.
2.14 WATER STOPS
The water stops are provided in transverse joints for stopping the flow of water into the joint and
for stopping the flow of grout outside it. In longitudinal joints the only function of water stops or
water seals is to retain the grout.
51
Usually copper (20 gauge) water stops are used. Recently monel (an alloy of nickel and copper)
water stops are used. Stainless steel stops are also being used. Sometimes rubber and polyvinyl
chloride water stops are also used.
The usual practice is to provide two water stops of copper or monel with an asphalt seal in
between. The longitudinal joints are provided with Z type while the transverse joints are
provided with U or M type seals. Construction joints are sometimes provided with A or Z type
seal to prevent seepage along the joint when some opening is located close to the face. The
distance of the first seal from the upstream face in ungrouted contraction joints is about 0.6
metre.
The pipes inside the asphalt well are installed for melting asphalt and adding more asphalt and
adding more asphalt at a later period. Another metal seal is placed downstream of asphalt seal.
The purpose of the seal is to limit the travel of asphalt along the joint in between the two seals.
Further downstream, open drains (called formed drain) about 15 to 20 cm diameter at 3m centre
to centre are provided.
2.15 GALLERIES
A gallery is a formed opening left in a dam. This may run in transverse or longitudinal direction
and may run horizontally or on a slope. The shape and size varies from dam to dam and is
generally governed by the functions it has to perform. Following are the purposes for which a
gallery is formed in the dams.
1. To provide drainage' of the dam section. Some amount of water constantly seeps through the
upstream face of the dam which is drained off through galleries.
2. To provide facilities for drilling and grouting operations for foundations etc. Drillings for
drain is generally resorted to clean them if they are clogged. High pressure grouting and
required drilling for it is generally carried out after the completion of dam. This can be best
done through galleries.
3. To provide space for header and return pipes for post cooling of concrete and grouting the
longitudinal joints after completion of dam.
4. To provide access to observe and measure the behaviour of the structure after its completion
by fixing thermocouples and examining development of cracks etc.
5. To provide an access of mechanical contrivances needed for the operation of outlet gates
and spillway gates.
The rectangular gallery, all the corners should be rounded so that stress concentration is
minimum. Where drainage trough is required, a rectangular trough such as at c is necessary,
though shape d is preferred. In oval shaped gallery to provide walkway, the semi-circular bottom
is filled in with an unbounded slab.
Shafts: Vertical openings in the dam are called shafts. Shafts are provided to connect
galleries a (various levels. Plumber shaft is provided to measure the deflections of dam by
suspending a plumb bob in it.
52
Shafts: Vertical openings in the dam are called shafts. Shafts are provided to connect galleries a
(various levels. Plumber shaft is provided to measure the deflections of dam by suspending a
plumb bob in it.
2.16 CONTROL OF CRACKING IN CONCRETE DAMS
If proper temperature control is not exercised, the large concrete block between the joints may
crack due to high temperature gradient between the interior and the surface. These large blocks
of concrete are subject to deep as well as surface cracking. The cracks in the interior of the
blocks are produced due to beat of hydration liberated by cement thus giving rise to high
temperature gradient. The surface cracks may appear due to daily variations of the temperature at
surface. The surface cracks are more harmful, since the disintegration starts through them by
wedge action. Water enters these surface cracks, accumulates there and then solidifies. The ice
so formed begins to expand at 4°C, resulting in widening and deepening of cracks. Following are
some of the methods employed to check or minimize the development of the cracks in mass
concrete:
1. Pre-cooling of concrete: The concrete is precooled before it is placed in the dam. This is
accomplished by cooling the aggregate by refrigerated water, blowing air through them,
cooling of sand and using refrigerated water for the manufacture of concrete. All this
involves high cost of preparing the concrete.
2. Post cooling of concrete: The post cooling is achieved by circulating refrigerated water
through pipes embedded in concrete in each lift. The cooling is begun immediately after a
block is laid and is continued till the mass temperature falls to the mean annual temperature
of the locality. For the purposes of circulating cool water, thin walled tubings are placed in
the middle of each lift. The horizontal spacing of these tubings may be between 0.5 to 2 m
and the velocity of flow is kept more than 60 cm per second. Resistance thermometers are
embedded in the concrete to ascertain the temperature.
3. Using low heat cement in the concrete.
4. Using lower percentage of cement in the concrete for the interior of the blocks, say about 80
% of that for the exterior.
5. Restricting the height of lift, to say 1.5 m
6. Allowing considerable time between laying of two successive vertical lifts. The usual time is
about 4 days.
7. Providing contraction joints at suitable spacings.
53
UNIT-III
EARTH DAMS & SPILLWAYS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Earth embankments have been used since the earliest times to impound and divert water. They
are simple compacted structures that rely on their mass to resist sliding and overturning and are
the most common type of dam found worldwide. Modern haulage methods and developments in
soil mechanics since the end of the nineteenth century have greatly increased the safety and life
of these structures.
The main advantages involved in the construction of small earth dams are:
1. Local natural materials are used.
2. Design procedures are straightforward.
3. Comparatively small plant and equipment are required.
4. Foundation requirements are less stringent than for other types of dam. The broad base of an
earth dam spreads the load on the foundation.
5. Earth fill dams resist settlement and movement better than more rigid structures and can be
more suitable for areas where earth movements are common.
However, disadvantages also exist and these are:

1. An earth embankment is easily damaged or destroyed by water flowing on,over or against it.
Thus, a spillway and adequate upstream protection are essential for any earth dam.
2. Designing and constructing adequate spillways is usually the most technically difficult part
of any dam building work. Any site with a poor quality spillway should not be used.
3. If not adequately compacted during construction, the dam will offer weak structural integrity,
offering possible pathways for preferential seepage.
4. Earth dams require continual maintenance to prevent erosion, tree growth,subsidence, animal
and insect damage and seepage.
Fig.3.1 Cross Section of Earth Dam
3.2 TYPES OF EARTHEN DAMS:

Depending upon the method of construction earth dams can be divided into two types
1) Rolled fill dam
54
2) Hydraulic fill dam
1) ROLLED FILL DAM:

It is defines as an embankment dam of earth or rock in which the material is placed in layers
and compacted by the use of rollers or rolling equipment. It is further classified as three
types:
(a) Homogenous Embankment Type
(b) Zoned Embankment Type
(c) Diaphragm Type
These types of dams are described below:
(a) Homogeneous Embankment Type:

The simplest type of an earthen embankment consists of a single material and is homogeneous
throughout. Sometimes, a blanket of relatively impervious material may be placed on the
upstream face (Fig-3.2a). A purely homogeneous section is used for low to moderately high
dams and for levees. Large dams are seldom designed as homogeneous embankment. A purely
homogeneous section poses the problems of seepage and hug section are required to make it safe
against piping, stability, etc. Due to this, a homogeneous section is generally added with an
internal drainage system: such as a horizontal drainage filter (Fig-3.2-b), a rock toe, etc. The
internal drainage system keeps the phreatic line (i.e. top seepage line) well within the body of the
dam, and steeper slopes, and thus, smaller sections can be used. The internal drainage is,
therefore, always provided in almost all types of embankment.
Fig.3.2a Homogenous Type Embankment Without Drainage
55
Fig.3.2b Homogenous Type Embankment With Drainage
(b) Zoned Embankment Type:

Zoned embankments are usually provided with a central impervious core, covered by a
comparatively pervious transition zone, which is finally surrounded by much more pervious
outer zone Fig-3.3. The central core checks the seepage, the transition zone prevents piping
through cracks which may develop in the core. The outer zone gives stability to the center
impervious fill and also distributes the load over a large area of foundations. This type of
embankments are widely constructed and the materials of the zones are selected depending upon
their availabilities, clay, in spite of it being highly impervious, may not make the best core, if it
shrinks and swells too much. Due to this reason clay is sometimes mixed with fine sand or fine
gravel, so as to use it as the most suitable material for the central impervious core. Silts or silty
clays may be used as the satisfactory central core materials. Free draining materials, such as
coarse sands and gravels, are used in the outer shell. Transition filter are provided between the
inner zone and the outer zone as shown in Fig-3.3. This type of transition filters are always
provided, whenever there is an abrupt change of permeability from one zone to the other.
Fig.3.3 Zoned Type Embankment

(c) Diaphragm Type Embankments.
Diaphragm type embankments have a thin impervious core, which is surrounded by earth or rock
fill. The impervious core, called diaphragm, is made of impervious soil, concrete, steel, timber or
much other material. It acts as a water barrier to prevent seepage through the dam. The
diaphragm may be placed either at the center as a central vertical core or at the upstream face as
a blanket. The diaphragm must also be tied to the bed rock or to a very impervious foundation
56
material, if excessive under seepage through the existing pervious foundation has to be avoided
(Fig-3.4). The diaphragm types of embankments are differentiated from zoned embankment,
depending upon the thickness of the core. If the thickness of the diaphragm at the elevation is
less than 10 meters or less than the height of the embankment above the corresponding elevation,
the dam embankment is considered to be of Diaphragm Type. But if the thickness equals or
exceeds these limits, it is considered to be of zoned embankment type.
Fig.3.4 Diaphragm Type Embankments.
2) HYDRAULIC FILL DAM:

A hydraulic fill is an embankment or other fill in which the materials are deposited in place
by a flowing stream of water, with the deposition being selective. Gravity, coupled with
velocity control, is used to effect the selected deposition of the material.
3.3 CAUSES OF FAILURE OF EARTH DAM

The various causes leading to the failure of the earth dams can be grouped into the following
three classes:
(1) Hydraulic failures
(2) Seepage failures
(3) Structural failures
1. Hydraulic Failures:
About 40% of earth dam failures have been attributed to these causes. The failure under this
category may occur due to the following reasons:
(a) By overtopping: The water may overtop the dam, if the design flood is under–estimated or
if the spillway is of insufficient capacity or if the spillway gates are not properly operated.
Sufficient freeboard should, therefore, be provided as an additional safety measure.
57
(b) Erosion of upstream face: The waves developed near the top water surface due to the
winds, try to notch out the soil from the upstream face and may even, sometimes, cause the
slip of the upstream slop. Upstream stone pitching or riprap should, therefore be provided
to avoid such failures.
(c) Cracking due to frost action: Frost in the upper portion of the dam may cause heaving and
cracking of the soil with dangerous seepage and consequent failure. An additional
freeboard allowance up to a maximum of say 1.5 m should, therefore, be provided for dam
in areas of low temperatures.
(d) Erosion of downstream face by gully formation: Heavy rains falling directly over the
downstream face and the erosive action of the moving water, may lead to the formation of
gullies on the down stream face, ultimately leading to the dam failure. This can be avoided
by proper maintenance, filling the cuts from time to time especially during rainy season,
by grassing the slopes and by providing proper berms at suitable heights.
2. Seepage Failures:
uncontrolled of concentrated seepage through the dam body or through the foundations may lead
to piping or sloughing and the subsequent failure of the dam. Piping is the progressive erosion
and subsequent removal of the soil grains from within the body of the dam or the foundations of
the dam. Sloughing is the progressive removal of the soil from the wet downstream face. More
than 1/3 rd of the earth dams have failed because of these reasons.
(a) Piping through foundations: Sometimes when highly permeable cavities or fissures or
strata of coarse sand or gravel are present in the foundation of the dam, water may start
seeping at a hung rate through them (Fig.3.5). This concentrated flow at a high gradient, may
erode the soil. This leads to increased flow of water and soil ultimately resulting in a rush of
water and soil, thus, hollows get created bellow the foundations. The dam may sink down
into the hollow so formed, causing its failure
Fig.3.5 Piping through foundations
(b) Piping through dam body: When the concentrated flow channels get developed in the body
of the dam, (Fig.3.6) soil may be removed in the same manner as was explained in
foundation piping leading to the formation of hollows in the dam body, and subsequent
subsiding of the dam. These flow channels may develop due to faulty construction,
insufficient compaction, cracks developed in embankment due to the foundation settlement,
shrinkage crack, animal borrows, etc. All these causes can be removed by better construction
and better maintenance of the dam embankment.
58
Fig.3.6 Piping through dam body
(c) Sloughing of D/S Toe: The process behind the sloughing of the toe is somewhat similar to
that of piping. The process of failure due to sloughing starts when the downstream toe
becomes saturated and gets eroded; producing a small slump or a miniature slide. The
miniature slide leaves a relatively steep face which becomes saturated by the seepage from
the reservoir and slumps again, forming a more unstable surface. The process continues till
the remaining portion of the dam is too thin to withstand the horizontal water pressure,
leading to the sudden failure of the dam.
3. Structural failures:
About 25% of the dam failures have been attributed to structural-failures structural failures are
generally caused by shear failures, causing slides.
(a) Foundation slide: (I.e. overall stability of the dam): When the foundations of the earth dam
are made of soft soils such as fine silt, soft clay, etc, the entire dam may slide over the
foundations. Sometimes seams of fissured rocks, shale or soft clay, etc may exist under the
foundations and the dam my slide over some of them, causing its failure. In this type of
failures, the top of embankment get cracked and subsides, the lower slope moves outward
forming large mud waves near the heel as shown in Fig.3.7
Fig.3.7 Sliding Due To Week Foundation
59
(b) Slide in embankments: When the embankment slopes are too steep for the strength of the
soil, they may slide causing dam failure. The most critical condition of the slide of the u/s
slope in the sudden drawdown of the reservoir (Fig-3.8a) and d/s slope in most likely to
slide, when the reservoir is full (Fig-3.8b). The u/s slope failures seldom lead to catastrophic
failures, but the d/s slope failures are very serious. These failures generally occur due to
development excessive unaccounted pore pressures which may reduce the shearing strength
of the soils as
explained in the previous article. Many embankments may fail during the process of
consolidation, at the time of constructions or after the construction.
Fig.3.8a U/S Slope In The Sudden Draw- Down Of The Reservoir
Fig.3.8b D/S Slope Slide In Full Reservoir
3.4 SITE SELECTION FOR EARTH FILL DAM:

1.The dam must have the potential to fill with runoff (most years) or store sufficient water
between runoff events that fill the reservoir. It is essential that the dam and reservoir have
sufficient depth and volume to last through extended periods of drought.
2.Topographical features such as slope, width and height of dam, as well as reservoir capacity
will influence construction costs. A topographical survey of the proposed dam site will be
required to estimate costs, prepare necessary information for licensing and provide
construction details for the contractor.
3.Soil conditions must be suitable for both compaction and the prevention of seepage losses
60
through the dam. It is highly recommended that some pre-construction soil testing be done at
the proposed site or sites. This testing can be accomplished by digging five or six test holes or
test pits where the dam and reservoir are to be located. Soils should be checked to depths three
feet below that of any proposed excavation for the dam or reservoir.
4.An assessment of the hazard potential downstream should a dam failure occur.
5.A good location for a spillway that will effectively handle runoff and minimize erosion.
6.Watershed activities that can affect the water quality or quantity of runoff.
3.5 CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN OF EARTH DAMS
Major features of the design of Embankment dam are required foundation treatment, abutment
stability, seepage conditions, stability of slopes adjacent to control structure approach channels
and stilling basins, stability of reservoir slopes, and ability of the reservoir to retain the water
stored. These features should be studied with reference to field conditions and to various
alternatives before initiating detailed stability or seepage analyses. Which makes the design of an
embankment dam is complex because of the unknown materials property of foundation.
Seepage through the embankment, foundation and abutments must be collected and controlled to
prevent excessive uplift pressures, piping, sloughing, and removal of material by solution,
formation of cracks, joints and cavities. The design should consider seepage control measures
such as foundation cutoffs, adequate and non brittle impervious zones, transition zones, drainage
blankets, upstream impervious blankets and relief wells Criteria for safe design have to be so
specified that they cover all possible cause of failure. The following criteria are commonly
accepted for safe design of embankment dams.
1) There should be no risk of overtopping of the dam section. The most important aspect of this
criterion is estimation of the design flood and provisions of adequate spillway capacity to
pass that flood with require net freeboard to protect the dam crest against wave splash.
2) The seepage line should be well within the downstream face of the dam section. If the dam
section is homogeneous and no drainage arrangements are made, any seepage is going to
emerge on the downstream face. This results in 'sloughing ' or softening of the d/s face and
may lead to local toe failure, which may progressively develop upwards. This can be
safeguarded against by providing a free drainage zone on the d/s face or by intercepting the
seepage inside the dam section by internal drainage.
3) There should be no possibility of 'piping' through the embankment or the foundations. In the
dam section the main protection against piping is provided by filters or transition zones
which prevent migration of soil particles with seepage water.
4) There should be no opportunity for free flow of water from the u/s and d/s face. Free flow
implies flow of water under pressure through a continuous crack or passage and not seepage
flow through soil pores. Once a concentrated leak starts, it rapidly enlarges and is almost
impossible to stop. Hence it is essential that every precaution be taken against leakage to
ensure the safety of the dam.
5) The u/s and d/s slopes of the dam should be stable and safe against sliding under the most
critical conditions to which they might be subjected. At the end of construction, there may be
high residual pore pressures in the impervious zone of the dam, a condition which may be
61
critical for both faces, especially for dams with thick cores rapidly constructed. The u/s face
will be subject to wave action from the reservoir. It has to be protected by some kind of
protective layer, the preferred choice being dumped rock riprap or stone pitching .The d/s
face, if of erodible material, needs protection against rainfall.
6) The embankment, foundation, and abutments must be stable under all conditions of
construction and reservoir operation including seismic.
7) Freeboard must be sufficient to prevent overtopping by waves and include an allowance
settlement of the foundation and embankment as well as for seismic effects where applicable.
3.6 COMPONENTS OF EARTH DAM OR SECTION OF EARTH DAM

The main components of the earth dam are described below:
1. Cut off
2. Core
3. Casing
4. Internal drainage system and foundations
5. Slope protection
6. Surface drainage
7. Impervious blanket
8. Free board
9. Crest width or Top width
FUNCTIONS AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

1. Cut off
The cut off is required,To reduce loss of stored water through foundations and abutments and To
prevent sub-surface erosion by piping.
The type of cut off should be decided on the basis of detailed geological investigations. It is
desirable to provide positive cut off. Where this is not possible, partial cut off with or without
upstream impervious blanket may
be provided. In any case, adequate drainage arrangements may be provided on the down stream.
The following guidelines may be adopted for design of cut off.
a. The cut off shall be located such that its centre line should be within the base of impervious
core and should be upstream of centre line of dam.
b. The positive cut off should be keyed at least to a depth of 0.4 metre into continuous
impervious sub stratum or inerodable rock formation.
c. A minimum bottom width of 4.0 metre is recommended.
d. Side slopes of at least 1:1 or flatter may be provided in case of over burden while 1/2:1 and
1/4:1 may be provided in soft rock and hard rock respectively.
e. The back fill material for cut off trench shall have same properties as those specified for
impervious core.
f. The cut off in the flanks on either side should normally extend upto the top of impervious
core.
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g. If cut off trench is terminated in rock formation which is weathered or have cracks, joints and
crevices; and if percolation test exhibit a lugeon value of more than 10(refer IS 6066-1984),
then rock foundation below the bed of cut off trench should be grouted.
2. Core:
The core provides impermeable barrier within the body of the dam. Impervious soils are
generally suitable for the core (IS 1498 -1970). However soils having high compressibility &
liquid limit, and having organic contents may be avoided, as they are prone to swelling &
formation of cracks.
Following guidelines are recommended for design of core.

a. The core may be located either centrally or inclined upstream.
b. The minimum top width should be kept 3 metres.
c. The top level of the core should be fixed at 0.5 m above MWL.
d. The side slopes may be kept 0.5:1 and 1:1.
e. Thickness of core at any section shall not be lesser than 30% (preferably not less than 50
percent) of maximum head of water acting at that section.
3. Casing:
The function of casing is to impart stability and protect the core. The relatively pervious
materials, which are not subjected to cracking on direct exposure to atmosphere, are suitable for
casing. Top width of dam should be provided as 4.5 m (minimum). The berms may be provided
for the dam, which are more than 10 m in height. Minimum berm width may be kept as 3 m.
4. Internal Drainage System:

To ensure safety of dam, it is very important to handle the seepage water in the dam so as to
maintain the original particles of soils in their place. The measures commonly adopted for
safe disposal of seepage water through embankment dams are;
a. Inclined or vertical filter (chimney filter)
b. Horizontal filter
c. Rock toe
d. Toe drain
As far as possible locally available sand, gravel etc should be used. Inclined or vertical filter
is provided just on downstream slope of core. Its thickness is kept 1.0 metre (minimum).
Horizontal filter collects the seepage from chimney filter & foundation, and carries to the
rock toe & toe drain. Its thickness is kept minimum as 1.0 metre. The standard filter criterion
between filter and adjoining soil (casing or foundation) should be satisfied .In case of dam
portions, where the head of water is 3 m or less it is not required to provide chimney filter or
horizontal filter. Adequate toe protection shall however be provided. The height of rock toe is
generally provided as 0.2 H, where H is the height of embankment. However minimum
height of rock toe be kept as 1.0 metre. Rock toe is not necessary where height of
embankment is 3 m or less.
The toe drain is provided at the downstream toe of the earth dam to collect seepage from
63
horizontal filter, rock toe & through foundation and to discharge it away from the dam by
suitable surface or sub surface drains. The section of toe drain should be adequate enough to
carry seepage. The bed of toe drain should be given a suitable slope to lead the seepage to
natural drains. Depth of toe drain is usually provided as 1.5 m with bottom width of 1 m
minimum and side slopes of 1:1 .For details IS 9429-1980 be referred.
The filter material should satisfy the following criteria with the base material:
a. D15 (f) / D15 (b) > 4 and < 20

b. D15 (f) / D85 (b) < 5
A filter that satisfies the above criteria may yet fail if it has an excess or lack of certain sizes
or is not uniformly graded. The following criteria must be fulfilled.
a. D50 (f) / D50 (b) < 25

b. The gradation curve of the filter material should be nearly parallel to the gradation curve
of the base material.
c. The suffix 'f' stands for the filter material and 'b' for the base material. 15, 50, 85 percent
particles, by weight, respectively are finer than D15, D50 and D85 particle size.
5. Slope Protection:
Upstream slope: The upstream slope protection is ensured by providing riprap. A minimum
of 300 mm thick riprap over 150 mm thick filter layer may be provided upto the top of dam.
Downstream slope: The down stream slope protection is ensured by turfing or riprap. It is
usual practice to protect the down stream slope from rain cuts by providing suitable turfing
on the entire downstream slope from top to toe.
6. Surface Drainage:
For surface drainage of downstream slope, a system of open paved drains (chutes) along
the sloping surface terminating in the longitudinal collecting drains at the junction of
berm and slope shall be provided at 50 m c/c to drain the rain water. The section of drain
may be trapezoidal having depth of 30 cm. From longitudinal collecting drain, the rain
water is carried through 15-cm diameter pipes placed at 50 m c/c into paved chutes on the
d/s slope. Where no berm has been provided, the open paved drains (chutes) should
terminate in the downstream rock toe or toe drain.
7. Impervious Blanket:
The horizontal impervious blanket is provided to increase the path of seepage when full cut-
off is not practicable in pervious foundation. The impervious blanket shall be connected to
the core of the dam. To avoid formation of crack, the material should not be highly plastic.
Reference may be made to IS: 1498-1970 for suitability of soils for blanket. (Table 2) A
300mm thick layer of random material over the blanket is recommended to prevent cracking
due to exposure to atmosphere. As a general guideline, impervious blanket with a minimum
thickness of 1.0 metre and a minimum length of 5 times the maximum water head measured
from upstream toe of core may be provided.
64
8. Free board
Freeboard for small dams should never be less than 0.5 m with 0.75 m to 1.0 m preferred.
Where wave action is likely, additional freeboard may be required. This can be estimated
using the following formula:
Freeboard height, H’’ (in m) = 0.014 (F)0.5 (3.1)
where H’’ is the freeboard height and F is the fetch which is the longest distance,in km,
across the storage area (usually measured in a straight line from the centre line of the
proposed embankment to the tail water area of the proposed reservoir). The overall
freeboard height can then be calculated taking into account the wet freeboard, H’’, (as
estimated with the formula above) required to counteract wave action and the dry
freeboard (estimated by the engineer) for safety and other factors. The total freeboard is
effectively the design depth for the spillway (at its entrance).
9. Crest Width
The crest width of an embankment is selected taking into account the size of the dam, the
catchment characteristics and topography and whether road or other access will be required
across the embankment. In all cases, the embankment crest width should be designed to
allow the safe passage of plant and equipment to be used in the dam construction and should
be no less than 2 m wide. Alternatively, and most appropriate to small dams exceeding 5 m
in height, a standard crest width of 3 m can be adopted or the formula below can be used:
Cw (in m) = 0.4H + 1 (3.2)
where Cw is the crest width and H is the maximum height of the dam in metres. Always
adopt the widest crest width possible (and flatter embankment slopes) where foundations or
construction materials are suspect. To reduce erosion, all crests should be given a 2.5 percent
crossfall to drain rainwater to the reservoir via the upstream slope of the embankment.
3.7 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS:

The qunatity of water passing through the body and foundation of the earth dam as well as
distribution of water pressures can be estimated by the theory of flow of fluids through porous
media. While computing these quantities following assumption are kept in mind.
 The rolled embank,ent and the natural soil foundation of the earth dam are incompressible
porous media. The size of the porespace do not change with time regardless of water
pressure.
 The seeping water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only to gravity head loss or
darcys law for flow through porous medium is valid
 There is no change in the degree of saturation in the root zone of soil through which the
water seeps and the quantity flowing into any element of volume is equal to quanity which
flows out in the same length of time.
 The hydraulic boundary conditions at entry and exit are known
 Water is incompressible
3.7.1 PHREATIC OR SEEPAGE LINE

The two dimensional flow of fluid through porous soil can be expressed by Laplace’s Equation
65
(3.3)
Graphically, the equation can be represented by two sets of curves that intersect at right angles.
The combined representation of two sets of lines is called a flow net (Fig. 3.9). With the help of a
flow net, the seepage problems can be analyzed at any point within the section of the
embankment.
The seepage or phreatic line may be defined as the line within a dam section below which there
are positive hydrostatic pressures in the dam. On the line itself, the hydrostatic pressure is zero.
Above the line, there will be a zone of capillary situation. The phreatic line represents the top
flow line or the boundary condition for drawing the flow net.
Fig.3.9 Flow net through earth dam
The location of the phreatic line is necessary in order to draw accurately the flow net. It is also
useful in analyzing stability of the dam. It may be noted that the location of the seepage line is
dependent only on the cross section of the dam. Its position is not influenced by the permeability
of the material composing the dam so long as the material is homogeneous. According to A.
Cassagrande the phreatic line for the homogeneous fill section is a basic parabola except at the
ingress and egress points. The presence of a pervious stratum below the dam does not influence
the position of the phreatic line. For graphical construction of the phreatic line the following
procedure may be adopted.
3.7.2 STEPWISE PROCEDURE FOR LOCATING PHREATIC LINE
1. With Horizontal Drainage Filter:

i. The horizontal distance between upstream toe A and the point ‘B’ where water surface meets
the upstream face is calculated or measured (say L). The point B0 is then located on the water
surface at a distance 0.3 L from B.
ii. The basic parabola has to pass through B0 and have its focus at F which is the starting point
of the horizontal drainage. With these points known the basic parabola may be constructed
graphically.
66
Fig.3.10 Phreatic Line in Earth Dams Provided With Horizontal Drainage Filter
iii. With centre B0 and radius B0F, draw an arc to meet the water line at C. Draw the vertical line
CD which is the directrix. Let FD, the focal distance = yo. Bisect the distance FD to get the
point E, the vertex of the parabola. Draw FG parallel to CD and equal to yo. Knowing Bo,G
and E the basic parabola can be drawn.
iv. The focal distance y0 can also be determined on the consideration that if (x y) is one point on
the parabola,
(3.4)
Since the point B0 of coordinates d, h lies on the equation.
(3.5)
v. The ingress portion of phreatic line is joined to the base parabola from point B, keeping the
starting end normal to the upstream face.
2. With Inclined Discharge Face Or No Filter

For embankments with no drainage filters measures the base parabola cuts the discharge face at
point G0 at a distance (a + a) along the discharge face from point F, and extends beyond the
limits of the embankments. The actual seepage line meets the discharge face (at point G) at a
distance a below the point G0. The value of ‘a’ can be worked out from the curve after A.
Cassagrande giving the value of
for different angles () of discharging face. The value of (a+ a) can either be measured directly
on the face when the parabola has been drawn or its value determined from the equation,
67
(3.6)
Fig. 3.11 Phreatic Line with Inclined Discharge Face
3. With Rock Toe

The basic parabola may be drawn in a similar way taking F as focus. As already shown this
parabola it self is the seepage line for a horizontal filter. (For a horizontal filter = 180).
For a rock toe, an appropriate value of , measured clockwise from the horizontal base should be
taken and the value of
read from the curve given in fig. 3.12. The parabola is corrected at the egress point.
Fig.3.12 Curve Of Discharge In Earth Dams
For values of between 30to 180, the distance ‘a’ measured along the slope from the toe may
be determined as explained above. However, if it is less than 30, the distance ‘a’ or the point of
68
emergence of the phreatic line at the downstream slope may be determined with the help of
Schaffernak’s equation.
(3.7)
(3.8)
where d and h are the coordinates of the initial point B, as explained in fig. 5.5
3.7.3 QUANTITY OF SEEPAGE

Consider earth embankment of homogeneous material given in fig. 5.4. Flow net through the
dam section has been drawn by trial and error method. If h is the total hydraulic head and N d is
the number of potential drops (9 in fig. 5.4) the potential drop h =h/Nd. Consider a field of
length l, the field being an approximate square its width is also equal to l, the hydraulic gradient
across the fieldh/l The discharge through the field is given by
(3.9)
If Nf is the total number of flow channels ( Nf = 3 in fig. 5.4 ) the seepage per unit width of
embankment is
(3.10)
The discharge through a homogeneous embankment with horizontal filter may also be calculated
with the help of equation 5.9. The equation of base parabola under steady seepage condition may
be written as
(3.11)
For a unit length, y represents the area of flow
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(3.12)
Since discharge passing through any vertical plane is the same, at x = 0 we have dy/ dx =1
And y = y0.
(3.13)
The equation although is applicable to embankments with horizontal filters but hold good for
determining approximate discharge in all other cases.
3.7.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHREATIC LINE
The characteristics of the phreatic line is
1. At the entry point, the phreatic line must be normal to the upstream face is a 100%
equipotential line. For other entry conditions phreatic line starts with the tangentially with
the water surface
Fig.3.13 Entry conditions of phreatic line
2. Thepressure along the phreatic line is atmospheric. Hence the only change in the head
along it is due to drop in the elevation of various points on it. Due to this , the successive
equipotential lines will meet it at equal vertical intervals.
3. The focus of the base parabola lies at the break out point of the bottom flow line where
the flow emerges out from relatively impervious medium to a highly impervious medium.
4. When horizontal filter or drainage toe is provided the phreatic would tend to emerge
vertically.
5. In the absence of any filter, the seepage line will cut the downstream slope at some point
above the base. The location of this point and the phreatic line itself is not dependent on
70
the permeability or any other property so long as the dam is homogenous. The geometry
of the dam alone decides these.
6. The presence of pervious foundation below the dam does not influence the position of the
phreatic line.
7. In the case of a zoned dam with central impervious core the effect of outer shells can be
neglected altogether. The focus of the base parabola will be located at the down stream
toe of the core.
Fig.3.14 Influence of central core on phreatic line
3.8 GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF FLOW NET
After having located phreatic line in an earth dam the flow net can be plotted by trail and
error by observing the following properties of flow net and by following the practical
suggestions given be casagrande
Fig.3.15 Flow net by graphical method
Properties of Flow Net

 The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other
 The fields are approximately squares so that a circle can be drawn touching all the four sides
of square
 The quantity flowing thorough each flow channel is the same. Similarly the potential drop
occurs between two successive equipotential lines.
 Smaller the dimensions of the field greater will be the hydraulic grdadient nd velocity of flow
through it.
 Ina homogenous soil every transistion in the shpe of curves is smooth being either elliptical
or parabolic in shae.
71
Arthur casagrande gives the following excellent hints for the begineer in flow net sketching:
1. Use every opportunity to stusy the appearance of well constructed flow nets. When the
pixture is sufficiently bsprbed in your mind, try to draw the same flow net without
looking the available solution; repeat this until you are able to sketch this flow in a
satisfactory manner.
2. Four or five flow channels are usually sufficient for the first attempt; the use of too many
flow channels may distract the attention from the essential features.
3. Always watch the appearance of the entire flownet. Do not try to adjust details before the
entire flow net is approximately correct.
4. The beginner usually makes the mistake of drawing too sharp transions between straight
and curved sections of flow lines or equipotential lines. Keep in mind that all transitions
are smooth; of elliptical or parabolic shapes. The size of the squares in each channel will
change gradually.
3.9 BASIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS:
1. Safety against overtopping:

a. Sufficient spillway capacity should be provided to prevent overtopping.
b. The free board should be sufficient to prevent overtopping by waves and should be
provided as per IS 10635-1993. The minimum free board of 1.5m should be provided.
c. The free board should be sufficient to take into account the settlement of embankment
and foundation.
2. Stability analysis:
The design of small embankment dam sections may be divided into the following three
categories based upon the height of the embankment in its deepest portion.
a. where the height of embankment is 5m or less
b. where the height of embankment is 10 m or less, but more than 5 m
c. where the height of embankment is 15 m or less, but more than 10 m
Stability analysis may be carried out in accordance with IS 7894-1975 based upon the
detailed foundation & borrow area investigation and laboratory testing if the soil strata
below the dam seat consist of weak foundation and / or the height of embankment is more
than 10 m.
Weak foundation conditions include fissured clay, expansive soils, shales, over
consolidated highly plastic clays, soft Clays, dispersive soils etc. within the substratum in
the dam seat.
Main problem of silt and clay foundations is stability. In addition to the obvious danger
of bearing failure of foundations of silt and clay, the design must take into account effect
of saturation of the foundations of the dam and appurtenant works by the reservoir.
Method of treatment
72
(a) To remove soils of low shearing strength

(b) To provide drainage of foundation to permit increase of strength during construction
(c) To reduce magnitude of average shearing stress along potential surface of sliding by
flattening slopes of embankment
Pockets of material substantially more compressible or lower in strength than the

average, are usually removed.
The most practicable solution for foundation of saturated fine-grained soils is to flatten
the slopes of embankment.
Soils of low density are subjected to large settlements when saturated by the reservoir,
although these soils have high dry strength in natural state. If proper measures are not
taken to control excessive settlement, failure of dam may occur by differential settlement
and foundation settlement .The required treatment of low-density foundation would be
dictated by the compression characteristics of the soil. Foundation consolidation will be
achieved during construction.
3. Seepage control and safety against internal erosion:
The seepage through the dam embankment & foundation should be such as to control
piping, erosion, sloughing and excessive loss of water. Seepage control measures are
required to control seepage through dam and foundation.
Seepage control
Seepage is the continuous movement of water from the upstream face of the dam toward its
downstream face. The upper surface of this stream of percolating water is known as the phreatic
surface. The phreatic surface should be kept at or below the downstream toe.
Fig.3.16 Flow net
73
3.10 SEEPAGE CONTROL IN EARTH DAMS
The primary object of any dam is to impound water behind it and will change the natural balance
of conditions at its site, as water is brought into storage ,a new seepage pattern will develop in
the barrier that confine the reservoir. This water if seeps through the embankment, abutment or
through the dam foundation in excessive quantity may damage the dam partially or fully.
Therefore, it is very important to control the seepage through embankment dam.
To ensure safety of dam, it is very important to handle the seepage water in the dam so as to
maintain the original practices of soils in their place. As with other engineering works,earth dams
and their foundation can be protected from seepage by two fundamental processes:-
Those which keep the water out or reduce the seepage quantities,
 Cutoff trenches
 Grout curtains
 Sheet-pile walls and other thin cutoffs
 Impermeable upstream
Those which use drainage methods to control that enters
 Embankment zoning
 Longitudinal drain and blankets
 Chimney drains extending upward into embankments
 Partially penetrating toe drains
 Relief well
Cutoff Trenches:
Cutoff trenches are normally employed when the character of the foundation is such that
construction of a satisfactory grout curtain is not practical. Cutoff trenches are normally
backfilled with compacted impervious material. Cutoff of seepage within the foundation is
obtained by connecting an impervious portion of the foundation to the impervious portion of the
structure by backfilling the trench with an impervious material. In rock foundations, as in earth
foundations, the impervious layer of the foundation may be sandwiched between an upper and a
lower pervious layer, and a cutoff to such an impervious layer would reduce seepage only
through the upper pervious layer. However, when the thicknesses of the impervious and upper
pervious layers are sufficient, the layers may be able to resist the upward seepage pressures
existing in the lower pervious layer and thus remain stable. Seepage Control through Dam
Embankment
Grouting: Grouting of rock foundations is used to control seepage. A grout curtain is

constructed beneath the impervious zone of an earth or rock-fill dam by drilling grout holes and
injecting a grout mix. Seepage in rock foundations occurs through cracks and joints, and
effectiveness of grouting depends on the nature of the jointing (crack width, spacing, filling, etc.)
as well as on the grout mixtures, equipment, and procedures.
Upstream impervious blankets: Impervious blankets may sometimes give adequate control of
seepage water for low head structures, but for high head structures it is usually necessary to
incorporate a downstream drainage system as a part of the overall seepage control design. The
74
benefits derived from the impervious blanket are due to the dissipation of a part of the reservoir
head through the blanket. The proportion of head dissipated is dependent upon the thickness,
length, and effective permeability of the blanket in relation to the permeability of the foundation
rock. A filter material is normally required between the blanket and foundation.
Embankment zoning:
Methods for seepage control. The three methods for seepage control in embankments are flat
slopes without drains, embankment zonation, and vertical (or inclined) and horizontal drains.
(1) Flat slopes without drains: For some dams constructed with impervious soils having flat
embankment slopes and infrequent, short duration, high reservoir levels, the phreatic surface
may be contained well within the downstream slope and escape gradients may be sufficiently
low to prevent piping failure. For these dams no vertical or horizontal drains are required to
control seepage through the embankment.
(2) Embankment zonation: Embankments are zoned to use as much material as possible from
required excavation and from borrow areas. For most effective control of through seepage
and seepage during reservoir drawdown, the permeability should progressively increase from
the core out toward each slope.
(3) Vertical (or inclined) and horizontal drains: Because of the often variable characteristics of
borrow materials, vertical (or inclined) and horizontal drains within the downstream
portion of the embankment are provided to ensure satisfactory seepage control. Also, the
vertical (or inclined) drain provides the primary line of defense to control concentrated
leaks through the core of an earth dam.
Chimney drain: the chimney drain intercepts the entire seepage from the u/s irrespective of the
degree of anisotropy of the fill material and accommodates any abnormal flows through cracks
that might occur in core or the u/s portion of the dam section. Properly designed and built
chimney drains with adequate outlets frequently save many times their cost through lowered
permeability requirements for large volumes of shell material. When chimney drains are
provided, the d/s shells of dams can be constructed of any material of adequate strength with no
restriction on permeability and often at a substantial reduction in cost. In a homogeneous dam
section the provision of a chimney drain eliminates steady seepage pore pressures in the portion
d/s of the drain and the d/s slope can be made steeper.
Relief wells: When a complete cutoff is not required or is too costly, relief wells installed along
the downstream toe of the dam may be used to prevent excessive uplift pressures and piping
through the foundation. Relief wells increase the quantity of under seepage from 20 to 40
percent, depending upon the foundation conditions. Relief wells may be used in combination
with other under seepage control measures (upstream impervious blanket or downstream seepage
berm) to prevent excessive uplift pressures and piping through the foundation.
Seepage Control through Dam Foundation

The foundation and abutment of dams ,which are usually stable under the influence of natural
ground -water flow , may develop a tendency to internal erosion and piping due to the change
ground-water regime on reservoir impoundment. The measure for under-seepage control through
75
the foundation include a positive cutoff formed in an excavation up to an impervious stratum and
backfilled with compacted impervious material ,concrete cutoffs walls ,grout curtain ,slurry
trench cutoff (earth backfilled) ,sheet piles ,u/s impervious blanket ,vertical drains, relief wells
and filter trenches. The effective control of seepage requires that the earth embankment, its
foundation, and the adjoining structure should behave as one unit. If the foundation of an earth
dam consists of an impervious stratum, generally, no specific measures are required to reduce the
seepage. However, in rock foundations, grouting and some surface treatment may be required.
On the other hand, methods are commonly used to control seepage through pervious,
Seepage reducing methods comprise trench cut-offs, u/s impervious blankets, concert
diaphragms, slurry trench cut-offs, and grout curtains. These devices consume energy at
locations within the foundation where large water pressures and seepage forces have no
detrimental effects .The net result of these methods in that these forces are reduced in critical exit
regions. In view of the various uncertainties due to geological features methods are generally
used in combination with properly designed filters and drainage features to ensure safely
of the dam and the water- retention capacity of the reservoir.
76
UNIT-III
3.11 INTRODUCTION
A spillway is a structure constructed at or near the dam site to dispose of surplus water from the reservoir
to the channel downstream. Spillways are provided for all darns as a safety measure against Overtopping
and the consequent damages and failure. A spillway acts as a safety valve for the dam. because as
soon as the water level in the reservoir rises above a predetermined level, excess water is discharged
safely to the downstream channel, and the dam is not damaged.
The spillway must have adequate discharge capacity to pass the maximum flood d/s without causing
any damage to the dam or its appurtenant structures. At the same time, the reservoir level should not rise
above the maximum water level (M.W.L.). The maximum water level is estimated from the inflow flood
hydrograph, storage capacity of the reservoir and the spillway capacity by flood routing. A spillway
of inadequate capacity may lead to the overtopping of the dam, which may cause serious damages and
even the failure of the dam. On the other hand, a spillway of much larger capacity than that
required would be an uneconomical design
In addition to providing adequate discharge capacity, the spillway must be hydrodynamically

and structurally safe. The spillway surface should be erosion-resistant to withstand the high velocities
created by the fall of water from the reservoir surface to the tail water. Moreover, the spillway should
be located so that the spillway discharge will not undermine the downstream toe of the dam.
Generally, some energy-dissipating device, such as hydraulic jump or a bucket, is provided at the toe for
the dissipation of excess energy.
A spillway may be located either in the middle of the dam [Fig 4.1(a)] or at the end of the dam near
abutment. In some cases, the spillway is located away from the dam as an independent structure if
there is a suitable saddle [Fig. 4.1 (b)]. (A saddle is a depression of the shape of saddle used for riding a
horse). Such a spillway is called a saddle spillway. Generally, a saddle spillway is designed as an auxiliary
or an emergency spillway. which is in addition to the main spillway at the dam site.
The design of a spillway requires utmost attention. Many failures of dams occurred in the past because
of improperly designed spillways or by spillways of inadequate capacity. For earth and rock fill dams, a
liberal spillway capacity should be provided because they fail as soon as they are overtopped.
However, concrete dams can withstand some moderate overtopping and may have less liberal
spillway capacity.
Fig. 4.1
77
3.12 ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF A SPILLWAY
The essential requirements of a spillway, as discussed above, may he summarized as follows:
1. It must have adequate discharge capacity

2. It must he hydraulically and structurally sat&
3. The surface of the spillway must be erosion resistant.
4. The spillway must be so located that the spillway discharge does not erode or undermine the
downstream toe of the dam.
5. It should be provided with some device for the dissipation of excess energy.
6. The spillway discharge should not exceed the safe discharge capacity of the downstream
channel to avoid its flooding.
3.13 REQUIRED SPILLWAY CAPACITY
The required spillway capacity is usually determined by flood routing. The spillway capacity should be
equal to the maximum outflow rate determined by flood routing. The following data are required for the
flood routing:
(i) Inflow flood hydrograph, indicating the rate of inflow with respect to time. It is the same as the
design flood hydrograph of the spillway.
(ii) Reservoir-capacity curve, indicating the reservoir storage at different reservoir elevations.
(iii) Outflow discharge curve, indicating the rate of outflow through spillways at different reservoir
elevations.
By flood routing, the maximum outflow rate and the maximum rise in water surface can be determined.
Factors affecting the required spillway capacity. The following factors affect the spillway capacity.
1. Inflow flood hydrograph

2. Available storage capacity
3. Capacity of outlets
4. Gates of spillway
5. Possible damage, if the capacity is exceeded.
1. Inflow flood hydrograph The inflow flood hydrograph should be selected according
to the degree of protection that ought to be provided to the dam. It will depend upon the type and height
of the dam. its location with respect to inhabited and developed area, and consequences of its failure.
Obviously, a high dam storing a large volume of water and located upstream of a town should have a much
degree of protection as compared to that in the case of a small dam storing a small volume of water and on
whose downstream the area is uninhabited. In the former case, the inflow flood is usually taken as the
maximum probable flood (MPF); whereas in the latter case, a smaller flood such as standard project flood
(SPF) may be taken.
2. Available storage capacity If the available: storage capacity of the reservoir is quite large as
compared to the inflow; a spillway of smaller capacity will normally be required.
3. Capacity of outlets If the dam outlets can be used to discharge a portion of the flood, the spillway
capacity can be correspondingly reduced.
78
4. Gates in Spillway If the spillway is gated; its discharge capacity can be modified. For a gate controlled
spillway. the water can be stored upto the top of the gates, whereas in the case of an ungated spillway, the
water can be stored only upto the crest level. By operation of gates, higher heads may be created above
the crest so that greater outflow rate through the spillway is achieved
5. Possible damage If there is a possibility of extensive damage on the downstream, large spillway
capacity should he provided.
Best combination of the Storage capacity, and the spillway capacity
For determining the best combination of the storage capacity and the spillway capacity to accommodate
the selected inflow design flood, it is necessary to consider all pertinent factors of hydrology,
hydraulics of spillway, design cost and possible damages.
After a spillway of a particular type and dimensions has been selected, the maximum water level and the
maximum spillway discharge can be determined by flood routing. Various combinations of the spillway
capacity and the dam height (or storage capacity), for the assumed spillway types are selected and
flood routing is done. The process is repeated with alternative types of spillways. Cost estimates are
made for different combinations. The combination which gives the most economical spillway type and
the optimum relation of the spillway capacity to the height of the dam, is selected. However, the process is
quite tedious. It would require a number of flood routings, spillway layouts, spillway estimates and
dam estimates. Even then, the study is never complete because many other spillway arrangements could
have been considered. An experienced designer, however, will be able to select only those combinations
for study which show definite advantages either in cost or in adaptability.
3.14 COMPONENT PARTS OF A SPILLWAY
A spillway generally has the following component parts
1. Entrance channel
2. Control structure
3. Discharge channel (or waterway)
4. Terminal structure (energy dissipator)
5. Exit channel
However, entrance and exit channels may not be required for some spillways.
1. Entrance channel Entrance channels are required in those types of spillways in which the control
structure is away from the reservoir. The entrance channel draws water from the reservoir and carries it
to the control structure. Entrance channels are not required for spillways which draw water directly from
the reservoir.
2. Control structure The control structure (also called control) is the most important component of the
spillway. It controls the outflow from the reservoir. The control structure is designed such that it does
not permit the outflow from the reservoir when the water level is lower than a predetermined level but
permits the outflow as soon as the water level rises above that level,
Generally, the control structure is located at the upstream end of the spillway structure. However in some
cases, the control structure may be at the downstream end of the spillway structure. For example, in a
shaft (or morning glory) spillway, the downstream tunnel controls the outflow at higher heads.
79
The control structure usually consists of either an orifice or a weir. In most of the spillways, the
control structure is an overflow crest of a weir. The weir may be sharp-crested, board-crested or ogee-
shaped. In plan, the overflow crest may be straight, curved, U-shaped, semi-circular or circular. The
straight, ogee-shaped crests are mostly commonly used in spillways.
Likewise, orifices used as control may have different shapes. They may be placed in a horizontal, vertical
or an inclined position and may be sharp-edged, round-edged or bell- mounted.
In order to regulate the flow of water from the reservoir, gates are usually provided on the crest of the
control structure.
3. Discharge channel (or waterway) The outflow released through the control structure is usually
conveyed to the terminal structure through a discharge channel or waterway. Thus the discharge
channel conveys the water safely from the control structure to the river downstream. It is also
called a conveyance structure. The conveyance structure may have different forms. It is usually the
downstream face of an overflow darn for the spillway constructed as an overflow spillway in the
body of the dam. It may be in the form of an open channel, a closed conduit placed through or under a
dam, or a tunnel excavated through an abutment, depending upon the type of spillway. The discharge
channel may have a variety of cross-sections, depending upon the geologic and topographic
characteristics of the site and the hydraulic requirements.
4. Terminal structure (energy dissipator) When the water flows from the reservoir over the spillway,
the static energy is converted into the kinetic energy. This results in very high velocity of flow at the
downstream end of the spillway. It may cause serious scour at the downstream end. It may also damage
the dam, the spillway and other appurtenant structures. It is, therefore, necessary that the high energy of
flow must be dissipated before the flow is returned to the river downstream. Terminal structures (or
energy dissipators) are provided at the downstream end of the discharge channel to dissipate the
excess energy. Generally, a hydraulic jump basin, a roller bucket, a ski-jump bucket, or some other
suitable energy dissipating device is provided for the dissipation of excess energy. However, if the stream
bed consists of an erosion-resistant strong rock, the overflowing water from the spillway may be
delivered directly to the river downstream without a terminal structure.
5. Exit channel In some types of spillways, the exit channels are provided to convey the spillway
discharge from the terminal structure to the river downstream. However, an exit channel is not
required for the spillways which discharge water directly into the river downstream. On the other
hand, in the case of spillways placed through abutments, saddles or ridges, the exit channel is usually
required.
3.15 CLASSIFICATION OF SPILLWAYS
The spillways can be classified into different types based on the various criteria, as explained below.
A. Classification based on purpose

1. Main (or service) spillway
2. Auxiliary spillway
3. Emergency spillway
B. Classification based on control

1. Controlled (or gated) spillway
2. Uncontrolled (or ungated) spillway
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C. Classification based on prominent feature
1. Free overfall (or straight drop) spillway

2. Overflow or Ogee spillway
3. Chute (or open channel or trough) spillway
4. Side-channel spillway
5. Shaft (or morning glory) spillway
6. Siphon spillway
7. Conduit (or tunnel) spillway
8. Cascade spillway
3.15.1 Classification based on purpose
1. Main (or service) spillway

A main (or service) spillway is the spillway designed to pass a prefixed or the design flood. This
spillway is necessary for all dams and in most of the dams, it is the only spillway. Therefore, in
general terms, the spillway means the main spillway.
2. Auxiliary spillway
In some dams, where the site conditions are favourable, an auxiliary spillway is usually constructed in
conjunction with a main spillway. In such a case, the main spillway is usually designed to pass floods
which are likely to occur more frequently. When the floods exceed the designed capacity of the main
spillway, the auxiliary spillway comes into operation and the total flood is passed by both the
spillways. In that case, the capacity of the main spillway is kept less than that required for the design
flood.
An auxiliary spillway cannot be provided alone without the main spillway. The crest of the auxiliary
spillway is kept higher than that of the main spillway. The auxiliary spillway therefore, comes into
operation only after the flood for which the main spillway is designed. is exceeded. As already mentioned,
the capacity of the main spil1way when an auxiliary spillway is also provided, is kept less than that
required for the design flood Thus the total spillway capacity is equal to the sum of the capacities of the
main and auxiliary spillways, Therefore,
(4.1)
where Q is the design flood, Qm is the capacity of the main spillway and Qa is the capacity of the
auxiliary spillway.
If no auxiliary spillway is provided,

Q = Qm (4.2)
The site conditions favourable for the adoption of an auxiliary spillway are as follows:
(i) When there is a saddle or depression along the rim of the reservoir which leads to a natural drainage
(ii) When there is a gently-sloping abutment where an excavated channel can be carried sufficiently
beyond the dam so that there is no possibility of the erosion of the dam or its appurtenant works.
An auxiliary spillway is designed like a main spillway, but control gates are seldom provided on the
crest of an auxiliary spillway. Sometimes, only a fuse plug, which is a simple earth embankment, also
called fuse plug dike, is provided The fuse plug allows the water surface to rise above the crest of the
auxiliary spillway, but as soon as it is overtopped, it gives way and the flood water passes over it.
Instead of a fuse plug, a flashboard or any other such device is also sometimes used.
3. Emergency spillway
81
An emergency spillway is sometimes provided in addition to the main spillway. It comes into operation
only during an emergency which may arise at any time during the life of the dam. Thus an emergency
spillway is an additional safety valve of the dam.
The emergency may arise when such conditions occur that have not been anticipated and considered in
the design of the main spillway. Some of the conditions which may lead to emergency are as follows:
(i) When the actual flood exceeds the design flood.

(ii) When there is an enforced shutdown of the outlets.
(iii) When there is a malfunctioning of spillway gates.
(iv) When there is damage or failure of some part of the main spillway.
(v) When a high flood occurs before the previous flood has been evacuated by the main spillway.
An emergency spillway is usually provided in a saddle or a depression along the reservoir rim or by
excavating a channel through an abutment or a ridge. Because an emergency spillway is not
required to function under normal reservoir operations, its crest is placed at or slightly above the
design maximum water level in the reservoir. Thus an encroachment on the minimum free board is
usually permitted for the design of an emergency spillway. The emergency spillway is generally in the
form of a fuse plug or a breaching section which is washed out as soon as the water level in the
reservoir reaches a predetermined elevation. The breaching section is sometimes called fuse plug
spillway.
Because a fuse plug is also sometimes provided as an auxiliary spillway, the following differences between
the auxiliary and emergency spillways should be noted.
(i) An auxiliary spillway is designed to discharge a portion of design flood. An auxiliary spillway
operates when the flood is less than the design flood but it is more than the capacity of the
main spillway; whereas an emergency spillway operates only when the design flood is exceeded.
(ii) An auxiliary spillway may be of any type, but the emergency spillway is usually a fuse plug.
(iii) An auxiliary spillway may also be designed to work as an emergency spillway when the design
flood is exceeded. It works as an auxiliary spillway when the flood exceeds the capacity of the
main spillway but it is less than the design flood.
As soon as the design flood is exceeded, it works as an emergency spillway.
In actual practice, the main spillway is always provided. In addition, either an auxiliary spillway or an
emergency spillway may also be provided, depending upon the purpose served, It is always safe to provide
an emergency spillway.
3.15.2 Classification based on Control
1. Controlled (or gated) spillway A controlled spillway is one which is provided with the gates over the
crest to control the outflow from the reservoir. In the controlled spillway, the full reservoir level (F.R.L.)
of the reservoir is usually kept at the top level of the gates. Thus the water can be stored up to the top
level of the gates. The outflow from the reservoir can be varied by lifting the gates to different elevations.
It may be noted that in a controlled spillway the water can be released from the reservoir even when
the water level is below the full reservoir level.
2. Uncontrolled (or ungated) spillway In an uncontrolled spillway, the gates are not provided over
the crest to control the outflow from the reservoir. The full reservoir Level (F.R.L.) is at the crest
level of the spillway. The water escapes automatically when the water level rises above the crest level.
Thus the main advantage of an uncontrolled spillway is that it does not require the gates and the operator
and lifting power to operate the gates. Besides there is no problem related to the maintenance and repair of
82
gates.
However, to pass a certain design discharge, a much longer spillway crest is required for an uncontrolled
spillway as compared to that in a controlled spillway because the head over the crest is smaller in the
former. Moreover, the useful storage in the case of uncontrolled spillway is less. Further, the discharge
in the river downstream cannot be controlled to prevent flooding. Therefore, the spillways for most of the
dams are controlled spillways.
3.15.3 Classification based on the pertinent feature
There are 8 different types of spillways based on the pertinent feature, as already mentioned above.
3.15.3.1 Free Overfall Spillway
A free overfall spillway (or a straight drop spillway) is a type of spillway in which the control
structure consists of a low-height, narrow-crested weir and the downstream face is vertical or nearly
vertical so that the water falls freely more or less vertical [Fig. 4.2 (a)]. The overflowing water may
discharge as a free nappe, as in the case of a sharp-crested weir, or it may be supported along the
narrow section of the crest. However, in both cases, the water flowing over the crest drops as a free
jet clear of the downstream face of the spillway.
Sometimes, the crest of the spillway is extended in the form of an overhanging lip for directing the
discharge away from the downstream face [Fig 4.2(b)]. In all cases, the nappe is properly ventilated to
prevent pulsating and fluctuating jets.
If the stream bed does not consist of strong sound rock, the falling jet will scour the stream bed and
form a deep plunge pool. It may cause damage to the structure. In order to protect the stream bed from
scouring, an artificial pool is usually constructed by excavating a basin in the bed and then covering it
with a concrete apron. Alternatively, an auxiliary low dam is constructed downstream of the spillway to
form a pool above the river bed [Fig.4.2 (c)].
If the tail water depth is adequate, a hydraulic jump may form after the jet falls from the crest, which can
be used for the dissipation of energy. However, a long flat apron would be required to contain the
hydraulic jump. Moreover, the floor blocks and an end sill may also be required for the establishment of
the jump.
A free overfall spillway is commonly used for a low arch dam whose downstream face is almost vertical.
This type of spillway is also used as a separate structure for low earth dams. The design of a free overfall
spillway is similar to that of a vertical drop weir
A free overfall spillway is not suitable when the foundation is weak and yielding, because the apron
at the stream bed is subjected to large impact forces at the point of impingement of the falling
jet. The impact forces also cause vibrations, which may cause cracking or displacement of the apron
and even its failure by piping or undermining. The free overfall spillways are not suitable when the
drops are high. These are usually limited to a maximum drop of 6 m, measured from the head pool
(reservoir) to the tail water.
83
Fig. 4.2
3.15.3.2 Ogee - Shaped (or Overflow) Spillway
An ogee-shaped (or overflow) spillway is the most commonly used spillway. It is widely used with
gravity dams, arch dams and buttress dams. Several earth and rockfill dams are also provided with this
type of spillway as a separate structure. An ogee-shaped spillway is an improvement upon the free
overfall spillway, discussed in the preceding section. The essential difference between the free overfall
spillway and the ogee-shaped spillway is that in the case of a free overfall spillway, the water flowing
over the crest of the spillway drops vertically as a free jet clear from the downstream face whereas in
the case of an ogee-shaped spillway, the water flowing over the crest is guided smoothly over the crest
and is made to glide over the downstream face of the spillway.
An ogee-shaped spillway has a control weir of ogee-shaped, which is like the elongated English letter S
[Fig. 4.3(b)]. The shape of the crest of the ogee spillway is generally made to conform closely to the
profile of the lower surface of nappe (sheet of water) of a ventilated jet issuing from a sharp-crested weir
when the head over the highest point of nappe is equal to the design head (Fig. 4.3(a)]. The upper surface
of the spillway is properly shaped to form the crest. The nappe-shaped profile is an ideal profile because at
the design head, the water flowing over the crest of the spillway always remains in contact with the
surface of the spillway as it glides over it Moreover, for this shape. no negative pressure will develop on
the spillway surface at the design head. However, when the head is greater than the design head, the
overflowing water tends to break contact with the spillway surface and a zone of separation is formed,
in which a negative or suction pressure occurs.
This may cause vibration, pitting of the spillway surface and a number of other problems.
However, the coefficient of discharge of the spillway is increased. On the other hand, if the head is
less than the design head. the water overflowing over the crest of the spillway remains in contact with
the surface of the spillway and a positive hydrostatic pressure is exerted by the flowing water because
the nappe tends to be depressed. As the spillway surface supports the sheet of flowing water which
creates a backwater effect, the coefficient of discharge is reduced.
84
Fig. 4.3
Thus ideal conditions for an ogee-shaped spillway occur when the head is equal to the design head for
which the spillway has been shaped. At the design head, it attains nearly the maximum efficiency
without any determental effect.
Shape of the crest of the overflow spillway The shape of the ogee-shaped spillway depends upon a
number of factors such as (1) head over the crest, (2) height of the spillway above the stream bed or the
bed of the entrance channel and (3) the inclination of the upstream face of the spillway. The U.S.B.R.
conducted extensive experiments to obtain the profile of the overflow spillways with the upstream face
either vertical or inclined at various angles. The U.S. Army Crops of Engineers developed several
standard shapes of the crests of overflow spillways on the basis of U.S.B.R. data. Because the shapes
were developed at U.S. Waterways Experiment Station at Vicksberg (U.S.W E.S.), the shapes are known
as the W.E.S, standard spillway shapes.
1. Downstream profile The d/s profile of the spillway can be represented by the following general
equation:
(4.3)
where x and y are the coordinates of the point on the spillway surface, with the origin at the highest point 0
of the crest. Hd is the design head, excluding the head due to the velocity of approach, and K and n are
constants, which depend upon the inclination of the upstream face of the spillway. Fig.1.4 shows the profile
when the upstream face is vertical.
Fig. 4.4
The values of K and n for the vertical upstream face and three different inclinations are given in
Table 4.1.
85
Table 4.1
S. No. Slope of U/s face K n

1. Vertical 2.000 1.850
2. 1:3 (H:V) 1.936 1.836
3. 2:3 (H:V) 1.939 1.810
[Note The4.slopes are also designated

3:3 (H:V) 1.873
on 3 on 1,3 on 2 and 1.776
3 on 3 instead of 1:3, 2:3, 3:3
respectively.]
Fig. 4.5
For intermediate slopes, the values of K and n may be obtained from the plot given in Fig. 1.5 for
different values of the inclination , where is the angle which the upstream face makes with the vertical.
It may be noted that x is taken as positive towards the downstream and y is taken as positive in the
downwards direction. Eq.4.3 is applicable only for the positive values of x and y, and can be used to
obtain the crest shape downstream from the origin of the coordinates. The curved profile of the crest
section is continued till it meets tangentially the straight sloping surface of the downstream face of the
overflow dam (Fig. 4.6). The location of this point of tangency depends upon the slope of the
downstream face of the overflow dam, which is determined from the stability requirements of the
overflow section.
The slope of the d/s face of the overflow dam usually varies in the range of 07:l to 0.8:1 At the end of the
sloping surface of the spillway, a curved circular surface, called bucket, is provided to create a
smooth transition of flow from the spillway surface to the river downstream of the outlet channel.
The bucket is also useful for the dissipation of energy and prevention of scour, as discussed later.
86
Fig. 4.6
The radius R of the bucket can be approximately obtained from the relation,
(4.4)
where
(4.4a)
in which V is the velocity of flow at the toe of spillway (m/s), and Hd is the design head (m).
The velocity of flow V may be approximately determined from the relation.
(4.5)
where Z is the total fall from the upstream water level to the floor level at the d/s toe, Ha is the
head due to velocity of approach, y is the depth of flow at toe and g is the acceleration due to
gravity. Eq.4.5 neglects the losses over the spillway.
Generally, a radius of about one-fourth of the spillway height is found to be

satisfactory. Thus
R =P / 4 (4.6)
where P is the height of spillway crest above the bed.
2. Upstream profile of the crest
(a) Vertical upstream face The upstream profile of the crest should be tangential to the
vertical face and should have zero slope at the crest axis to ensure that there is no
discontinuity along the surface of flow. The upstream profile should conform to the
following equation. with usual notations.
(4.7)
87
The details of the upstream profile are shown in Fig.4.7. It may be noted that the values of x are
negative according to the chosen axes of coordinates. The maximum absolute value of x is 0.270
Hd, for which the value of y is equal to 0126 Hd when the u/s face is vertical.
Fig. 4.7
The values of (y/Hd) for different values of (x/ Hd ) can be obtained from Table 4.2
(b) Sloping upstream face The coordinates of the upstream profile in the case of sloping
upstream face can be determined from Table l.2 for slopes of 1:3, 2:3 and 3:3. For intermediate
slopes. the values may be interpolated.
3. Offsets and risers on upstream face If structural requirements permit, offset and risers
can be provided on the upstream face by removing some portion of concrete, and thus economy
can be effected The maximum permitted projection from the crest line is 0.315 Hd and the
vertical depth of the maximum bulging is 0.25 Hd [Fig. 4.8 (a)].
Fig. 4.8
In the case of a vertical-faced overhang, the vertical depth M of the projection (called riser)
should be equal to 0.5 Hd [Fig. 4.7(b)]. The ratio M/N should not be less than 0.50. However,
it can have a zero value. For M/N ratio between 0.0 and 0.50, the flow conditions are extremely
unstable. Moreover, the ratio of the vertical depth M to design head Hd should not be in the range
0.0 to 0.50 to avoid extremely unstable conditions.
88
Table 4.2 Values of y/Hd for the u/s profile
x/H Slope 1:3 Slope 2:3 Slope 3:3 Vertical

d
0.000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
-0.020 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004
-0.040 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016 0.0016
-0.060 0.0037 0.0036 0.0036 0.0038
-0.080 0.0067 0.0066 0.0065 0.0068
-0.100 0.0106 0.0104 0.0103 0.0108
-0.120 0.0156 0.0153 0.0150 0.0158
-0.160 0.0291 0.0283 0.0275 0.0296
-0.170 0.0330 0.0365 0.0313 0.0339
-0.180 0.0376 - 0.0354 0.0386
-0.190 0.0425 0.0412 0.0399 0.0437
-0.200 0.0480 0.0554 0.0450 0.0494
-0.210 0.0550 - - 0.0556
-0.220 0.0650 - - 0.0624

4. Pressure over spillway surface The profile shapes discussed above are for one value of the
-0.230(H ). The design
design head 0.0800 head is generally
- chosen to give - the maximum 0.0701practical
d
hydraulic efficiency, in keeping with the operational requirements, stability and economy.
-0.240 - - - 0.0787
If the actual head is less than the design head, the pressure on the crest will be positive (i.e. above
-0.250However, for heads
atmospheric). - greater than the -design head, the pressure
- on the0.0889
crest will be
negative (i.e. less than the atmospheric pressure) and it may lead to cavitation. Model tests
have shown-0.260
that the design head- may, however- , be exceeded by - 25 percent,0.1016
without any
harmful cavitation (IS: 6934-1973).
-0.270 - - - 0.1260
5. Orifice Flow In a gated spillway, orifice flow occurs at part gate openings. Sub-
atmospheric pressures develop on the crest immediately below the gate if the crest profile is
steeper than the one conforming to the trajectory of the orifice flow. When the crest is shaped to
the nappe profile of the weir flow, the sub-atmospheric pressure at part gate openings can be
reduced if the gate sill is placed slightly downstream of the crest. In that case, the trajectory
becomes steeper and conforms more nearly to the free-overflow lower nappe profile of the weir
flow. However, model tests have shown that even when the gate is located at the crest axis, the
negative pressure is less than 0.15 Hd when the actual head exceeds the design head by 33.3
percent. A small negative pressure is sometimes permitted considering the rareness of its
occurrence and very short duration during which it occurs. U.S.B.R. permits a negative
89
pressure of 4.3m of water (about 42.0 kN / m2). As far as possible, the negative pressure should be
avoided, because it has the following ill effects.
(i) It increases the overturning moment on the crest.

(ii) It increases the force required for lifting the gates.
(iii)It causes a decreases in capability for automatic control.
(iv) It causes vibrations which eventually extend. all over the structure. The vibrations also cause
cracks in the mortar of stone lining of the masonry crest, for which special anchoring bolts
have to be provided.
6. Corbel When the profile of the crest of an ogee spillway overflow section is plotted along with
the profile of the non-overflow section of the gravity dam, with their upstream faces coinciding, it
is found that it extends beyond the downstream face of the non-overflow section [Fig. 4.9 (a)]. In
other words, the spil1way section is thicker than the non-overflow section of the gravity dam.
The concrete required for the overflow section can be saved to some extent by shifting the
spillway profile in the upstream direction until the downstream curve becomes tangential to the
downstream face of the non-overflow and removing the concrete in the portion shown hatched
in Fig.4.9(b). The projection so formed is called corbel. Thus a saving can be effected by
providing a corbel on the upstream face of the spillway section. The construction of the spillway
is carried out as in the case of a non-overflow section upto the height of corbel. However,
after reaching that height, a smooth curve forming the corbel is provided. It may be noted that a
corbel cannot be provided in a dam in which the gates are installed on the upstream face to
control the flow to the outlets, because that will interfere with their operation.
Fig. 4.9 b
3.15.3.3 Discharge Computation for an Ogee Spillway
The discharge over an ogee spillway is computed from the basic equation of flow over weirs, given
below:
(4.8)
where Q is discharge (cumecs), Cd is the coefficient of discharge, Le is the effective length and
He is the actual effective head including the head due to the velocity of approach. i.e.
(4.9)
(Note Sometimes, the coefficient Cd is also, written as C]
1.Coefficient of discharge (Cd) An ogee spillway has a relatively high value of the coefficient
90
of discharge (Cd) because of its shape. The maximum value of Cd is about 2.20, if no negative
pressure occurs on the crest. However, the value of Cd is not constant. It depends upon the shape
of the ogee profile, and also upon the following factors.
(i) Height of spillway crest above the stream bed

(ii) Ratio of actual total head to the design total head.
(iii) Slope of the upstream face of spillway
(iv) Extent of the downstream submergence of crest
(v) Downstream apron
All these factors .are briefly discussed below:
(i) Height of spillway above stream bed The height P of spillway above the stream bed affects
the discharge coefficient because the velocity of approach depends upon this height. With an
increase in the height P, the velocity of approach deceases but the coefficient of discharge Cd
increases. Fig. 4.10 shows the variation of Cd with the ratio (P/HD) where HD is the design
total head, including the head due to the velocity of approach. Thus
where Ha is the head due to the velocity of approach.
(4.10)
It may be noted that there is a marked increase in the value of Cd when the height of spillway
increases upto about twice of the design total head HD. With further increase in the height of
spillway, there is not much increase in the value of Cd, and it remains almost constant as 2.20.
Model tests of spillways have also shown that the effect of velocity of approach on the coefficient
of discharge is negligible when the height (P) is equal to or greater than 1.33 Hd, where Hd is
the design head excluding the head due the velocity of approach. Such spillways are known as
high overflow spillways, In high overflow spillways, the velocity of approach is sometimes
neglected. Thus
HD » Hd
Fig. 4.10
(ii) Ratio of actual total head (He) to the design total head (HD) Fig 4.11 shows the variation
of actual discharge coefficient Cd’. It is plotted between (Cd’/ Cd), as ordinate, and (He /HD),
as abscissa. The plot is applicable to high overflow spillways; with P³ 1.33 Hd. Similar curves
91
are available for low overflow spillways.
Fig. 4.11
It may be observed that with an increase in the value of (He /Hd), the value of (Cd’/ Cd)
increases. The ratio (Cd’/ Cd) is less than unity for (He /HD) less than unity but greater than
unity for higher values of (He /HD). Thus if the spillway is designed for a lower design head, a
high value of coefficient of discharge Cd will be obtained for most of the range of heads
actually occurring in operation. However, the design head should not be less than about 80
percent of the maximum head (i.e. the maximum head should not be more than 1 25 times the
design head) to avoid the possibility of cavitation.
(iii) Slope of the upstream face of spillway Fig. 4.12 shows the variation of (Cd’/ Cd) with the
ratio (P/HD) for three different slopes of the upstream face. For small ratios of (P/HD). the actual
coefficient Cd’ is slightly more than the coefficient Cdfor the vertical face. However, as the
ratio (P/HD) increases, the ratio (Cd’ / Cd) decreases.
Fig. 4.12
(iv) Extent of downstream submergence The actual coefficient of discharge Cd’ is decreased
due to downstream submergence, Fig. 4.13 shows the variation of Cd’/ Cd, with the degree of
submergence h/Hd, where h is the depth of water over the crest on the downstream and Hd that
on the upstream. It may be noted that the effect of submergence is negligible for smaller degree
of submergence. It is about 5% for the degree of submergence of 60%.
92
Fig. 4.13
(v) Downstream apron Fig. 4.14 shows the effect of downstream apron on the coefficient of
discharge. When the value of (hd + d)/ HD exceeds about 1.70, the d/s floor apron has little effect
on the coefficient of discharge, but for lower value, the coefficient of discharge Cd is lower. In
this expression d is the tail water depth, and hd is the depth of d/s water level below u/s TEL.
Thus
(4.11)
Fig. 4.14
2. Effective length of crest The effective length of crest of an overflow spillway is given by
(4.12)
where Le is the effective length of crest; L’ is the net (clear) length of crest, which is equal
to the sum of the clear spans of the gate bays between piers; He is the actual total head of flow
on crest, including the head due to velocity of approach; N is the number of piers, K is the
pier contraction coefficient and Kp is the abutment contraction coefficient.
93
(a) Pier contraction Coefficient The value of the pier contraction coefficient Kp depends
upon several factors, such as (i) shape and location of the pier nose, (ii) thickness of pier, (iii)
the velocity of approach, (iv) the ratio of actual total head on crest He to the design head
HD.
For the flow at the design head, the average values of Kp are given in Table 4.3
TABLE 4.3
S.No Pier shape Coeffience (K p)

1. Square-nosed piers, with corners rounded on a radius 0.02
equal to about 0.10 of pier thickness
0.01
2. Rounded-nose piers
3. Pointed -nose pier 0.00
(b) Abutment contraction coefficient The value of the abutment contraction coefficient
Ka depends upon a number of factors, such as (i) shape of abutment, (ii) the angle between the
upstream approach wall and the axis of flow, (iii)approach velocity and (iv) ratio of the actual
head to design head.
For the flow at design head, the average values of the coefficient Ka are given in table
4.4. Higher value of Ka should be used for spillways involving extreme angularity of
approach flow.
S.No Abutment shape Coefficient (Ka)

1. Square abutment, with head wall at 90º to the direction 0.20
of flow
2. Rounded abutment, with head wall at 90ºto the direction 0.10

of flow, when 0.5 HD =radius =0.15 HD
3. Rounded abutment where radius =0.5 HD and head wall 0.00

is placed at not more than 45ºto the direction of flow.
Discharge formula at partial gate opening Eq 4.8 is the discharge formula for an ungated
overflow spillway or for a gated overflow spillway at full gate opening. The discharge for a
gated spillway at partial gate opening is given by the low-head orifice formula (or large orifice
formula),
(4.13)
Where H1 and H2 are the total heads, including the head, due to velocity of approach, above
the bottom and top of the opening, respectively fig. (4.15), CD is the coefficient of discharge
of the orifice, and Le is the effective length of crest.
94
The coefficient of discharge CD will have different values for different gate and crest
arrangements. It is also influenced by the approach conditions and the downstream conditions.
Fig 4.15 gives the value of CD for different values of (d/H1), where d is the height of opening.
Fig. 4.15
Fig 4.16 actual velocity of flow in m / sec velocity and air entrained
water depth on spillway face for different discharges
Fig 4.17 Actual Velocity And Solid Water Depth On Spillway Face For
Different Discharges
95
3.15.3.3 Chute Spillway
A chute spillway (or trough spillway or open channel spillway) consists of a steep- sloped open
channel called a chute or trough, which carries the water passing over the crest of spillway to the river
downstream [Fig. 4.18 (a)].
For earth dams and rockfill dams, a separate spillway is generally constructed in a flank or a saddle away
from the dam if a suitable site exists. Sometimes, even for a gravity dam, a separate spillway is
required when the valley is narrow and an overflow spillway cannot be provided at the dam site. The
chute spillway is generally most suitable for such conditions. It can be conveniently provided
independently in a saddle at a low cost. Sometimes, it is also provided along one abutment when a
separate site does not exist. A chute spillway may be constructed on any type of foundation provided it
is strong enough to bear the load.
A control structure may or may not be provided for this type of spillway, depending upon the natural
level of the saddle. If the natural ground level of the saddle is higher than the full reservoir level,
excavation is done in the saddle upto the full reservoir level to form a flat- crested weir. However, if the
natural ground level of the saddle is lower than the full reservoir level, an ogee-shaped weir is usually
built to achieve a high discharge coefficient. The weir is generally of low height and with upstream face
inclined [Fig. 4.18 (b)].
Fig 4.18
3.15.3.4 Side Channel Spillway
In the side channel spillway, the crest of the control weir is placed along the side of the discharge channel.
The crest is approximately parallel to the side channel at the entrance. Thus the flow after passing over
the crest is carried in a discharge channel running parallel to the crest. Water flows over the crest into
the narrow trough of the discharge channel opposite the weir, it turns approximately at right angle
and then continues in the discharge channel [Fig. 4.19(a)]
The side channel spillway is usually constructed in a narrow canyon where sufficient space is not
96
available for an overflow spillway. A side channel spillway is also usually required in a narrow valley
where there is neither a suitable saddle, nor wide side-flanks to accommodate a chute spillway. In
such cases, if a crest of length required for flow to occur perpendicular to the crest is provided, heavy
cutting would be required. Therefore, the cost of an overflow spillway or a chute spillway would be
prohibitive.
The crest of a side channel spillway is usually an ogee-shaped section made of concrete [Fig. 4.19(b)].
Sometimes it consists of a flat concrete pavement laid on an earthen embankment or the natural
ground surface.
Fig.4.19
3.15.2.5 Shaft Spillway
A shaft (or morning glory) spillway consists of a large vertical funnel, with its top surface at the crest
level of the spillway and its lower end connected to a vertical (or nearly vertical) shaft. The other end
of the vertical shaft is connected to a horizontal (or nearly horizontal) conduit or tunnel, which extends
through or round the dam and carries the water to the river downstream (Fig. 4.20). When the water
level rises above the crest level, it starts overflowing the crest and drops from the rim of the funnel into
the vertical shaft and then flows in the horizontal conduit, which conveys it past the dam. The transition
between the shaft and the horizontal conduit should be smooth to avoid cavitation.
A shaft spillway is used at the sites where the conditions are not favorable for an overflow spillway
or a chute spillway. It is generally considered undesirable to construct a spillway just adjacent to an
earth dam. Therefore, an overflow spillway is ruled out if there is not an adequate space. If the
topography of the site is also such that a chute spillway cannot be constructed, a shaft spillway may be
considered as an alternative to a side channel spillway.
For low dams, where the shaft height is small, no special inlet design is usually necessary.
However, for high dams, a flared inlet, called morning glory, is generally used. Small shaft spillways
may be constructed entirely of metal pipe, concrete or even clay tile. However, the vertical shafts of
large projects are invariably of reinforced concrete and the horizontal conduit is usually a tunnel in
rock. Frequently, the diversion tunnel used during the construction of the dam is planned so that it can be
used as a horizontal conduit for the shaft spillway after the construction. The shaft is sometimes driven
into rock instead of constructing it as a reinforced concrete shaft.
On the crest of the shaft spillway, radial piers are provided to guide the water radially. These piers also
prevent spiral flow and are used a supports for a bridge to go around the spillway crest. Because a
shaft spillway is surrounded by water on all sides, a bridge is also provided to connect it to the dam or a
hill.
97
Ideal site A shaft spillway is ideally suited for a site where a rock spur projects into the reservoir a little
distance upstream of the dam. If the top of the spur is lower than the full reservoir level, a standard-
crested spillway has to be constructed in concrete, above the spur is higher than the full reservoir level, it
has to be excavated down to the required crest level and a flat-crested spillway is constructed. A shaft
spillway is generally more economical than a side channel spillway where a diversion tunnel, which is
used for diversion of river water during construction, is already available for the shaft spillway.
Fig. 4.20
3.15.3.6 Siphon Spillways

A siphon spillways operates on the principle of siphonic action. There are basically two types of siphon
spillways.
1. Saddle siphon spillway

2. Volute siphon spillway
1. Saddle siphon spillway A saddle siphon spillway (also called saddle siphon) is a closed conduit of
the shape of an inverted U-tube with unequal legs. Saddle siphon spillway is commo nly used in practice.
Saddle siphon spillways are usually of two types: (a) Hood type and (b) Tilted outlet type, as discussed
below.
Fig. 4.22
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(a) Hood siphon spillway The various component parts of the hood saddle siphon spillway
are shown in Fig. 4.22 (a). This type of spillway is also called the hood spillway. The siphon duct is
formed by an air tight reinforced concrete cover, called hood, over an ogee- shaped body wall made of
concrete. The top of the body wall forms the crest of the spillway and is kept at the full reservoir level
(F.R.L) of the reservoir. The top of the hood is called crown. The space between the crown and the
crest is known as throat. Fig. 4.22 (b) shows a hood siphon with its outlet submerged.
(b) Titled outlet type siphon spillway Fig. 4.23 shows another type of saddle siphon spillway,
called tilted-outlet type. In this type of spillway, the siphon duct is formed within the body of the dam.
The lower limb of the siphon is vertical with a tilted outlet. In this case, the draught of the water falling
over the crest is sufficient to cause priming, and, therefore, no separate priming device is required. The
outlet is tilted upwards so as to develop water seal at the bend. It is required for sealing the air entry
from the exit end without which priming is not possible. For depriming of the spillway, a deprimer is
provided as shown.
Fig. 4.23
2. Volute Siphon Spillway
The volute siphon spillway (or volute siphon) is a special type of siphon spillway which makes use of
volutes (curved vanes) for priming. This type of spillway was designed by Ganesh Iyer in India and
hence it is also called Ganesh Iyer siphon. The volute siphon spillway consists of a vertical shaft (or
barrel), which has a funnel shape at its top. At the bottom end, it is connected to a horizontal or nearly
horizontal outlet conduit through a right-angled bend, which leads the water to the downstream channel
(Fig. 4.24). The top or lip of the funnel is kept at the full reservoir level (F.R.L). The inner sloping
surface of the funnel is provided with a number of volutes. The volutes are the curved vanes like the
blades of a centrifugal pump or a turbine [Fig. 4.24 (b)]. A cylindrical drum is constructed around the
upper portion of the vertical shaft. The drum is supported on a number of pillars. The drum is open at the
sides near the bottom so that water can enter into it. A dome is constructed over the drum. On the top of
the dome, a small air-vent pipe (deprimer) of reinforced concrete is formed. One end of the air- vent pipe is
connected to the interior of the dome at its crown and the other end is kept slightly higher than the full
reservoir level. These air-vent pipes serve as deprimers. Sometimes, a deprimer dome is constructed
over the main dome for this purpose.
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MARRI LAXMANREDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT Author:V.Varalakshmi
32
Fig 4.24
3.15.3.7 Conduit (or Tunnel) Spillway
A conduit (or tunnel) spillway consists of a closed conduit to carry the flood discharge to the
downstream channel. Fig 4.25 It is constructed in the abutment or under the dam. The closed
conduit may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel, or a conduit
constructed in an open cut and then covered. Such a spillway is suitable for dam sites in
narrow canyons with steep abutments.
The conduit should be designed to flow partly full, because if it runs full, the negative
pressure may develop due to siphonic action. The area of the flow is usually limited to 75% of
the total cross-sectional area of the conduit.
Fig 4.25
3.15.3.8 Cascade Spillway

A cascade spillway consists of a cascade of falls, with a stilling basin at each fall (Fig.
4.26). It is ideally suited for very high dams in which the energy cannot be dissipated by a
hydraulic jump or a bucket. In the case of a high rockfill dams, already excavated quarry
benches on d/s may be utilized for the formation of cascades.
100
Fig. 4.26
3.16 CHARACTERISTICS OF A HYDRAULIC JUMP

Hydraulic jump is a sudden and turbulent rise of water which occurs in an open channel when
the flow changes from the supercritical flow state to the subcritical state. It is accompanied by
the formation of extremely turbulent rollers and considerable dissipation of energy. Thus a
hydraulic jump is a very effective means of dissipation of energy below spillways.
3.16.1 Types of jumps

The type of jump and its characteristics depend mainly upon the Froude number of the incoming
flow or the initial froude number (F1), given by
(4.14)
where V1 is the mean velocity of flow before the hydraulic jump, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and y1 is the pre-jump depth (or the initial depth of flow).
For the formation of a hydraulic jump, the initial Froude number F1 should be greater than unity.
Different types of hydraulic jump are as follows:
1. Undular Jump An undular jump is formed when F1 = 1.0 to 1.70. In an undular jump, the
water surface shows some undulation. The energy dissipation is about 5 .
2. Weak Jump When F1 = 1.70 to 2.50, a weak hydraulic jump occurs. In this case, a series of
small rollers develops on the surface of the jump, but the downstream water surface remains
quite smooth. The velocity is uniform throughout. The energy dissipation is about 20 .
3. Oscillating Jump An oscillating hydraulic jump occurs when F1 = 2.50 to 4.50. There is an
oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to surface and back again without any periodicity.
The energy dissipation is between 20 to 40 .
4. Steady Jump A steady jump occurs when F1 = 4.50 to 9.0. The jump is quite stable and
balanced. This jump is not much sensitive to variations in the tail water depth. The steady
jump has very good performance, and most of the hydraulic structures utilize this type of
jump for the dissipation of energy. The energy dissipation is between 45 to 70 .
5. Strong Jump A strong jump occurs when F1 9.0. The jump action is quite rough but
effective. It causes a rough water surface with strong surface waves downstream. The energy
101
dissipation is between 70 to 85 . Because of rough action, a strong jump is avoided in

spillways, as far as possible.
3.16.2 Jump Heigh Curve (JHC)

A hydraulic jump will occur in a rectangular open channel if the following equation
between the initial depth y1 and the sequent depth (post- jump depth) y1 is satisfied (See any
text of Fluid Mechanics).
(4.14)
where q is the discharge intensity (i.e. discharge per unit length).
Eq. 4.14 is usually written in terms of the initial froude number (F1) as
(4.15)
Where
(4.16)
The mean velocity V1 of the incoming flow for an ogee-shaped spillway can be
determined by applying the Bernoulli equation to points A and 1 (Fig. 4.27). Neglecting losses
and the velocity of approach,
Fig4.27
(4.17)
The mean velocity of flow V1 at the toe of spillway is equal to (q/y1). Therefore
(4.18)
102
By substituting the values of P,H, and q, the value of y1 can be found from Eq. 4.18. Thus the
value of y1 is determined for a given discharge intensity q over the spillway.
The corresponding value of the sequent depth y2 can be determined from Eq. 4.14 Likewise,
for different values of the discharge intensity, the values of the sequent depth y2 can be
computed. A plot is then made between the discharge intensity q as the abscissa and the
corresponding value of the sequent depth y2 as ordinate [Fig. 4.28 (a)]. The curve is known
as the jump height curve (JHC) or jump rating curve (JRC).
Fig.4.28
3.16.3. Tail water rating curve

The tail water rating curve (TWRC) gives the relation between the tail water depth y2' (i.e.
the actual water depth in the river on the downstream) as ordinate and the discharge intensity q
as abscissa [Fig. 4.29 (b)]. The actual tail water depth corresponding to any discharge
intensity q depends upon the hydraulic characteristics of the river downstream. The values of
y2' corresponding to different values of q are obtained by actual stream gauging.
If there is a suitable control somewhere downstream of the spillway where the depth of water
and discharge can be accurately measured, the tail water depth y2' at the spillway can also be
determined by backwater computation.
While plotting the tail-water rating curve, an allowance for channel retrogression, which is
likely to occur, must be made.
3.16.4 Location of A Hydraulic Jump
For a given discharge intensity (q), the sequent depth y2 and the tail water depth y2' are fixed.
The location of hydraulic jump will depend upon the relative magnitudes of y2 and y2', and
hence on the JHC and TWRC. There are five cases, depending upon the relative positions of
JHC and TWRC, as discussed below.
103
Case-1 JHC and TWRC coincide throughout In this case, the JHC and TWRC curves
concide for all discharges [Fig. 4.29 (a)]. As the tail water depth y2' is exactly equal to the
sequent depth y2 required for the formation of hydraulic jump, a perfect jump is formed just
at the toe of the spillway as shown in Fig. 2.1. However, this case indicates a highly
idealised condition, which rarely occurs in practice.
Case-2 TWRC always lower than JHC In this case, the tail water rating curve (TWRC)
is below the jump height curve JHC for all discharges [FIG. 4. 29 (b)]. Such a condition
occurs when the tail water is carried away quickly due to a rapid or a fall somewhere
on the downstream of the spillway. In this case, the jump will be located at a point on the
downstream of the toe of spillway. The high velocity jet would sweep down the toe and scour
the river bed. Therefore, severe erosion may occur in the portion of the river between the
spillway and the section where the hydraulic jump is formed.
Case-3 TWRC always higher than JHC In this case, the tail water rating curve is above
the jump height curve for all discharges [Fig. 4. 29 (c)]. This condition usually occurs when
the river cross-section on the downstream of the spillway is narrow and therefore the tail
water backs up. The hydraulic jump in this case is located upstream of the toe on the
spillway face. The hydraulic jump is drowned or submerged, and the high velocity jet dives
under the tail water. The energy dissipation in a drowned hydraulic jump is not good.
Case-4 TWRC lower than JHC at low discharges, but higher at high discharges In this
case, the tail water rating curve is lower than the jump height curve at low discharges, but it
becomes higher at a particular discharge and then remains higher than the jump height curve
[Fig. 4. 29(d)].
It is a combination of cases 2 and 3. The hydraulic jump is formed further

downstream of the toe at low discharge, as in the case 2; but at higher discharges, it is
drowned, as in the case 3.
Case-5 TWRC higher than JHC at low discharges, but lower at high discharges. It is also
combination of cases 3 and 2. However, in this case, at low discharges, the jump is drowned;
whereas at high discharges, it is formed further downstream of the toe [Fig. 4.29 (e)].
Fig.4.29
104
3.16.4 Measure Adopted For Dissipation of Energy
Various measures are adopted at or near the toe of the spillway so that a perfect jump is formed
for the dissipation of energy. The measures adopted will depend upon the relative positions of
the tail water rating curve (TWRC) and the jump height curve (JHC). Measures are discussed
separately for all the five cases discussed in the preceding section.
Case-1 In this case, the tail water rating curve and jump height curve concide for all
discharges. There is no need of any special measure for the formation of hydraulic jump, as a
perfect jump will always form at the toe.
A horizontal apron is however provided on the downstream of the toe for the
protection of the river bed (Fig. 4.30). The length of a horizontal apron is taken equal to the
maximum length of the hydraulic jump. Sometimes, baffle blocks are also constructed on the
horizontal apron for dissipation of energy. However, if the baffle blocks are placed too near
the toe, they may be subjected to cavitation and abrasion.
Fig.4.30
If may be noted that the case-1 rarely occurs in practice. However, by suitably choosing
the length of the spillway, the TWRC and JHC may be made to coincide to some extent.
Case –2 As the tail water rating curve is lower than the hydraulic jump curve, the hydraulic
jump forms at a certain section downstream of the toe. The following measures are adopted.
i. A depressed horizontal apron is formed by excavating the river bed on the

downstream of the toe of the spillway to increase the tail water depth [Fig. 4.31 (a)].
The length and depth of the apron should be such that, for all discharges, the jump is
confined to the apron. Sometimes, the depressed apron is made sloping instead of
horizontal.
ii. A low secondary weir (or dam) is constructed downstream of toe to raise the tail water
[Fig. 4.31(b)].
iii. A stilling basin is formed on the downstream of toe and a sill or baffle wall is provided
at the end of the stilling basin. The length and depth of the stilling basin should be
sufficient to contain the hydraulic jump for all discharges.
105
iv. If the river bed consist of solid rock, a ski jump bucket can be provided which throws
the water up so that it strikes the bed at a safe distance away from the toe.
Fig.4.32
Case-3 In this case, the tail water rating curve is higher than the jump height curve and the
hydraulic jump is drowned, the following measures are adopted.
i. A sloping apron is constructed above the river bed level extending from the
spillway surface to the toe [Fig. 4.32 (a)]. The sloping apron raises the level of the
point where the hydraulic jump is formed. The slope of the apron should be such that a
perfect jump will form somewhere on the sloping apron for all discharges. A large
quantity of concrete is however required for the construction of the sloping apron.
ii. The river bed may be excavated to provide a drop in the river bed to lower the tail water
[Fig. 4.32(b)].
iii. A roller bucket is provided near the toe, which forms rollers for the dissipation energy.
Fig.4.32
Case-4 In this case, the tail water rating curve is lower than the jump height curve at low
discharges but higher at high discharges. Thus at low discharges, the hydraulic jump is
shifted to a downstream point; but for high discharge, it is shifted upstream of the toe and the
jump is drowned. The following measures are adopted.
i. A sloping apron is provided which lies partly above and partly below the river bed level so
that a perfect jump will form in the lower portion of the apron at low discharges and in the
higher portion of the apron at high discharges (Fig. 4.34)
106
ii. A low secondary dam (or a sill) with a stilling basin is provided downstream of the toe to
raise the tail water level at low discharges. This arrangement is combined with a sloping
apron at a higher level for developing a jump at high discharges (Fig. 4.33). It is found in
practice that the low secondary dam has negligible effect at high discharges.
iii. If the velocity is not greater than 15 m/s, baffle blocks or dentated sills may be
constructed to break up the jet and raise tail water level at low discharges to assist jump
formation. At high discharges, the high velocity jet dives under the tail water and breaks
up and the energy is dissipated in internal turbulence, though jump is not formed.
Fig.4.33
Case-5 In this case, the tail water depth is higher than jump height curve at low discharges,
but lower at higher discharges. The case is similar to case 4 but the range of discharge is
different. The following measures are usually adopted.
A sloping apron is provided which is partly above the river bed level and partly below the
river bed level, as in Fig. 4.34. In this case, the jump will form in the upper portion of the
apron at low discharges, and in the lower portion, at high discharges.
A low secondary dam (or a sill) with a stilling basin is provided to increase the depth at high
discharges as in Fig. 4.35. However, at low discharges, this arrangement will further
increase the tail water depth, which is already quite high. Therefore, at low
discharges, the jump will be more drowned and consequently, there will be less dissipation of
energy. If this arrangement is not likely to cause much scour, if may be acceptable.
Fig.4.34
107
3.17 BUCKET TYPE ENERGY DISSIPATORS

Bucket type energy dissipators are commonly used for the dissipation of energy below the
overflow (ogee-shaped) spillways. The dissipator consists of an upturned backet ( or curved
apron) provided at the toe of the spillway in continuation of its downstream face. Bucket type
energy dissipators are usually of small size and are more economical than conventional hydraulic
jump stilling basins. These are especially useful when the Froude number F1 exceeds 10, because
in that case, the difference between the initial depth and the sequent depth is quite large and a
very long and deep stilling basin is required. They can be adopted for all tail water conditions.
However, they can be used only when the river bed consists of a strong and stiff rock.
The bucket type energy dissipators are basically of the following three types.
1. Solid roller bucket
2. Slotted roller bucket
3. Ski-jump (or flip or trajectory ) bucket.
The solid and slotted roller buckets are used where the tail water rating curve (TWRC) is above
the jump height curve (JHC). Both these types of buckets remain submerged in the tail water,
and hence these are also called submerged buckets. A ski-jump bucket is used where the tail
water rating curve (LWRC) is below the jump height curve (JHC). The river bed in this case
should consist of very strong rock.
3.17.1 SOLD ROLLER BUCKE TYPE ENERGY DISSIPATOR

An upturn sold bucket (Fig. No.8) is used when tail water depth is much in excess of sequent depth
and in which dissipation of considerable portion of energy occurs as a result of formation of two
complementary elliptical rollers, one in the bucket proper, called bucket roller, which is anti-
clockwise (if the flow is to the right) and the other down stream of the bucket, called ground roller,
which is clockwise. Bucket roller is effective within a design range of tail water variation. If the tail
water is lower than the permissible lower limit, the incoming high velocity jet will sweep out and
form a sky jump. When the tail water level exceeds the uppermost limit, the incoming jet will not
form rollers but moves to the surface causing little dissipation of energy.
3.17.2 SLOTTED ROLLER BUCKET TYPE ENERGY DISSIPATOR

An upturn bucket with teeth in it is used when the tail water depth is much in excess of sequent depth
and in which the dissipation of energy occurs by lateral spreading of jet passing through bucket slots
in addition to the formation of two rollers as in solid roller bucket. The range of tail water variation
in which a slotted roller bucket remains effective is less than that in a solid roller bucket.
3.17.3 SKI-UMP (OR FLIP OR TRAJECTORY BUCKET) TYPE ENERGY DISSIPATOR

An upturn solid bucket is used when the tail water depth is insufficient for formation of hydraulic
jump and the bed of the channel downstream comprises of sound rock which is capable of
withstanding (without excessive scour), the impact of high velocity jet. The flow coming down the
spillway is thrown away from toe of the discharging upturned bucket and it falls into the channel
directly, thereby avoiding excessive scour immediately downstream of the spillway. There is hardly
any energy dissipation within the bucket itself. The device is used mainly to increase the distance
from the structure to the place where high velocity jet hits the channel bed, thus avoiding the danger
of excessive scour immediately downstream of the spillway. Due to the throw of the jet in the shape
of trajectory, energy dissipation takes place by: -
108
i) Internal friction within the jet

ii) The interaction between the jet and surrounding air
iii) The diffusion of the jet in the tail water pool in the crator formed due
to scouring action of the jet.
iv) The impact on the channel bed.
3.18 STILLING BASINS

A stilling basin is a basin-like structure in which all or a part of the energy is dissipated. In a
stilling basin, the kinetic energy causes turbulence and it is ultimately lost as heat energy. The
stilling basins commonly used for spillways are of the hydraulic jump type, in which dissipation
of energy is accomplished by a hydraulic jump. A hydraulic jump can be stabilised in stilling
basin by using appurtenances (or accessories such as chute blocks, basin blocks and end sill.
a. Chute blocks: These are triangular blocks with their top surfaces horizontal. These are
installed at the toe of the spillway just at upstream end of the stilling basin. They act as a
serrated device at the entrance to the stilling basin. They furrow the incoming jet and lift a
portion of it above the floor. These blocks stabilise the jump and thus improve its
performance. These also decrease the length of the hydraulic jump.
b. The sill: It is constructed at the downstream end of the stilling basin. It may be solid or
dentated. Its function is to reduce the length of the hydraulic jump and to control scour. For
large basins designed for high incoming velocities, the sill is usually dentated to perform an
additional function of diffusing the residual portion of the high velocity jet that may reach the
end of the basin. In a dentated sill, there are teeth with small gaps which diffuse the jet.
(These gaps and the projections between them look like human teeth).
c. Baffle piers or basin blocks: These are installed on the stilling basin floor between chute
blocks and the end sill. These blocks also stabilise the formation of the jump. Moreover, they
increase the turbulence and assist in the dissipation of energy. For low flows, baffle blocks
also help compensate a slight deficiency of the tail water depth, and for high flows, they help
deflect the flow away from the river bed. However, baffle blocks are prone to cavitations on
the downstream face, and are not recommended when the velocity is greater than 15m/s.
3.18.1 CLASSIFICATION OF STILLING BASINS

There are various types of stilling basins. The type of stilling basin most suitable at a particular
location mainly depends upon the initial Froude number (F1) and the velocity V1 of the incoming
flow. The stilling basins are usually rectangular in plan. However, sometimes these are flared.
These are made of concrete. The length of the basin, measured in the direction of flow, depends
upon the sequent depth y2 and the initial Froude No. F1. It is different for different type of basins.
The following types of basins are commonly used in practice.
A. U.S.B.R Stilling basins

1. Type I basin 2. Type II basin 3. Type III basin
B. Indian Standards basins

1. Horizontal floor-Type I 2. Horizontal floor – Type II
3. Sloping apron – Type III 4. Sloping apron – Type IV
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3.18.1.1 U.S.B.R STILLING BASINS
1. U.S.B.R. Type I basin for Froude number F1 between 2.5 to 4.5

For this range of F1, type I basin has proved to be quite effective for dissipating most of the
energy (Fig. 4.35). However, it is not able to dampen the oscillating flow entirely. The water
depth in the basin should be about 1.10 y2 to check the tendency of the jump to sweep out and to
suppress wave action. The basin is provided with chute blocks of the size, spacing and location
as shown in the figure. All the dimensions are in terms of the initial depth y1.
Fig.4.35
The length L of the stilling basin varies from 4.3 y2 to 6 y2, depending upon the value of F1,
2. USBR Type II basin for Froude number F1 greater than 4.5 and V1 less than 15 m/s.
This design is recommended for large and medium spillways and large canal structures. The
length of basin is 33% reduced with the use of appurtenances. The basin contains chute locks and
dentated sill. No baffle piers are used because high velocities might cause cavitation on piers.
See fig 15-16 (Chow) or Fig. 4.36, Varshney.
Fig.4.36
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Design Steps
1. Set apron elevation to use tailwater depth (Tw) plus an added factor of safety on the figure
there is a minimum Tw depth line which indicates the point at which the front of the jump
moves away from the chute blocks. Any lowering would cause the jump to leave the basin.
Bureau recommends a minimum safety margin of 5% of D2 be added to sequent depth.
2. Basin II maybe effective down to Froude No. 4.
3. Length of the basin can be obtained from Fig. 15-16c, Chow.
4. Height of chute blocks= D1, width and spacing= D1. Space of 0.5D1 is preferable along each
wall to reduce spray and maintain desirable pressure.
5. Height of the dentated sill= 0.2 D2. Maximum width and spacing= 0.15 D2. The block is
placed adjacent to each side wall. The slope of the continuous portion of the end sill is
2H:1V.
6. The slope of the chute varies from 0.6H:1V to 2H:1V.
7. This type of basin is suitable for spillways with fall up to 200 ft and flows 500 cfs/ft of basin
width.
8. Water surface and pressure profiles of a jump in the basin are shown in Figure.
3. U.S.B.R. Type III basin for Froude number F1 greater than 4.5 and V1 greater than
15m/s.
When F1 is greater than 4.5 and V1 is greater than 15 m/s. Type III basin is provided. In this
case, baffle blocks are not provided, because of the following reasons:
 The block would be subjected to very high impact forces due to high velocity V1 of
incoming flow.
 There is a possibility of cavitations on the downstream faces of the blocks. The
stilling basin therefore consists of only chute blocks and a dentated sill. As the dissipation
of energy occurs mainly by hydraulic jump, the length of basin is greater than that in
Type II basin. The size, spacing and location of the chute blocks are the same as in Type
II basin.
 To check the tendency of the jump to sweep out of the basin, the water depth in the
basin should be about 5 percent greater than the computed value of y2.
3.18.1.2 INDIAN STANDARDS STILLING BASINS
IS : 4997 – 1968 recommends 4 types of stilling basinso, two types are with horizontal apron,
and two types are with sloping apron.
(a) Stilling basins with a horizontal apron
Stilling basins with a horizontal floor may be provided when the jump height curve (JHC) and
the tail water rating cure (TWRC) are not much different from each other i.e one curve may be
slightly above or below the other. In this case, the required condition for the development of the
hydraulic jump are obtained on a horizontal apron or near the bed level, and hence there is no
necessity of a sloping apron.
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Depending upon the froude number F1, there are two types of basins with a horizontal apron.
(i) Type I for F1 < 4.5

(ii) Type II for F1 >,. 4.5
1. I.S Type I basin for F1 < 4.5.

This type of the basin is provided when F1 is less than 4.5. Such a case usually occurs on weirs,
barrages and low dams. The basin is provided with chute blocks, basin blocks (baffle blocks) and
a dentated sill (Fig. 4.37). However, the basin blocks should not be used if the velocity of flow
exceeds 15m/s. The water depth y2' should normally not exceed 1.10 y2 where y2 is the conjugate
depth. Fig. 2.11
Fig.4.37
The chute blocks should be kept at a height equal to 2y2 at the end of the glacis slope. The top
length should be also equal to 2 y1 and a space equal y1/2 should be left at the ends. The width
and spacing of the basin blocks should be equal to their heights. These blocks should be placed at
a distance of 0.8y2 from the d/s face of the chute blocks.
2. IS Type II basin for F1 > 4.5

This type of basin is used when F1 is equal to or greater than 4.5. This basin is usually required in
the case of spillways of the medium and high dams. The stilling basin is provided with chute
blocks, basin blocks (or baffle blocks) and a dentated sill (Fig. 4.38) The height, width and
spacing of the chute blocks, each should be kept equal to y1. The width and spacing may be
slightly varied to eliminate fractional blocks. A space equal to y1/2 is preferable at ends. The
width and spacing of the basin blocks is 0.75 times the height. These blocks should be placed at a
distance of 0.8 y2 downstream from the chute blocks. The end sill is the same as for IS Type I
basin.
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Fig.4.38
3. Modified IS Type II basin

If F1 > 4.5 and the inflow velocity V1 is greater than 15 m/s, Modified IS Type II basin is used. In
this case, basin blocks are not provided. Moreover, the floor of the basin is kept at a depth equal
to y2 below the tail water level.
(b) Stilling basins with a sloping apron floor (IS Type III basin and type IV basins)
A sloping apron is provided when the tail water depth y2' is very large as compared to the
sequent depth y2. In that case, a drowned jump would develop if no sloping apron is provided.
With a sloping apron, an efficient hydraulic jump is formed at a suitable level on the sloping
apron. There are two types of basins: (i) IS Type III basin [Fig. 4.39 (a)] (ii) IS Type IV basin
[Fig. 4.39 (b)].
IS basin Type III is recommended where the tail water rating curve (TWRC) is higher than the
jump height curve (JHC) at all discharges. IS Basin Type IV is suitable where the tail water
depth y2' at the maximum discharge exceeds y2 considerably but is equal to or slightly greater
than y2 at lower discharges.
The design criteria for sloping aprons have not been standarised to the same extent as in the case
of the horizontal apron. The slope and overall shape are determined from economic
considerations. The length of the basin is fixed, depending upon the type and soundness of the
river bed. IS Type III basin is usually provided with a sloping apron for the entire length,
whereas IS Type IV basin is provided with a partly sloping and a partly horizontal apron. For
both these basins, only a solid or dentated sill is provided No other accessory is required.
IS Type III Basin

The following procedure may be adopted for the design:
a. Assume a certain level at which the front of the jump will form for the maximum tail water
depth and discharge.
b. Determine y1 from the known upstream total energy line by applying Bernoulli's theorem and
calculate F1.
c. Assume a certain slope and determine the conjugate depth y2 and length of the jump for the
above Froude number from figure 4.39 and figure 4.40 respectively. The length of the apron
should be kept equal to 60 percent of the jump height.
113
d. Test whether the available tail water depth at the end of the apron matches the conjugated
depth y2. If not, change the slope or the level of the upstream end of the apron or both.
Several trails may be required before the slope and the location of the apron are compatible
with the hydraulic requirement.
Fig. 4.39 Conjugate depth on sloping floor
Fig. 4.40 Length of jump in terms of conjugate depth D2 sloping aprons
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Fig. 4.41 Values of k
(e) The apron designed for maximum discharge may then be tested at lower discharge say
¼, ½ and ¾. It the tail water depth is sufficient or in excess of the conjugate depth for the
intermediate discharge, the design is acceptable. If not, a flatter slope at lower apron level
should be tried or Basin IV may be adopted.
(f) The basin should be supplemented by a solid or dentated end sill of height equal to
0.05 to 0.2 with an upstream slope of 2:1 to 3:1.
y'2 (depth conjugate to d for sloping apron or partly sloping may be determined from the
relation,
The value of K can be determined from figure 2.16. However, d'2 may also be determined
from figures 4.3940 to 4.41
IS Type IV Basin
In the design of basin IV, the following procedure may be adopted.

(a) Determine the discharge at which the tail water depth is most deficient.
(b) For the above discharge, determine the level and length of the apron (as for basin I
and II)
(c) Assume a certain level at which the front of the jump will form for the maximum tail
water depth and discharge.
(d) Determine d1, from the known upstream energy line and calculate F1 and find y2.
(e) Determine a suitable slope (by trail and error) so that the available tail water depth
matches the required conjugate depth y2 determined from figure 4.43
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(f) Determine the length of the jump for the above slope from figure 2.14. If the sum of
the length of the inclined portions and horizontal portion is equal to about 60 percent
of the jump length, the design is accepable. If not, fresh trials may be done by
changing the level of the upstream end of the jump formation.
(g) The basin should be supplemented by a solid or dentated end sill of height 0.05 to 0.2
y2 and upstream slope of 2:1 to 3:1.
Fig. 4.42 Conjugate depths for sloping apron
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CHAPTER-IV
DIVERSION HEAD WORKS
4.1 Introduction
River diversion headwork is constructed at the head of the canal to divert the river water
towards the canal, so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt-free water with a certain
minimum head into the canal. It usually provides a small storage capacity.
4.2 Purposes of diversion headwork
(i) It raises the water level in the river so that the commanded area is increased
(ii) It regulates the supply of water into the canal
(iii) It provides storage of water for a short period
(iv) It controls the entry of silt into the canal
(v) It reduces the fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.
4.3 Selection of actual site for canal head works
The selection may be made in accordance with the following considerations.
i) As far as possible a narrow, straight, well defined channel confined b/n banks not
submerged by the highest flood;
ii) It should be possible to align the offtaking canal in such a way that the command
of its area is obtained without excessive digging.
iii) The material of construction such as stone, sand, etc. should be available in the
vicinity of the site.
iv) The site should be accessible by road. And there should be (enough) workers
available in the vicinity of project site.
4.4 Components of Diversion Head Works
The components of diversion head works consists of:
(1) Weir or barrage

(2) Divide wall
(3) Fish ladder
(4) Pocket or approach channel
(5) Undersluices or scouring sluices
(6) Silt excluder
(7) Canal head regulator
(8) River training works, such as marginal bunds, guide banks
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Figure 4.1. Typical layout of diversion headworks
4.4.1 Weirs and Barrages
Weirs and barrages are permanent river diversion works and are relatively low dams
constructed across a river to raise the river level sufficiently to divert the flow in full, or in part,
into a supply canal or conduit for the purpose of irrigation, power generation, domestic and
industrial uses, etc.
Weirs are with or without gates, whereas barrages are always gate controlled.
4.4.1.1 Weirs
Weirs may be classified according to the material of construction and certain design features as
1) Masonry weirs with vertical drop or vertical drop weirs

2) Rockfill weirs with sloping aprons
3) Concrete weirs with a downstream glacis
1) Masonry Weir (Vertical Drop Weir): Consists of:
- An impervious horizontal floor or apron

- A masonry weir wall (with both upstream and downstream faces vertical; or both faces
inclined; or upstream face vertical and downstream face inclined)
- Block protection at upstream end of floor, and a graded inverted filter at the downstream
end of floor
- Launching aprons or pervious aprons (or floors) after block protection and inverted filters.
This type of weir is suitable for any type of foundation.
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Figure 4.2 Vertical drop weir
2) Rockfill Weir With Sloping Aprons: It is the simplest type of construction and Consists
of:
- Masonry weir wall

- Dry packed boulders laid in the form of glacis or sloping aprons in the upstream
and downstream sides of the weir wall
The downstream slope is generally made very flat. It requires a very large quantity of stone.
It also has few intervening core walls.
Figure 4.3 Rockfill weir
3) Concrete weir with downstream glacis: It is of recent origin and its design is based on
sub-surface flow concept. Hydraulic jump is developed on the glacis due to which considerable
energy is dissipated. Protection works such as inverted filter; block protection and launching
apron are provided. May be constructed on pervious foundation. Sheet piles of sufficient
depths are provided both at upstream and downstream ends of the floor.
Figure 4.4 Typical cross section of concrete weir with downstream glacis on permeable
foundation
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4.4.1.2 Barrages
The crest level is kept at a low level and the raising up of water level (or pording) is
accomplished mainly by means of gates. During floods these gates can be raised clear off the
high flood level and thus enable the high flood to pass with minimum of afflux (or heading up
of water on the upstream side). A barrage provides better control on the water level in the river
but it is comparatively more costly. The design of a barrage involves the same procedure as a
concrete weir.
Figure 4.5 Typical cross section of a barrage on pervious foundation
4.4.2 Divide wall
It is masonry or concrete wall with top width of 1.5 to 3m constructed at right angles to the
axis of the weir and separates the ‘weir proper’ from under sluices. The divide wall extends on
the upstream side beyond the beginning of the canal head regulator and on the downstream
side, it extends up to the end of downstream protection of the under sluices.
The main functions of a divide wall are:

a) To separate the floor of the under sluices which is at lower level from the weir proper;
b) To help in providing a comparatively less turbulent pocket near the canal head
regulator resulting in deposition of silt in this pocket and, thus, to help entry of silt-
free water into the canal;
c) To isolate the pocket upstream of the canal head regulator and facilitate scouring
operation;
d) To prevent formations of cross-currents to avoid their damaging effects on the weir.
4.4.3 Fish Ladder
This structure enables the fish to pass upstream. It is device by which the flow energy can be
dissipated in such a manner as to provide smooth flow at sufficiently low velocity, not
exceeding 3 to 3.5m/s. This object is generally accomplished by providing a narrow opening
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adjacent to the divide wall and provide suitable baffles or staggering devices in it, so as to
control the flow velocity.
The various types of fish ladder are (i) pool type, (ii) steep channel type, (iii) fish lock type and
(iv) fish lift or elevator type. Types (iii) and (iv) are suitable for high dams only. Types (i) and
(ii) are generally provided for barrages.
Figure 4.6 Fish ladder
4.4.4. Undersluices or Scouring Sluices
They are the openings provided in the weir wall with their crest at low level. The openings are
fully controlled by gates. They are located on the same side of the off-taking canal.
Functions of Undersluices:
(i) They preserve a clear and well defined river channel towards the canal head regulator;
(ii) They scour the silt deposited on the river bed in the pocket upstream of the canal head
regulator;
(iii)They pass low floods without the necessity of dropping the weir crest shutters;
(iv) They help to lower the high flood level by supplementing the discharge over the weir
during high floods.
Capacity of Undersluices:
The discharging capacity is fixed from the following considerations:
(i) To ensure proper scouring, its capacity should be at least two times the maximum
discharge of the off-taking canal;
(ii) It should have sufficient capacity to discharge maximum winter flood – without the
necessity of dropping the weir shutter;
(iii) 10 to 20% of the maximum flood discharge – to supplement the discharge over the
weir during high floods.
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4.4.5. Canal head regulator

The structure controlling diversion into a supply canal is called regulator. It is provided at the
head of the offtaking canal and serves the following functions:
(a) It regulates the supply of water entering in the canal;

(b) It controls the entry of silt in the canal;
(c) It prevents the river floods from entering the canal.
The head regulator is generally aligned at right angle to the weir, but slightly larger angles
(between 900 and 1100) are now considered preferable for providing smooth entry of water
into the regulator. The regulation is done by means of gates.
The design principles are the same as those used in the design of barrages, except that the
regulators are a smaller version of barrages. An important consideration in designing the
regulator is silt exclusion from canals. Silt-excluder tunnels are often provided in the barrage
bays adjacent to the regulator, so that the heavier silt-laden bottom layers of water bypass
through the tunnels (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.7 Head regulator
The maximum height of gated opening is determined by the differences in crest level of
regulator (sill level) and the pond level. During high floods, the water level in the river will be
much higher than the pond level. To avoid spilling of this water over the gates, a R.C. wall,
called Breast wall, is provided from pond level up-to river HFL. This wall rests over the piers
of the regulator bays.
The entry of silt into the canal is controlled by keeping the crest of the head regulator by about
1 to 1.5m higher than the crest of the under sluices.
4.4.6. Guide banks (river training works)
Guide banks direct the main river flow as centrally as possible to the diversion structure. They
also safeguard the barrage from erosion and may be designed so that a desirable curvature is
induced to the flow for silt exclusion from the canals. The side slopes of the guide banks must
be protected by stone pitching, with a sufficient 'self-launching' stone apron at the lowest
122
feasible level. The top levels of the guide banks will depend on the increase in the maximum
flood level upstream of the barrage.
4.4.7. Protection Works
The concrete floor of a weir or barrage is protected on the upstream as well as downstream by
loose apron. In the immediate vicinity of the floor, a certain portion of the loose apron is made
non-launching. The non-launching apron prevents the scour hole travel close to the floor or
sheet pile line; whereas launching apron is designed to launch along the slope of the scour hole
to prevent further scooping out of the underlying river bed material.
4.5. Designs of Weirs and Barrages
4.5.1 Causes of Failures of Weirs on Permeable Foundation
Causes of failures of weirs on permeable foundations may be classified into two broad
categories.
(1) Due to seepage or subsurface flow

(2) Due to surface flow
4.5.1.1. Failures due to seepage or subsurface flow
The seepage may cause the failure of a weir in two ways.
i) By piping or undermining: If the water percolating through the foundation has sufficient
force when it emerges at the downstream end of the impervious floor it may lift up the soil
particles at the end of the floor. With the removal of the surface soil there is further
concentration of flow into the resulting depression and more soil is removed which
progressively result in subsidence of the floor in the hollows so formed.
 To prevent these kinds of failures: 

(a) Provide sufficient length of the impervious floor (so that the path of percolation is
increased) and reduce exit gradient.
(b) Provide piles at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor
(ii) By uplift pressure: If the uplift pressure is not counterbalanced by the weight of the floor,
it may fail by rupture.
 To prevent failure by uplift:


(a) Provide sufficient thickness of the impervious floor
(b) Provide pile at the upstream end of the impervious floor so that uplift pressure is
reduced on the downstream side.
4.5.1.2. Failures due to surface flow
The surface flow may cause the failure of a weir in the following two ways:
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(i) By suction due to standing wave or hydraulic jump: The standing wave or hydraulic
jump developed on the downstream side of the weir causes suction or negative pressure which
also acts in the direction of uplift pressure. If the floor thickness is insufficient it may fail by
rupture in suction.
The following measures may be taken to prevent such kind of failure:

(a) Providing additional thickness of the impervious floor to counterbalance the suction
pressure due to standing wave.
(b) Constructing floor as monolithic concrete mass instead of in different layers of
masonry.
(ii) By scour on the upstream and downstream of the weir: Upstream and downstream
ends of the impervious floor and bed of the river may be scoured during floods. If not
prevented, lead to damage to the floor and an ultimately failure.
Preventive measures which should be taken against failure due to scour are:
(a) Providing deep piles both at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor.
The piles should be driven much below the calculated scour depth.
(b) Providing launching aprons of suitable length and thickness at upstream and
downstream ends of the impervious floor.
4.5.2. Criteria for the Design of Weirs and Barrages
Design of weirs and barrages consists of;
i) Hydraulic design
ii) Structural design
The hydraulic design deals with the evaluation of the hydraulic forces acting on the structure
and the determination of the configurations of the structure which will be most economical and
will have the best functional efficiency.
The structural design consists of dimensioning the various parts of the structure to enable it to
resist safely all the forces acting on it.
The hydraulic design is treated in respect of both subsurface and surface flows. The various
aspects of design in respect of subsurface flow involves determination of;
- Uplift pressure,
- Exit gradient,
- Length of impervious floor,
- Depth of sheet piles or cutoffs at upstream and downstream ends of the impervious
floor;
- Protection works.
Note: These aspects shall be discussed in detail in section 4.5.3.
On the other hand, the design in respect of surface flow involves determination of;
- Pond level;
124
- Afflux;
- Levels of upstream floor and crest of weir or barrage;
- Shape of weir crest;
- Waterway;
- Effect of retrogression.
Pond level: Pond level, in the undersluice pocket, u/s of the canal head regulator may be
obtained by adding the working head to the designed full supply level in the canal. The
working head should include the head required for passing the design discharge into the canal
and the head loss in the regulator.
Afflux: It is the rise in water level on the u/s of a weir or barrage as a result of its construction.
The value of afflux corresponding to the design flood is important for the design of the length
of the weir, crest levels, river training works, etc.
Levels of u/s floor and crest of weir or barrage
The u/s floor level of a weir or a barrage bays (other than undersluice bays) is fixed at the
general river bed level, at or below the level of the crest of the weir or barrage. Usually the
floor level is kept at 0.5 to 1.0 m higher than the u/s floor level of the undersluice bays.
The crest levels of weirs or barrages are fixed as follows:
(i) For weirs without shutters, the crest level should be at the required pond level;
(ii) For weirs with shutters, the crest level should not be lower than 2 m below the pond
level as the maximum height of the falling shutters is limited to 2 m.
(iii) For barrages, the crest level is determined by the depth required to pass the design
flood at the desired afflux. The level of crest in this case should be fixed by
adjustment of the waterway. It should in any case be kept higher than the
undersluice crest level.
Shape of the weir crest
- A vertical drop weir is usually trapezoidal in cross section and its dimensions may be
obtained on the basis of stability considerations;
- A glacis type weir is provided with a top width of about 2.0 m, and u/s slope of 2:1 to 3:1
depending on site conditions and d/s slope as required for the glacis of stilling basin.
Waterway: The length of waterway which is equal to the length of the weir or barrage is fixed
to pass safely the maximum flood discharge. The length of the waterway should be equal to the
stable river width for the maximum flood discharge so that shoaling upstream is mostly
eliminated and a nearly straight and stable approach to the weir or barrage is obtained.
The clear waterway to be provided between guide banks or abutments, excluding thickness of
piers, is usually taken equal to the Lacey’s regime perimeter given by
P 4.75 Q
Where
P = Lacey’s regime perimeter in m,
125
Q = design flood discharge (m3/s)

To account for the silt load carried by the alluvial rivers, the clear waterway of 1.1 to 1.25
times Lacey’s regime perimeter is provided.
Effect of Retrogression: As a result of construction of a weir or barrage progressive
retrogression or degradation of the downstream river bed is caused which results in lowering of
the downstream river stages and the same has to be suitably provided for in the design of
downstream cisterns.
4.5.3. Design of Impervious Floor for Subsurface Flow
4.5.3.1. Bligh’s Creep Theory
Bligh assumed that the percolating water creeps along the base profile of the structure, which
is in contact with the subsoil. The length of the path thus traversed by the percolating water is
called the creep length. Bligh also assumed that the head loss per unit length of creep (called
hydraulic gradient) is proportional to the distance of the point from the upstream of the
foundation.
Figure 4.8 Bligh’s creep theory – definition sketch
Shortcoming of this theory is that it does not discriminate between the horizontal and vertical
creeps in estimating the exit hydraulic gradient.
The total creep length, L, is given by

L = d1 + d1 + L1 + d3 + d3 + L2 + d2 + d2 = (L1 + L2) + 2d1 + 2d2 + 2d3
L= b + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
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The hydraulic gradient or the loss of head per unit length of creep is,
H H H
L b 2d1 2d 2 2d3 b 2 d1 d2 d3
Therefore, for any point the head loss is proportional to the creep length.
As the hydraulic gradient is constant, if L1 is the creep length up to any point, then head loss
up to this point will be (H/L) L1 and the residual head at this point will be (H - (H/L) L1).
The head losses at the three vertical cutoffs will be:
[(H/L) 2d1], [(H/L) 2d2] and [(H/L) 2d3]
The reciprocal of the hydraulic gradient, i.e., L/H is known as Bligh’s coefficient of creep, C.
(a) Safety against piping and undermining
According to Bligh, the safety against piping can be ensured by providing sufficient creep
length, given by L = C.H, where C is the Bligh’s Coefficient for the soil.
Bligh recommended certain values of C for different soils. According to Bligh if the hydraulic
1
gradient H/L (for the soil) there is no danger of piping.
C
Table 4.1 Recommended values of Bligh coefficient of creep C and safe hydraulic gradient
Safe
Type of soil Value of C Hydraulic Gradient
Fine micaceous sand 15 1/15
Coarse grained sand 12 1/12
Sand mixed with boulder and gravel; and for loam soil 5 to 9 1/9 to1/5
Light sand & mud 8 1/8
(b) Safety against uplift pressure
The ordinate of the subsoil hydraulic gradient line above the bottoms of the floor at any point
represents the residual seepage head or the uplift pressure at that point.
If h´ is the uplift pressure head at a point under the floor, the pressure intensity is,
P gh
This is to be resisted by the weight of the floor, the thickness of which is t and density ρm (for
concrete, m = 2400 kg/m3). Downward force per unit area due to the weight of the floor is
W mg t
127
Therefore, equating
m gt gh'
m
which gives h t Sm t
Figure 4.9 Determination of floor thickness
where Sm is the relative density of the floor material. Thus, we can write,
h t Sm t t
which gives the thickness of the floor,

t h t h
Sm 1 Sm 1
where h is the pressure head (ordinate of hydraulic gradient) measured above the top of floor,
and (Sm-1) is submerged specific gravity of the floor material.
Considering a safety factor of 4/3 to 3/2

4 h 3 h
t to
3 Sm 1 2 Sm 1
with Sm= 2.24, t ≈ 1.08 h to 1.2 h
The design will be economical if the greater part of the creep length (i.e. of the impervious
floor) is provided upstream of the weir where nominal floor thickness would be sufficient. The
downstream floor has to be thicker to resist the uplift pressure. However, a minimum floor
length is always required to be provided on the downstream side from the consideration of
128
surface flow to resist the action of fast flowing water whenever it is passed to the downstream
side of the weir
Figure 4.10
Moreover, the provision of maximum creep length on the upstream side of the weir (barrier)
also reduces uplift pressures on the portion of the floor provided on the downstream side of the
barrier (Fig 4.10a). This is because a large portion of the total creep having taken place up to
the barrier; the residual heads on the downstream floor are reduced. Further, (see Fig 4.10b) a
vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor reduces uplift all over the floor. Thus, according
to Bligh’s theory a vertical cutoff at the upstream end of the floor is more useful than the one
at the downstream end of the floor.
Limitations of Bligh’s Theory
(i) Bligh made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep.

(ii) The theory holds good as long as horizontal distance between cut-offs or pile lines is
greater than twice their depth.
(iii)No distinction is made between the effectiveness of the outer and inner faces of sheet
piles and short and long intermediate piles. However, investigations, later, have shown
that the outer faces of the end piles are much more effective than the inner ones. Also
intermediate piles of shorter length than the outer ones are ineffective except for local
redistribution of pressure.
(iv) No indication on the significance of exit gradient. Average value of hydraulic gradient
gives idea about safety against piping. Exit gradient must be less than critical exit
gradient (for safety).
(v) The assumption, loss of head is proportional to creep length is not true and actual uplift
pressure distribution is not linear, but it follows a sine curve.
(vi) Bligh did not specify the absolute necessity of providing a cutoff at the downstream end
of the floor, whereas it is absolutely essential to provide a deep vertical cutoff at the
downstream end of the floor to prevent undermining.
4.5.3.2. Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory
Lane made distinction between vertical and horizontal creep. He indicated that the horizontal
creep is less effective in reducing uplift (or in causing head loss) than the vertical creep. He,
therefore, used a weightage factor of (1/3) for the horizontal creep. Thus, the weighted creep
length, Lw, is given by
129
1
Lw N V
3
Where
N = sum of all the horizontal contacts and all the sloping contacts less than 45 0 to the
horizontal.
V = sum of all the vertical contacts and all sloping contacts greater than 45 0 to the
horizontal.
To ensure safety against piping Lw > C1H
Where H = Total seepage head (difference in water head between upstream and downstream)
C1 = Lane’s coefficient (empirical) of creep
Further if the hydraulic gradient H 1 safety against piping can be ensured.

L C
w 1
Table 4.2. Recommended values of Lane’s coefficient of creep C1 and safe hydraulic Gradient.
1
Type of Soil (Material) Value of C1 Safe Hydraulic Gradient
C
1
Very fine sand or silt 8.5 1/8.5

Fine sand 7.0 1/7
Coarse sand 5.0 1/5
Gravel & Sand 3.5 to 3.0 1/3.5 to 1/3
Boulders, with some cobble & gravel 2.5 1/2.5
Boulders, gravel and sand 2.5 to 3.0 1/2.5 to 1/3
Clayey Soils 3.0 to 1.6 1/3 to 1/1.6
Lane’s method for determination of the uplift pressure is criticized on the grounds that it is an
empirical method and not based on any mathematical approach. However, because of the
simplicity of the method it is also widely used.
4.5.3.3. Khosla’s Theory and Concept of Flow Nets
The main principles of this theory are summarized below:
a) The seepage water does not creep along the bottom contour of pucca-floor as stated by
Bligh, but moves along a set of streamlines. This steady seepage in a vertical plane for a
homogeneous soil can be expressed by Laplacian equation:
Where, φ = Flow potential = Kh; K = the coefficient of permeability of soil as defined by

Darcy’s law and h is the residual head at any point within the soil.
130
The above equation represents two sets of curves intersecting each other orthogonally. The
resultant flow diagram showing both of the curves is called a Flow Net.
The streamlines represent the paths along which the water flows through the sub-soil. Every
particle entering the soil at a given point upstream of the work will trace out its own path and
will represent a streamline. The first streamline follows the bottom contour of the works and is
the same as Bligh’s path of creep. The remaining streamlines follows smooth curves transiting
slowly from the outline of the foundation to a semi-ellipse, as shown in Figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11 Khosla’s flow net
Treating the downstream bed as datum and assuming no water on the downstream side, it can
be easily stated that every streamline possesses a head equal to h1 while entering the soil; and
when it emerges at the downstream end into the atmosphere, its head is zero. Thus, the head h 1
is entirely lost during the passage of water along the streamlines.
Further, at every intermediate point in its path, there is certain residual head, h, still to be
dissipated in the remaining length to be traversed to the downstream end. This fact is
applicable to every streamline, and hence, there will be points on different streamlines having
the same value of residual head h. If such points are joined together, the curve obtained is
called an equipotential line.
Every water particle on line AB is having a residual head h = h1, and on CD is having a
residual head h = 0, and hence, AB and CD are equipotential lines.
b) The seepage water exerts a force at each point in the direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines. This force (F) has an upward component from the point where the streamlines
turns upward. For soil grains to remain stable, the upward component of this force should
be counterbalanced by the submerged weight of the soil grain. This force has the maximum
disturbing tendency at the exit end, because the direction of this force at the exit point is
vertically upward, and hence full force acts as its upward component. For the soil grain to
remain stable, the submerged weight of soil grain should be more than this upward
disturbing force. The disturbing force at any point is proportional to the gradient of
pressure of water at that point. This gradient of pressure of water at the exit end is called
131
the exit gradient. In order that the soil particles at exit remain stable, the upward pressure at
exit should be safe. In other words, the exit gradient should be safe.
This exit gradient is said to be critical, when the upward disturbing force on the grain is just
equal to the submerged weight of the grain at the exit. When a factor of safety equal to 4 to 5 is
used, the exit gradient can then be taken as safe. In other words, an exit gradient equal to ¼ to
1/5 of the critical exit gradient is ensured, so as to keep the structure safe against piping.
4.5.3.4. Khosla’s Theory of Independent Variables
In order to know how the seepage below the foundation of a hydraulic structure is taking place,
it is necessary to plot the flow net. In other words, we must solve the Laplacian equations. This
can be accomplished either by mathematical solution of the Laplacian equations, or by
graphically sketching and by adjusting the streamlines and equipotential lines with respect to the
boundary conditions. These are complicated methods and are time consuming. Therefore, for
designing hydraulic structures such as weirs or barrage on pervious foundations, Khosla has
evolved a simple, quick and an accurate approach, called Method of Independent Variables.
In this method, a complex profile like that of a weir is broken into a number of simple profiles;
each of which can be solved mathematically. Mathematical solutions of flow nets for these
simple standard profiles have been presented in the form of equations and curves (given in
Figure 4.18 (a), (b) and (c)), which can be used for determining the percentage pressures at the
various key points. The simple standard profiles used are:
(a) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at either end, i.e. at
upstream or downstream end.
Figure 4.12 (a) Pile at upstream end and (b) Pile at the downstream end
(b) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but with no vertical cut-offs.
Figure 4.13 Depressed floor
(c) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate position.
132
Figure 4.14 Intermediate pile
In general, the usual weir section consists of a combination of all or some of the three forms
mentioned above. Each elementary form is treated as independent of the others. The pressures as
a percentage of the water head are read from Khosla’s curves at the key points. The key points
are the junction of the floor and the pile or cut-off walls, the bottom points of the pile or walls,
and the bottom corners in the case of depressed floor. The percentage pressure observed from
the curves for the simple form into which the profile has been broken up, is valid for the profile
as a whole if corrected for:
(i) Mutual interference of piles;

(ii) The floor thickness; and
(iii) The slope of the floor.
i) Correction for Mutual Interference of Piles
The correction C to be applied as a percentage of head is given by
D d D
C 19
b b
Where b’= the distance between two pile lines
D= the depth of pile line, the influence of which has to be determined on the neighboring
pile of depth d. D is to be measured below the level at which interference is desired.
d= the depth of pile on which the effect is to be determined.
b= total floor length.
The correction is positive for points in the rear or backwater and subtractive for points forward
in the direction of flow. This equation does not apply to the effect of an outer pile on an
intermediate pile, if the intermediate pile is equal to or smaller than the outer pile and is at a
distance less than twice the length of the outer pile.
133
Fig.4. 15 Mutual interference of piles
ii) Correction for Floor Thickness
In the standard forms with cutoffs, the thickness of the floor is assumed to be negligible. Thus
as observed from Khosla’s curves, the percentage pressures at the junction points E and C
pertain to the level at the top of the floor whereas the actual junction is with the bottom of the
floor.
The percentage pressures at the actual points E and C are interpolated by assuming a straight
line pressure variation from the hypothetical point E to D and also from D to C.
Fig. 4.16 Correction for floor thickness
For pile no. 1, since the corrected pressure at E 1 should be less than the calculated pressure at E,
the correction to be applied for the joint E 1 shall be negative. Similarly, the pressure calculated
at C is less than the corrected pressure at C1, and hence, the correction to be applied at point C1
is positive.
iii) Correction for Slope of the Floor
A correction is applied for a sloping floor, and is taken as positive for the down and negative for
the up slopes following the direction of flow. The values of correction for various slopes are
tabulated below (Table 4.3).
134
Fig. 4.17 Correction for slope of the floor
Table 4.3: Correction for floor slope
Slope Correction
(V: H) (% of pressure)
1:1 11.2
1:2 6.5
1:3 4.5
1:4 3.3
1:5 2.8
1:6 2.5
1:7 2.3
1:8 2.0
The correction given above is to be multiplied by the horizontal length of the slope and divided
by the distance between the two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located. This
correction is applicable only to the key points of the pile line fixed at the beginning or the ends
of the slope.
iv) Exit Gradient (GE)
For standard form consisting of a floor length b with a vertical cutoff of depth d, the exit
gradient at its d end is given by:
H 1
GE . d
1 12
Where , and 2
b
d
H = maximum seepage head
The exit gradient so calculated must lie within safe limits as given in the following table (Table
4.4).
135
Table 4.4: Safe exit gradient for different types of soils
Type of soil Safe exit gradient

Shingle ¼ to 1/5
Coarse sand 1/5 to 1/6
Fine sand 1/6 to 1/7
(a) Intermediate sheet pile
136
(b) Sheet pile at the end and depressed floor
(c) Exit gradient

Figure 4.18 Khosla’s Pressure Curves (a, b, and c)
137
Depth of sheet piles on upstream and downstream of impervious floor
The sheet pile must be taken up to the level of possible deepest scour below the bed of the
river. According to Lacey the depth of scour in alluvial soils is given by
1
q2 3
R 1.35 f
Where
R = scour depth measured below the highest flood level
(HFL), q = discharge per unit length,
f = Lacey’s silt factor.
In order to ensure further safety, for the design of sheet piles the scour depth is considered as
1.25 to 2 times R given by the above equation.
Design of protection works at the u/s and d/s ends of the impervious floor
In order to further safeguard the impervious floor against failure due to piping certain
protection works are provided at both the u/s and d/s ends of the impervious floor. These
protection works consist of
(i) Inverted filter,
(ii) Block protection, and
(iii) Launching apron or pervious apron (as shown in 4.19)
Inverted Filter: consists of layers of materials of increasing permeability from bottom to top.
The thickness of the inverted filter varies from 0.5 to 1.25 m. To prevent the filter material
from dislocation by surface flow they are loaded with large size stones or concrete blocks. The
blocks are usually 0.9 to 1.2 m thick and are placed with open joints filled with river sand or
filter material.
It is provided immediately at the d/s end of the impervious floor to relieve the uplift pressure.
The length depends on the scour depth D below the river bed and it usually varies from 1.5 D
to 2 D, where D is given by
D = XR – Y
Where XR = depth of deepest scour level below high flood

level X = a multiplying factor (varies from 1.25 to 2)
Y = depth of the river bed or impervious floor below high flood level
Y = High flood level – River bed level (or floor level)
Block Protection: It is provided immediately at the u/s end of the impervious floor. It consists
of 0.6 to 1.0 m thick stone or concrete blocks laid on 0.4 to 0.6 m thick loosely packed stone.
The length of the block protection is usually equal to the depth of scour, D, below the river bed
at the u/s end of the impervious floor.
138
Figure 4.19. Upstream and downstream protection works
Launching apron or pervious apron: It is an apron of loosely packed stones. Its function is to
protect the impervious floor and the pile from the scour holes progressing towards the floor
and the pile.
The protection is provided by a launching apron by forming a protective covering of stones
over a certain slope below the bed of the river at which the apron is originally laid to the
bottom of the deepest scour likely to occur. As shown in Figure 4.20, when scour occurs, the
new position attained by this apron is called launched position.
The size of the stones (that shall not be washed away during maximum flood) is given by
USBR as
V 2
d A
4.915
Where VA = average velocity of flow in m/s and d = mean diameter of stones in m.
It is generally assumed that the stones launch at a slope of 2:1. The quantity of stone in a
launching apron should be sufficient to provide about 1.0 m thick cover over a slope of 2:1 in
the launched position. Thus if D is the depth of scour, the length of the launched apron would
be about 5D 2.236D. Since the thickness of the launched apron is 1 m, the quantity of stone
required is 2.236D m3 per m length of the apron (See Figure 4.20).
139
Figure 4.20. Launching apron
Example 4.1
The figure below (Figure E-4.1) shows a section of a hydraulic structure on permeable
foundation. Calculate the average hydraulic gradient according to
(a) Bligh’s creep theory
(b) Lane’s weighted creep theory
Also find the uplift pressures at points A and B and the floor thickness required at these points.
5m
A B
5m
d1 = 5m d3 = 3 m
8m
d2 = 10m
10 m
b = 25 m
Figure E-4.1
Solution
(a) Bligh’s creep theory
140
 Total creep length, L = b + 2(d1 + d3 + d2) = 25 + 2 (5 + 3 + 10) = 61 m

Hydraulic gradient = H/L = 5/61 = 1/12.2
From Table 4.1, H/L < 1/C = 1/12 (Coarse grained sand)
Therefore, the structure would be safe on coarse grained sand.

 Uplift pressure at point A
Length of creep up to point A, LA = 2d1 + 5 = 2 x 5 + 5 = 15 m
Residual seepage head at point A, hA = [H – (H/L)LA] = H (1 – LA/L)
= 5 (1 – 15/61) = 3.77 m
Uplift pressure at point A, PA = ghA = 9.81 x 3.77 = 36.98 kN/m2
 Thickness of the floor at point A
4 hA 4 3.77
tA x 4.05 m
3 Sm 1 3 2.24 1
141
 Uplift pressure at point B


Length of creep up to point B, LB = 10 + 2(5 + 3) = 26 m

Residual seepage head at point B, hB = H[1 – LB/L] = 5 (1 – 26/61) = 2.87
m Uplift pressure at point B, PB = ghB = 9.81 x 2.87 = 28.15 kN/m2


 Required thickness of floor at B,
4 hB 4 2.87
tB x 3.09 m
3 Sm 1 3 2.24 1
(b) Lane’s weighted creep theory
 Total weighted creep length, Lw = 2 (5 + 3 + 10) + 1/3 (25) = 44.33 m
Hydraulic gradient, H/Lw = 5/44.33 = 1/8.87 < 1/C1 = 1/8.5 (Table 4.2)
Therefore, the structure would be safe on very fine sand or silt.
 Uplift pressure at point A
Weighted creep length at A, LwA = 2 x 5 + 1/3 (5) = 11.67 m
Residual head at A, hA = 5(1 – 11.67/44.33) = 3.68 m
PA = 9.81 x 3.68 = 36.1 kN/m2
4 hA 4 3.68
tA x 3.96 m
3 Sm 1 3 2.24 1
 Uplift pressure at B,
LwB = 2(5 + 3) + 1/3 (10) = 19.33
m hB = 5 (1 – 19.33/44.33) = 2.82
m PB = 9.81 x 2.82 = 27.66 kN/m2
4 hB 4 2.82
tB x 3.03 m
3 Sm 1 3 2.24 1
142
Example 4.2
Determine the percentage pressures at various key points in figure E-4.2. Also determine the
exit gradient and plot the hydraulic gradient line for pond level on upstream and no flow on
downstream.
Figure E-4.2
Solution:
(1) For upstream Pile Line No. 1
Total length of the floor, b = 57.0 m
Depth of u/s pile line, d = 154 – 148 = 6 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
1/α = 1/9.5 = 0.105
From curve Figure 4.18 (b)
φC1 = 100 – 29 = 71 %
φD1 = 100 – 20 = 80 %
These values of φC1 must be corrected for three corrections as below:
Corrections for φC1
(a) Correction at C1 for Mutual Interference of Piles: (φC1) is affected by intermediate
pile No.2
143
Since point C1 is in the rear in the direction of flow, the correction is positive. Therefore,
correction due to pile interference on C1 = 1.88 % (+ ve)
(b) Correction at C1 due to thickness of floor:

Pressure calculated from curve is at C1′, (Fig) but we want the
pressure at C1. Pressure at C1 shall be more than at C1′ as the
direction of flow is from C1 to C1′ as shown; and hence, the
correction will be + ve and
(c) Correction due to slope at C1 is nil, as this point is neither situated at the start nor at the
end of a slope.
Therefore, corrected (φC1) = 71 % + 1.88 % + 1.5 %

= 74.38 % (answer)
And (φD1) = 80 %
(2) For intermediate Pile Line No. 2

d = 154 – 148 = 6 m
b = 57 m
α = b/d = 57/6 = 9.5
Using curves of Fig. 4.18 (a), we have b1 in this case
b1 = 0.6 + 15.8 = 16.4
b = 57 m
Therefore, b1/b = 16.4/57 = 0.298 (for φC2)
(1 – b1)/b = 1 – 0.298 = 0.702
φE2 = 100 – 30 = 70 % (Where 30 % is φC for a base ratio of 0.702 and α = 9.5)
φC2 = 56 % (For a base ratio 0.298 and α = 9.5)
φD2 = 100 – 37 = 63 % (Where 37 % is φD for a base ratio of 0.702 and α = 9.5)
Corrections for φE2
(a) Correction at E2 for sheet pile lines. Pile No. (1) will affect the pressure at E 2 and since E2
is in the forward direction of flow, this correction shall be negative. The amount of this
correction is given as:
144
Since the pressure observed is at E2′ and not at E2, (Fig.)

and by looking at the direction of flow, it can be stated
easily that pressure at E2 shall be less than that at E2′, hence, this correction is negative,
Therefore, correction at E2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (- ve)
(c) Correction at E2 due to slope is nil, as the point E2 is neither situated at the start of a slope
nor at the end of a slope.
Hence, corrected percentage pressure at E 2 = Corrected φE2 = (70 – 1.88 – 1.17) % = 66.95 %
Corrections for φC2

(a) Correction at C2 due to pile interference. Pressure at C2 is affected by pile No.(3) and since
the point C2 is in the back water in the direction of flow, this correction is positive. The
amount of this correction is given as:
(b) Correction at C2 due to floor thickness. It can be easily stated that the pressure at C 2 shall
be more than at C2′, and since the observed pressure is at C2′, this correction shall be positive
and its amount is the same as was calculated for the point E 2 = 1.17 %
Hence, correction at C2 due to floor thickness = 1.17 % (+ ve)
(c) Correction at C2 due to slope. Since the point C2 is situated at the start of a slope of 3:1, i.e.
an up slope in the direction of flow; the correction is negative.
145
Correction factor for 3:1 slope from Table 4.3 =

4.5 Horizontal length of the slope = 3 m
Distance between two pile lines between which the sloping floor is located = 40 m
Therefore, actual correction = 4.5 × (3/40) = 0.34 % (- ve)
Hence, corrected φC2 = (56 + 2.89 + 1.17 – 0.34) % = 59.72 %
(3) Downstream Pile Line No. 3
d = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m
b = 57 m
1/α = 10.3/57 = 0.181
From curves of 4.18 (b), we get
φD3 = 26 %
φE3 = 38 %
Corrections for φE3
(a) Correction due to piles. The point E3 is affected by pile No. 2, and since E3 is in the
forward direction of flow from pile No. 3, this correction is negative and its amount is given by
(b) Correction due to floor thickness

From the Figure, it can be stated easily that the pressure at E3
shall be less than at E3′, and hence the pressure observed form
curves is at E3′; this correction shall be negative and its
amount
(c) Correction due to slope at E3 is nil, as the point E3 is neither situated at the start nor at
the end of any slope
Hence, corrected φE3 = (38 – 1.02 – 0.76) % = 36.22 %
The corrected pressures at various key points are tabulated below in Table below
146
Exit gradient
Let the water be headed up to pond level, i.e. on RL 158 m on the upstream side with no flow
downstream
The maximum seepage head, H = 158 – 152 = 6 m
The depth of d/s cur-off, d = 152 – 141.7 = 10.3 m
Total floor length, b = 57 m
α = b/d = 57/10.3 = 5.53
For a value of α = 5.53, 1 from curves of Figure 4.18 is equal to 0.18.
Hence, the exit gradient shall be equal to 0.105, i.e. 1 in 9.53, which is very much safe.
147
UNIT-V
CANAL FALLS & CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS

5.1 CANAL FALLS
5.1.1 NECESSITY OF FALLS/DROPS
A fall or drop is an irrigation structure constructed across a canal to lower down its water level and destroy the
surplus energy liberated from the falling water which may otherwise scour the bed and banks of the canal. We
know that the canal requires a certain slope, depending upon the discharge, to over come the frictional losses.
This slope may vary from 1 in 4000 for a discharge of about1.5 cumecs to about 1 in 8000 for a discharge of
3000 cumecs. This slope is, therefore, quite flat in comparison to the available ground slope of an average value
of 5 to 20 cm per kilometre length (i.e., 1 in 200 to 1 in 50 ). Thus the ground slope in nature is always very
much steeper than the design bed slope of irrigation canal; based on the silt theories: If an irrigation canal,
taking off from its head, is in cutting, it will soon meet with condition when it will be entirely in embankment.
If the canal is in embankment, the cost of construction and maintenance is very high and at the same time the
percolation and seepage losses are excessive. Also, there is always a danger of the adjacent area being flooded if
some cut or breach takes place in the canal banks. Hence, the canal should never be in high embankment.
However, the divergence between the gentle bed slope of canal and the steep ground slope throws the canal in
embankment after a certain distance though it started in cutting at its head. To overcome this difficulty, falls are
introduced at appropriate places, and the water surface of the canal is lowered. Arrangements are made to
dissipate the excess energy liberated from the falling water.
5.1.2 LOCATION OF FALLS/DROPS

The location of a fall is decided from the following considerations
1. For the canal which does not irrigate the area directly, the fall should be located from the considerations of
economy in cost of excavation of the channel with regard to balancing depth and the cost of the falls itself.2.
2. For a canal irrigating the area directly a fall may be provided at a location where the F.S.L. outstrips the
ground level, but before the bed of the canal comes into filling. After the drop, the F.S.L of the canal may be
below the ground level for ½ to ¼kilometre.3.
3. The location of the fall may also be decided from the consideration of the possibility of combining it with a
regulator or a bridge or any other masonry works.4.
4. A relative economy of providing large number of small falls vis small number of big falls should be worked
out. The provision of small number of big falls results in unbalanced earth-work, but there is always some
saving in the cost of the fall structure.
5.1.3 TYPES OF FALLS/DROPS

The falls were first constructed by the British in India in the nineteenth century. The development of falls, since
then, took place gradually. Among the earlier type of falls are: Ogee falls, rapids and stepped falls. Later, notch
falls, vertical falls and glacis type falls were developed
148
1. Ogee fall
The Ogee fall was first constructed by Sir Proby Cautley on the Ganga Canal. This type of fall has gradual
convex and concave curves, with an aim to provide a smooth transition and to reduce disturbance and impact.
This preserved the energy (with out dissipating it).Due to this, the Ogee fall had the following defects:(i)
There was considerable draw down effect on the u/s resulting is bed erosion.(ii)
Due to smooth transition, the kinetic energy was preserved till sufficient depth was scoured out below the fall to
ensure the formation of the hydraulic jump.
Fig. 5.1 Ogee fall
2. Rapid fall
Rapid falls were provided on Western Yamuna Canal and were designed by Lieut. R.F.Croften. Such a fall
consists of a glacis sloping at 1 vertical to 10to 20 horizontal. The long glacis assured the formation of
hydraulic jump. The gentle slope admitted timber traffic. Hence, the fall worked admirably. However, there was
very high cost of construction.
Fig. 5.2 Rapid fall
3. Stepped fall
Stepped fall was a next development of the rapid fall. One such type was provided at the tail, of main canal
escape of Sarda canal. The cost of this fall was also too high.
Fig. 5.3 stepped fall
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4. Notch fall
Soon after the development of stepped fall, the efficiency of vertical impact on the floor for energy dissipation
came to be recognized. The vertical fall came in the field along with the cistern. However, with
greater discharges, vertical fall gave trouble. Hence, these were superseded for a time by the notch fall. The
trapezoidal notch fall was first designed by Riedin 1864.The fall consists of one or more trapezoidal notches in
a high crested wall. A flat circular lip projects downstream of each notch to disperse water. The notches were
designed to maintain the normal water depth in the u/s channel at any two discharge values. The depth
discharge relation was thus maintained with close approximation. As the channel approached the fall, there was
neither drawdown nor heading up of water. The trapezoidal fall was very successful and was adopted in India
for many years. It was also copied all over the world where it is still in use. There was one serious defect in
these falls that they could not be used as regulators in addition.
Fig. 5.4 Notch fall
5. Vertical drop fall

In the vertical drop fall, the nappe impinges clear into the water cushion below. In the earlier types of vertical
falls, the dimensions of cistern were put in arbitrarily in light of experience of the designers. Another device in
the form of grid was usually used in the cistern intercepting the dropping jet of water. The grid consisted
of baulks of timber horizontal or inclined and spaced some centimeters apart. These were later abandoned
because the timber grid got clogged and rotted and had to be replaced frequently. The Sarda type fall developed
on the Sarda canal Project in UP and CDO type fall developed in Punjab are some of the recent types of vertical
drop falls. In these falls, the high velocity jet enters the deep pool of water in the cistern and the dissipation of
energy is affected by the turbulent diffusion.
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Fig. 5.5 Vertical drop fall
6. Glacis type fall

The efficiency of the hydraulic jump as a very potent means of destroying the energy of canal falls is used in
glacis falls. The glacis type of fall utilizes the standing wave phenomenon for dissipation of energy. The glacis
fall may be (i) straight glacis type, or (ii) parabolic glacis type, commonly known as the Montague type. The
straight glacis fall may be with baffle platform and baffle wall. In such a case, the formation of jump takes place
on the baffle platform. This type was first developed by Inglis and is called Inglis fall.
Fig. 5.6 . Glacis type fall

7. Miscellaneous Types
(i) Cylinder fall or Well fall
In this type of fall, water is thrown into a well over a crest from where it escapes near its bottom. The energy is
dissipated in the well in turbulences. They are quite suitable and economical for low discharges and high drops,
and are used at tail escapes of small channels.
(ii) Chute or rapids
(iii) Pipe falls
5.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FALLS
1 Meter and non-meter falls

Meter falls are those which also measure the discharge of the canal. The non-meter falls do not measure the
discharge. For' a fall to act as a meter, it must have broad weir type crest so that the discharge co-efficient is
constant under variable head. Generally glacis type fall is suitable as a meter. The vertical drop fall is not
suitable as a meter due to the formation of partial vacuum under the nape.
2 Flumed and Un flumed falls
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A fall may either be constructed of the full channel width or it may be contracted. The contracted falls are
known as the flumed falls while full channel width falls as the un flumed falls.
5.1.5 DESIGN OF FALLS/DROPS

Irrigation structures (or hydraulic structures) for the diversion and distribution works are weirs, barrages, head
regulators, distributaries head regulators, cross regulators, cross drainage works, canal falls, etc. In north India,
these structures are generally founded on alluvial soils which are highly pervious. Moreover, these soils are
easily scoured when the high velocity water passes over the structures. The basic principles for the design of all
irrigation structures on pervious foundations are as follows:
1 Subsurface flow
1. The structure should be designed such that the piping failure does not occur due tosubsurface flow
2. The thickness of the floor should be sufficient to resist the uplift pressure due tosubsurface flow.
3. A suitably graded filter should be provided at the downstream end of the imperviousfloor to prevent piping.
The filter layer is loaded with concrete blocks. Concrete blocks are also provided at the upstream end.
4. The downstream pile must be provided to reduce the exit gradient and to prevent piping.
2 Surface flow
1. The piles (or cutoff walls) at the upstream and downstream ends of the imperviousfloor should be provided
up to the maximum scour level to protect the main structureagainst scour.
2. The launching aprons should be provided at the upstream and downstream ends to provide a cover to
the main structure against scour.
3 Energy Dissipation
1. A device is required at the downstream to dissipate energy. For large drops, hydraulic jump is used to
dissipate the energy.
2. Additional thickness of the impervious floor is provided at the point where thehydraulic jump is formed to
counterbalance the suction pressure.
5.1.6. DEVELOPMENT OF FALLS/DROPS

Additional thickness of the impervious floor is provided at the point where thehydraulic jump is formed to
counterbalance the suction pressure.
Cistern Design
The cistern is that portion of the fall down stream of the crest wall where the surplus energyof water leaving the
crest is destroyed. The complete cistern element consists of (i) slopingglacis (if any), (ii) the cistern, (iii)
roughening devices, and (iv) device for deflecting the highvelocity jet. The object of cistern is three fold : (i) to
reduce the intensity of impact of the
ropping jet against the downstream floor, (ii) to provide cushion to destroy the energy of thedrop, and (iii) to
produce reverse flow by providing a suitable end-wall to ensure an impact inthe cistern.
Class I
Cistern element in which there is impact from a stream of water falling freely under gravity: In this case, the
energy is dissipated by means of impact and deflection of velocity,suddenly, from the vertical tothe horizontal
direction. To protect the floor from theimpact of falling water, water cushion is provided bydepressing the floor
below thedownstream bed of thechannel. For the requiredlength and depth of cistern, alot of empirical
formulaehave been developed byvarious engineers, based ontheir experience on such works.
U.P. Irrigation Research Institute formulae
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Where, x= depth of cistern below d/s bed (m); Lc= length of cistern (m); HL= height of drop(m); and EL= u/s total
energy above the crest (m)
Class II
Cistern element for impact by a horizontal stream: In this type, the energy is dissipated by the formation of
hydraulic jump. The discharge, after passing over the crest, is carried over a sloping glacis. The sloping glacis is
given a reverse curvature at its lower end to turn the hypercritical jet to a horizontal direction before it impinges
against the subcritical flow of lower channel in the cistern. Hydraulic jump is thus formed.
For a given drop ( HL) in the energy line and the discharge intensity (q), there will be a definite value of
downstream specific energy ( E f2) and the downstream depth ( D2) required for the jump formation.
Theoretically, the bed of the cistern should be provided at the lowest level of the jump formation. However, as
an additional safety, the depth of the cistern is increased by 25% of E f 2. Thus the R.L. of cistern is kept to the
R.L. of d/s total energy line minus 1.25 E f2. In case, however, the downstream bed level is lower than the
cistern level determined from the above consideration, the cistern should be provided at the d/s bed level. The
length of cistern is kept equal to 5 E f2for normal soil and 6 E f2 for sandy soils.
Class III
Cistern without impact: In this type, hydraulic jump is not formed and, therefore energy is dissipated without
any impact. The energy dissipation takes place by the provision of roughening devices. This case arises in case
of falls with, large drowning ratio or in low falls where impact is not possible. In such circumstances, the
roughening devices are the only means available for energy dissipation. The design of various roughening
devices depends upon the experience, and no theoretical treatment is available. Following are some of the
roughening devices used on falls:
5.1.7 ROUGHENING DEVICES:
(1) Baffle wall: A baffle wall is a sort of low weir constructed at the end of the cistern to serve two purposes:
(a) to head up water to its upstream to such a height that hydraulic jump is formed, and (b) to withstand the
actual impact of the high velocity jet to dissipate the energy.
(2) Friction blocks or arrows– Staggered friction blocks are one of the most useful and simple devices to
dissipate theenergy. They consist of rectangular blocks of concrete. Their height may beupto ¼ water depth
andwidths are 1.5 to 2.0 times theheight of the block. Thedistance between successivelines is equal to twice
theheight. Arrows are speciallyshaped friction blocks. Boththese are built on d/s floor of the falls below the
glacis or cistern with the object todivide the bottom highvelocity water laterally. They just serve to reduce the
bottomvelocity of water leaving the pucca floor of the fall.
(3) Dentated sill – A dentatedsill is provided at the end of cistern if high velocity jet persists to the end of
thecistern. The object of the sillis to deflect up the highvelocity jet from near the bedand to break it.
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(4) Deflectors– A deflector isof uniform height, unlike thedentated sill. Its object is to deflect up the high
velocity jet near the bed causing a reverseroller.
(5) Biff wall– It is provided at the end of cistern, causing a deep pool of water behind it in thecistern. Its object
is to deflect back the water from the cistern to create super turbulence in it.
(6)Cellular or ribbed pitching – Ribbed pitching is constructed on the sides by putting bricksflat and on edge
alternatively, as shown in Fig. This provides the roughening of the perimeter to destroy surplus energy down-
stream of the fall
Fig. 5.7 Roughening Devices
5.1.8 DESIGN OF SHARDA TYPE FALL
1. Crest
i. Length of crest:
The length of crest is kept equal to bed width, it is also possible to extend the length to bed width plus depth.
ii. Shape of crest

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For Q < 15 cumec, the section is kept rectangular with the d/s face absolutely vertical. The top width B t =
0.55√D1 and minimum base width = D1/2 where D1 is the height of crest above d/s bed level. It may be capped
with 25 cm 1:2:4 cement concrete with its both ends rounded.
For Q≥15 cumec, a trapezoidal section with top width Bt = 0.55√D1+ D2 with u.s. side slope of 1H:3V and
segmental top conforming to a quadrant of a circle of radius 0.3 m at d/s edge of crest width and d/s slope of
1H: 8V is adopted.
a. Rectangular crest fall

b. Trapezoidal fall
Fig. 5.8 sarada type fall
iii. Crest level

The following equation is used to determine the height of the crest:
For submerged flow conditions (above 33% submergence) discharge passing over crest is:
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Fig. 5.9
2. U.S. Approaches
For discharges larger than 15 cumec, the wing walls are kept segmental with radius equal to 5 6 times D making
an angle 60º at center, and carried tangentially into the berm. The foundations of wing walls are laid on
impervious floor itself. For falls of discharges less than 15 cumec, the approach wings may be splayed straight
at an angle of 45º.
i. U.S. protection
Brick pitching in a length equal to u.s. water depth should be laid on u.s. bed towards the crest at a slope
10H:1V.
ii. U.S. curtain wall (cutoff)

The thickness of curtain wall equal to 1½ brick and depth equal to 1/3 u.s. water depth + 0.6 m, be provided
with min. 0.8 m also considering Lacey’s criteria
3. Impervious concrete floor

i. Total floor length and its disposition:
Khosla’s method is used for large works. Bligh’s theory is used for small works. The minimum length of floor
on the d/s side for clear falls and submergence less than 33% is:
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For submerged falls with submergence greater than 33%,
The balance of total length maybe provided under and upstream of crest.
4. Cistern
i. Length of cistern
For clear falls and submergence less than 33%,
For submerged falls with submergence greater than 33%,
ii. Depth of cistern (X)
5. D/S Protection
i. Bed protection
Brick pitching about 20 cm thick resting on 10 cm ballast in a length equal 3 times d/s water depth.
Toe wall 1½ brick thick and of depth = ½ (d/s water depth) with minimum 0.6 m provided at the end of
pitching.
ii. Side protection

After wing walls, the side slopes of the channel are pitched with 1 brick on edge in a length equal to 3 times d/s
water depth. The pitching should rest on a toe wall 1½ brick thick and of depth equal to ½ d/s water depth.
iii. Curtain wall

The thickness of curtain wall may be 1½ brick thick and depth = ½ (d/s water depth) with minimum 1 m, also
consider Lacey’s criteria.
iv. D/S wings

For Q > 15 cumec, d/s wings are kept vertical for a length = (5to8) √DH L and may then be gradually warped.
They should be taken up to the end of pucca floor.
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5.2 CANAL HEADWORK
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION:
These include the cross regulator and the distributary head regulator structures for controlling the flow through
a parent canal and its off-taking distributary as shown in Figure 4.1. They also help to maintain the water level
in the canal on the upstream of the regulator. Canal regulators, which are gated structures, may be combined
with bridges and falls for economic and other considerations, like topography, etc.
The angle at which a distributary canal off-takes from the parent canal has to be decided carefully. The best
angle is when the distributary takes off smoothly, as shown in Figure 4.4(a). Another alternative is to provide
both channels (off-taking and parent) at an angle to the original direction of the parent canal (Figure 4.4(b)).
When it becomes necessary for the parent canal to follow a straight alignment, the edge of the canal rather than
the centre line should be considered in deciding the angle of off-take (Figure 4.4(c)). To prevent excessive entry
of silt deposition at the mouth of the off-take, the entry angle should be kept to between 60" and 80". The water
entering into the off-taking distributary canal from the parent canal may also draw suspended sediment load.
The distributary should preferably be designed to draw. sediment proportional to
its flow, for maintaining non-siltation of either the parent canal or itself.
5.2.2 DEFINITION:
Any hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off taking canal. Diversion head-work provides an
obstruction across a river, so that the water level is raised and water is diverted to the channel at required level.
The increase water level helps the flow of water by gravity and results in increasing the commanded area and
reducing the water fluctuations in the river.
Diversion head-work may serve as silt regulator into the channel. Due to the obstruction, the velocity of the
river decreases and silt settles at the bed. Clear water with permissible percentage of silt is allowed to flow
through the regulator into the channel.
To prevent the direct transfer of flood water into the channel
Fig.5.10 alignment types for off taking canal from a parent canal
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5.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF A HEADWORK

A headwork serves the following purposes
 A headwork raises the water level in the river
 It regulates the intake of water into the canal
 It also controls the entry of silt into the canal
 A headwork can also store water for small periods of time.
 Reduces fluctuations in the level of supply in river
7.2.3.1 Functions of Cross Regulators

1. Regulation of the canal system.
2. Raising the water level in the main canal in order to feed the off take channels.
3. To facilitate communication by building a road over the cross regulator with little extra
cost.
4. To absorb the fluctuations in the canal system.
5.2.3.2 Functions of Head Regulators

1. To regulate and control supplies entering the off take channel (distributary) from the
main (parent) canal.
2. To control silt entering into the distributary.
3. To serve for measurement of discharge
5.2.4 DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTOR AND HEAD REGULATORS:
1. Waterway
The effective waterway of head regulator should not be less than 60% of bed width of off taking channel and
mean velocity should not exceed 2.5 m/sec.
2. Crest level
Crest level of the distributary head regulator is generally kept 0.3 m to 0.6 m higher than crest level of cross
regulator (C.R.). The crest level of C.R. is provided at bed level of parent canal should be worked out from the
formula e He
159
3. Coefficient of discharge (C)

The coefficient of discharge C is 1.84 for crests of width less than or equal to 2/3He. In case of submerged falls,
C should be reduced depending on the drowning ratio, see Fig. 6.5.
C=1.840 (H.R. crest)

C=1.705 (C.R. crest)
Fig.5.11
4. Shape of crest
The u.s face of the crest should be given a slope of 1:1. The d.s. sloping glacis should not be steeper than 2:1.
Fig.5.12 Sharp Crest Geometry
160
5. Crest width should be kept equal to 2/3 He
6. Vertical cut-offs
The cut-off should be provided at the end of u.s. and d.s. floors for safety against scour, undermining and exit
gradient. Due to Lacey’s scour depth
Table 5.1 minimum depth of u/s and d/s cut-offs
7. Thickness of top coat
Table5.2 thickness of top coat
8. Freeboard
Table.5.3 minimum free board
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9. Protection works
Downstream of floor, properly designed filter loaded by concrete blocks should be provided. The length of
inverted filter is kept equal to 2D (D is the depth of d.s. cut-off below d.s. bed). Details of minimum thickness
of the filter are given in Table 6.3. The width of gabs between the blocks shall not be more than 50 mm which
should be packed with biggest size of pebbles available. Beyond the filter, an apron of 1.5D length shall be
provided. Similar protection is also provided in the u.s. in a length equal to D. the cubic content of material in
launching apron should be equal to 3 2.25D m3. m/ m per length.
5.3 CANAL OUTLETS

5.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Canal outlets, also called f a r m turnouts in some countries, are structures at the head o f a water course or
field channe l . The supply canal is usually under the control of an irrigation authority under the state
government. Since an outlet is a link connecting the government owned supply channel and the cultivator
owned field channel, the requirements should satisfy the needs o f both the groups. Since equitable distribution
of the canal supplies is dependent on the outlets, it must not only pass a known and constant quantity of water,
but must also be able to measure the released water satisfactorily. Also, since the outlets release water to each
and every farm watercourse, such structures are more numerous than any other irrigation structure. Hence it is
essential to design an outlet in such a way that it is reliable and be also robust enough such that it i s not easily
tampered with. Further the cost of an outlet structure should be low and should work efficiently with a small
working head, since a larger working head w6uld require higher water level in the parent channel resulting in
high cost of the distribution system. Discharge through an outlet is usually less than 0.085 cumecs. It is very
difficult to achieve a perfect design fulfilling both the properties of 'flexibility' a s well a s 'sensitivity' because
of various indeterminate conditions both in the supply channel and the watercourse o f t h e following factors :
(a) Discharge and silt
(b) Capacity factor
(c) Rotation of channels
(d) Regime condition of distribution channels, etc
These modules are classified in three types, which are as follows
Non-modular Outlets
These outlets operate in such a way that the flow passing through them is a function of the difference in water
levels of the distributional channel and the, watercourse. Hence, a variation in either affects the discharge.
These outlets consist of regulator or circular openings and pavement. The effect of downstream water level is
more with short pavement. Irrigation Engineering Semi-modular Outlets The discharge through these outlets
depend on the water level of the distributing channel but is independent of the water level in the watercourse so
long as the minimum working head required for their working is available.
Module Outlets
The discharge through modular outlets is independent of the water levels in the distributing channel and the
watercourse, within reasonable working limits. This type of outlets may or may not be equipped with moving
162
parts. Though modular outlets, like the Gibb's module, have been designed and implemented earlier but they are
not very common in the present Indian irrigation engineering scenario.
Semi Module Outlet:

the discharge through a semi modular outlet depends only on the water level in the distributary and is
unaffected by the water level in the water course provided that a minimum working head required for its
working is available. A semi module is more suitable for achieving equitable distribution of water at all outlets
of a distributor. The only disadvantage of a semi modular outlet is that it inovolves comparatively greater loss
of head
5.3.2 FLEXIBILITY
The ratio of the rate of change of discharge of an outlet (dQo/Qo) to the rate of change of discharge of the
distributor channel (dQ/Q) is termed the flexibility which is designated as F. thus
Here Q and Qo are the flow rates in the distributor channel and the watercourse respectively. Expressing
discharge Q in the distributor channel in terms of depth of flow h in the channel as
Similarly the discharge Qo through the outlet can be expressed in terms of the head H on the outlet is
Here m and n are suitable indices and C1 and C2 are constants, thus
For semi modular out lets the change in the head dH at an outlet would be equal to the change in the depth of
flow dh in the distributary.
If the value is unity the rate of change of outlet discharge equals that of the distributor discharge
For a modular out let the flexibility is equal to zero.
Depending on the value of F the outlets are classified as

(i) Proportional outlets: F= 1
(ii) Hyperpreportional Outlets: F>1
(iii) Sub Proportional Outlets: F<1
5.3.3 SENSITIVITY
The ratio of the rate of change of discharge(dQo/Qo) of an outlet to the rate of change in the water surface level
of the distributary channel with respect to the depth of flow in the channel is called sensitivity of the out let.
Thus
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here S is the sensitivity and G is the gauge reading of a gauge which is so set that G=0 corresponds to the
condition of no discharge through the outlet (i.e, Q0 =0) OBVIOUSLY, dG =dh. Thus sensitivity can also be
defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of an oulet to the rate of change of depth of flow in the
distributor channel. Therefore
Thus the sensitivity of an outlet for a wide trapezoidal (or rectangular) distributary channel (n=5/3) is equal to
(5/3)F. the sensitivity of a modular outlet is zero.
The efficiency of any outlet is equal to the ratio of the head recovered to the input head of the water flowing
through the outlet.
5.4 Outlets and Modules

The success of any irrigation enterprise depends on the efficiency of distributing sufficient supply of water to
the irrigator. Each irrigator has to receive certain quantity of water proportionate to his extent in a canal system
at the proper time to ensure him a good crop. This distribution of water is carried out by means of outlets
otherwise called modules. Hence, proper design of an outlet, is of most importance not only to the canal
engineer but to the irrigator also. A few of the structures in common use in India are
(i) Standing wave flume.
(ii) Crump's adjustable proportional Semi module.
(iii) Lindley type standing wave flume.
(iv) Orifice type standing wave pipe outlet.
(v) Gibb's module.
There are various types of modules:
a. Rigid Modules
These modules allow constant discharge within reasonable working limits of head irrespective of water levels in
the distributory and the water course of the main canal.
b. Flexible Modules or Semi Modules

This type of module gives discharge in some characteristic manner with surface level in the supply channel but
independent of the variation of the water level in the delivery channel.
c. Non-Modular Outlets
Non-modular outlets are those whose discharge is a function of the difference in levels between the water
surface in the distributing channel and the water course.
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JNTUH PREVIOUS
EXAM QUESTIONS
165
UNIT-I
1.(a) Discuss the physical factors governing the selection of a particular type of dam.
(b) Describe the zoning of storages of a reservoir.
2.Explain the mass curve method that can be used for determining:
(a) Reservoir capacity for fulfilling given demand?
(b) Demand rate from a reservoir of a given capacity.
3.(a) Explain the different types of storages in a reservoir with the help of a neat sketch.
(b) Given the specific yield, describe the procedure for estimating the reservoir capacity using mass inow and
demand curves.
4.(a) Discuss the requisites of good sites for various types of dams.
(b) Differentiate clearly between the following:
i. Flood control reservoir and a multipurpose reservoir
ii. Retarding basin and a storage reservoir
iii. Firm yield, design yield and secondary yield of a reservoir
iv. Spillway, Dam, Barrage.
5.(a) Discuss the physical, economic and environmental considerations which influence the planning of a
reservoir.
(b) Describe Geological and Hydrological investigations required in reservoir planning.
6.(a) What preliminary investigations should be conducted for the selection of a dam site.
(b) Enumerate the different types of dams. What are the factors which effect the selection of a particular type
of dam.
7. (a) What do you mean by reservoir planning. What are the uses and disadvantages of reservoirs. Explain.
(b) Monthly flow rate in million cubic metres of a river are given below. What would be the maximum
storage capacity when 85 cumecs of water is drawn at a uniform rate for power generation. If the reservoir
capacity is fixed at 710 million cubic metres, what uniform rate of with drawal is possible. Assume a month
is equal to 30 days.
8.(a) Define dead storage, live storage, effective storage. What is their importance in the design of reservoirs?
(b) What is trap efficiency? What are the factors on which it depends? Explain the necessity of a reservoir
sedimentation survey.
9.(a) Define
i. Reservoir yield ii. Density current
iii. Trap efficiency iv. Balancing Reservoir.
(b) What is meant by reservoir sedimentation. What are the factors effecting silting of reservoirs?
10.(a) Explain under what circumstances would you adopt a gravity dam and earthen dam.
(b) What are the factors which effect the selection of type of a dam. Explain.
11. What do you understand by single purpose and multipurpose reservoirs. Under what conditions do you
go for multipurpose projects.
166
UNIT-II
1.(a) Explain how and why elementary profile of gravity dam is modified to give practical profile with the help
of neat sketches.
(b) What do you understand by stability analysis of a gravity dam. Discuss two methods generally used.
2. (a) Describe the effect of wave pressure and silt pressure on gravity dams with the help of neat sketches.
(b) Discuss I.S. recommendations for different combination of loading during the design of gravity dams.
5. Determine minimum safe base width of an elementary profile of a gravity dam holding 50m depth of
water, assume specific gravity of dam material as 2.4, uplift factor as 0.4. Coefficient of friction between
concrete and foundation soil 0.7. Also find out principal and shear stresses at the toe of dam.
8. (a) What is meant by elementary profile of a gravity dam and how is it determined. What should be
maximum height of elementary profile of a dam, if the safe limit of stress on the masonry were not to
exceed 150 t/m3. Assume weight of masonry as 2.4 t/m3.
(b) Write a detailed note on construction joints in gravity dams.
9. (a) Define elementary profile of dam and derive the base width of elementary profile based on stress and
sliding criteria. Consider the full reservoir condition.
(b) Write detailed notes on:
i. Uplift force ii. Earthquake forces on gravity dams.
10. A concrete gravity dam has the following design features:R.L. of top of dam = 200 m, Top width = 7 m,
R.L. of bottom of top rectangular portion = 190 m, Downstream batter = 0.7H on 1V, Upstream batter is below
150 m RL and has a value = 1H on 8V, Drainage gallery is at 10 m from upstream vertical face., Uplift
reduction at gallery = 0.7, Tail water depth = 5 m, Weight of concrete = 2.4 t/m3, Free board = 5 m, RL of base
of dam = 100 m, Determine the vertical normal stresses at each end of the base for reservoir full, condition.
Make suitable assumptions wherever necessary.
12. Check the stability of the concrete gravity dam for reservoir full condition. As shown in _gure 7.
Neglect gallery in calculations. Assume co-efficient of uplift = 1, Unit weight of dam material = 2.4
t=m3, unit weight of water = 1t=m3. Consider free board = 2 m. Assume any other data not given. [16]
13. A concrete gravity dam 20 m in height has top width 6 m and free board 2.5 m, upstream face is vertical,
while downstream face has a slope of 0.6H:1V right from top to bottom. Check the stability of the dam.
Take specific weight of concrete as 2:4t=m3. Consider full uplift. There is no tail water. Assume any
other data not given.
14. Design a suitable section for the over flow portion of a concrete gravity dam having the d/s face sloping
at 0.7H:1V. The design discharge for the spillway is 8000 cumecs. The height of the spillway crest is
kept at RL 204.0m. The average river bed level at the site is 100.0m. The spillway length consists of 6
spans having a clear width of 10m, each. Thickness at each pier may be taken as 2.5m.
167
UNIT-III
1. (a) Explain how the following parameters effect design of an earthen dam.
i. OMC ii. C and F values of soil
iii. Permeability of soil and iv. Sudden draw down of reservoir.
(b) Explain different methods of reducing seepage in earthen dams.
2. (a) Discuss in detail the salient features of any two types of earthen dams with the help of neat sketches.
(b) Mention the circumstances under which the earthen dams are preferred.
3. (a) Explain the methods of construction of earth dams. Also write the merits anddemerits of earth dams.
(b) Write briefly about overtopping, wave erosion and piping phenomenon inearthen dams.
4. Describe with neat sketches the various seepage control measures through:
(a) Body of earthen dam (b) Foundation of earthen dam.
5. (a) Sketch out sections of earth dam to suit various conditions of available material and existing
foundation conditions.
(b) Explain the method of stability analysis of d/s slope during steady seepage with the help of neat
sketch.
6. Write short notes on:

(a) Hydraulic failures of earthen dams
(b) Significance of pore pressure in relation to earthen dam construction
(c) Slope protection in earthen dams
(d) Filters in earthen dams.
7. (a) Write a detailed note on filter criteria for earth dam.

(b) State classification rolled fill dam. Why the zoned earth dam is considered superior to other types.
8. (a) What do you understand by construction of pore pressure in earth dams and how are they
determined.
(b) Explain the method of checking the stability of earth dam foundation against shear.
9. (a) Describe a typical zoned earth dam with the help of a neat sketch. Also describe the significance of
various zones in zoned dams.
(b) A homogeneous earthen dam is 21.5m high and has a free board of 1.5m. A flow net was constructed
and the following results were noted.
Number of potential drops = 12
Number of flow channels =3
The dam has a horizontal filter of 15m length at its drawdown end. Calculate the discharge per metre
length of the dam if the coefficient of permeability of the dam material is 2.7 × 10−3 cm/sec.
10. (a) Define chute spillway. Discuss the design principles involved in the chute spillway. Why is it
preferred to ogee and other types of spillways.
(b) What are the spillways and why are they provided. Name the various types of spillways and spillway
Gates.
11. (a) Describe stilling basin with sloping apron type energy dissipater with the help of a neat sketch.
(b) What are the different protection works you would recommend when JHC lies above TWC for all
discharges? Explain.
168
12. (a) Discuss in brief, different types of spillways provided for dams and mention where each of these is
suitable
(b) What is meant by priming and depriming element of siphon. Discuss the devices used for early
priming in a saddle siphon spillway.
13. (a) What do you mean Jump height curve and tail water curve. Describe the significance of these two
curves.
(b) Explain the design procedure for the standard stilling basing type-1.
14. (a) Mention different types of spillways. Also mention different types of gates used on spillways.
(b) Discuss the salient features that affect the hydraulic design of an Ogee spillway with the help of
relevant sketches.
15. Describe the functioning of Ogee spillway and saddle siphon spillway with the help of neat sketches.
16. (a) List any eight qualities of a good siphon.

(b) Draw the neat sketch of USBR drum gate. Mention its salient features.
17. (a) What do you mean Jump height curve and tail water curve. Describe the significance of these two
curves.
18. (a) Compare and contrast standard crested shaft spillway and Flat crested shaft spillway.
(b) Determine the discharge through a chute spillway of ogee crest. Length of spillway is 250m. Height
of spillway crest above u/s approach channel is 10 m. Width of approach channel is 250 m and depth of
water over spillway crest is 5m. Assume coefficient of discharge as 2.5 neglecting velocity of approach.
19 (a) What do you mean Jump height curve and tail water curve. Describe the significance of these two
curves.
20. (a) Compare and contrast standard crested shaft spillway and Flat crested shaft spillway.
(b) Determine the discharge through a chute spillway of ogee crest. Length of spillway is 250m. Height
of spillway crest above u/s approach channel is 10 m. Width of approach channel is 250 m and depth of
water over spillway crest is 5m. Assume coefficient of discharge as 2.5 neglecting velocity of approach.
21. (a) Discuss various methods used for energy dissipation below spillways.
(b) Calculate discharge over a spillway, crest length 100m, wherein water flow depth changes from 1m
to 4m in hydraulic jump formation in stilling basin.
169
UNIT-IV
1. (a) Explain the functions of various components of a diversion work.
(b) Discuss Khosla's theory for design of weirs on permeable foundations, Enumerate the various
corrections that are needed in its application.
2. (a) Draw a neat sketch showing various components of a canal headwork. Briefly explain the functions
of each component.
(b) What is the difference between a weir and a barrage? Why is a barrage preferred to weir in modern
times
3. (a) Explain the working of a Crump's adjustable proportional module (Crump's A.P.M.). What are its
advantages and disadvantages.
(b) Design a semi-modular outlet for a discharge of 0.06 cumecs on a distributor with a full supply depth
of 1 m and the working head of 0.55 m.
4. (a) Discuss the limitations and anomalies of Bligh's method.

(b) Briefly explain Khosla's theory and how it is used in the design of weir on permeable foundations.
5. Design an open flume at tail for a minor of discharge 0.030 cumecs and F.S depth of 0.3 m.
6. Design crest wall and cistern of a sarda type fall on a channel of 15 cumecs, bed width 18m, depth 1.5m,
U/S FSL 101m, bed level is 99.5m, No supply Level is 90.00m, Fall 1.0m, side slope is 1/2 :1. Assume
suitable missing data.
7. Design crest wall and cistern of a sarda type fall on a channel of 15 cumecs, bed width 18m, depth 1.5m,
U/S FSL 101m, bed level is 99.5m, No supply Level is 90.00m, Fall 1.0m, side slope is 1/2 :1. Assume
suitable missing data.
8. (a) Describe Hydraulic jump type II stilling basin with horizontal apron in which Froude number of the
incoming flow is greater then 4.5. Draw a neat sketch.
(b) Describe the different protection measures adopted when JHC lies lower than TWC at all discharges.
Draw neat sketches wherever possible
9 (a) State briey how you will fix up the location and capacity of canal outlet.
(b) State requirements for an ideal outlet. Distinguish between a modular, a non-modular and a semi-
modular outlet. Give on example of each type.
170
UNIT-V
1. (a) State requirements for an ideal outlet. Distinguish between a modulator, a non-modulator and a semi
modulator outlet. Give one example for each type.
(b) Explain briefly various devices commonly used for dissipation of energy below a canal fall with
illustrative sketches.
2. (a) Explain Hinds method of designing canal transitions.

(b) Explain inlet, outlet and inlet and outlet.
3. Design 1 m Sarda type fall on a channel carrying 20 cumecs discharge whose bed width and water depth
are 14 m and 1.5 m respectively.
4. (a) What are the functions of a head regulator and a cross regulator? Explain with neat sketch.
(b) Describe the design criteria for head regulator.
5. (a) Why do we provide a fall on canal? Enumerate different types of falls.

(b) Data refer to fall site, full supply discharge us/ds = 50 cumecs, bed width u/s/d/s = 28.0 m, full
supply level u/s/d/s = 150.00/148.50, bed level u/s/d/s = 148.00/146.50 m. What type of fall would you
recommend for this canal. Design cistern of fall.
6. (a) Discuss briey how will you decide the following in the design of a canal fall
i. Fluming ratio
ii. Crest level of breast wall
iii. Length and shape of downstream expansive transition.
(b) Explain briey various devices commonly used for dissipation of energy below a canal fall with
illustrative sketches.
7. (a) What is meant by canal falls? Why are falls constructed in modern canal systems?
(b) What are roughening devices? Discuss their use in construction of falls.
8. Describe with the help of suitable sketches Bligh's creep theory for the safe design of apron in an
irrigation work.
9. Design crest wall and cistern of sards type fall. Assume suitable data wherever it is necessary.
U/s D/s
Full supply discharge 10cumecs 10cumecs
Full supply Level 101.5 100.5
Fully supply Depth 1.5m 1.5m
Bed Level 100.0 99.0
Bed width 8.0m 8.0m
Drop is 1 m and soil is good loam.
10. Design crest wall and cistern of sards type fall. Assume suitable data wherever it is necessary.
171
Drop is 1 m and soil is good loam.
11. (a) Describe three classes of outlets, their relative merits and demerits. Outline the three types of outlets
to suit different reaches of a canal.
(b) Describe the design criteria for a cross regulator.
12. (a) Differentiate between

i. Aqueduct and syphon aqueduct ii. Syphon aqueduct and canal syphon
iii. Aqueduct and super passage iv. Level crossing and inlet-outlet structure
(b) What factors will you consider while selecting a suitable type of cross drainage work?
13. (a) What are different types of cross drainage works? Explain them in brief.
(b) Suggest suitable cross-drainage works, under the following situation and draw neat sketch to
illustrate the same.
Canal data Drainage data
FSL/HFL 125.00 m 124.00 m
bed level 125.00 m 122.00 m
Discharge 100 cumeces 20 cumeces
14. Design an aqueduct for the following data.

(a) Canal Full supply discharge = 50.00 cumecs
Full supply level = 207.80
Canal bed level = 206.00
Depth of water = 1.80 m
Bed width = 25.0m
Side slopes = 1.5:1
(b) Drainage High ood discharge = 500 cumecs
High ood level = 204.00
Bed level = 200.00
General ground level = 202.00
Assume suitable other data.
15. (a) During the construction of a canal, which type of cross drainage works shall possibly come across.
Briey state the site conditions under which each one is used.
(b) Describe various steps for the design of a syphon-aqueduct.
16 (a) Discuss the factors governing the suitable type of a cross drainage work.
(b) Describe syphon aqueduct with a neat sketch.
17 (a) What is a Level crossing. Explain it with the help of a neat sketch. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of it.
(b) Explain the design criteria of super passage.
18. (a) What is a cross drainage work. What are different types of cross drainage works.
(b) Describe with a neat sketch aqueduct.
19. (a) What is a cross drainage work. What are different types of cross drainage works.
(b) Describe with a neat sketch aqueduct.
172
MULTPLE CHOICE
QUESTIONS
173
1. Dead storage in a reservoir is provide______________

a)To meet engineering needs b)to mitigate floods
c) to accomidate the silt trapped in the reservoir d) to increase useful life of reservoir
2. Which of the following is a rigid dam________________

a)Gravity dam b)earthdam c)rockfill dam d)cofferdam
3. A swan dam on nile river in Egypt was perhaps the first modern dam of the world. It construction was
completed in the year_______________
a)1664 b)1798 c)1902 d)1931
4. When sand and gravel foundation strata is available at a preposed dam site of moderate height the dam may
be of the type_____________
a)earth or rockfill dam b)masonry dam
c)double arch dam d)concrete gravity dam
5. Bakhra dam of our country is located in the state of ______________

a)Punjab b)himachal Pradesh c)uttarpradesh d)Madhya Pradesh
6. Inflow to the reservoir is a __________________

a)random variable b)stochastic variable
c)spatial variable d)none
7. Arch dam behaves as _____________________

a)cantilever b)uniforml;y distributed
c)simply supported d)all of the above
8. In a u-shapped valley the more suitable dam___________

a)gravity dam b)enmbankment dam
c)buttress dam d)timber dam
9. Earth dams are________________

a) Rigid dam b)non ridged dam c)overflow dam d)diversion
10. Sides of the valley on which the dam structure rest is known as ________________
a)abutment b)gallery c)basement d)none
11. Beaver dam is type of ________

a)gravity dam b)enmbankment dam
c)buttress dam d)timber dam
12. The useful storage is the volume of water stored in the reservoir between
a)minimum pool level and maximum pool level
b)minimum pool level and normal pool level
c)normal pool level and maximum pool level
d)river bed and minimum pool level
13. The water stored in the reservoir below the minimum pool level is called
a) Useful storage b)dead storage c)valley storage d)surcharge storage
174
14. For a flood control reservoir, the effective storage is equal to

a) Useful storage-valley storage
b) Usefulstorage+surcharge storage
c) useful storage+surcharge storage+valley storage
d) useful storage+surcharge storage-valley storage
15 water supplied from a reservoir in one year is known as

a) Demand b)storage c)yield d)none
16. In a reservoir the capacity is 20 cm and the annual inflow is estimated to be 25 cm. The trap efficiency
of this reservoir under normal operating conditions is about
a) 10% b) 45% c) 75% d) 100%
17. Trap efficiency of areservoir is a function of

a)capacity/inflow ratio b)capacity/outflow ratio
c) outflow/inflow ratio d)none of the above
18. the total capacity of a reservoir is 25 million cubic meters and dead storage is 5 million cubic meters. If
the average volume of sediment deposition is 0.10 million cubic meter per year, then the usefulness of
the reservoir will strat reducing after
a)50 years b)150 years c)200 years d)250 years
19. When the upstream face of a gravity dam is vertical, then the intensity of water pressure at the water
surface and at the base respectively will be
a) 0 and wH2/2 b) wH2/2and wH2/3 c) wH and 0 d) OandwII
where w is unit weight of water and H is the depth of water.
20. The uplift pressure on a dam can be controlled by

i) constructing cutoff under upstream face
ii) constructing drainage channels between the dam and its foundation
iii) by pressure grouting in foundation The correct answer is
a) only (i) b) both (i) and (ii) c) both (i) and (iii) d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
21. The uplift pressure on the face of a drainage gallery in a dam is taken as
a) hydrostatic pressure at toe b) average of hydrostatic pressure at toe and heel
c) two third of hydrostatic pressure at toe plus onethird of hydrostatic pressure at heel
d) none of the above
22. Horizontal acceleration due to earthquake results in
a) hydrodynamic pressure b) inertia force into the body of the dam
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of the above
23. Hydrodynamic pressure due to earthquake acts at a height of

a) 3H/47I above the base b) 3H747t below the water surface
c) 4H/371 above the base
d) 4H737t below the water surface where H is the depth of water.
24. The major resisting force in a gravity dam is

a) water pressure b) wave pressure c) selfweight of dam d) uplift pressure
175
25. When the reservoir is full, the maximum compressive force in a gravity dam is produced
a) at the toe b) at the heel
c) within the middle third of base d) at centre of base
26. The maximum permissible eccentricity for no tension at the base of a gravity dam is
a) B/2 b) B/3 c) B/4 d) B/6
27. Presence of tail water in a gravity dam

i) increases the principal stress ii) decreases the principal stress
iii) increases the shear stress iv) decreases the shear stress
The correct answer is
a) (i) and (iii) b) (i)and(iv) c) (ii) and (iii) d) (ii) and (iv)
28. For wave action in dams, the maximum height of freeboard is generally taken to be equal to
a) 0.5 hw b) 0.75 hw c) 0.75 hw d) 1.50 hw
where hw is height of wave.
29. As compared to gravity dams, earthen dams

a) are costlier b) are less susceptible to failure
c) require sound rock foundations d) require less skilled labour
30. The most suitable material for the central impervious core of a zoned embankment type dam is
a) clay b) coarse sand c) silty clay d) clay mixed with fine sand
31. Seepage through embankments in an earthen dam is controlled by

a) drainage filters b) relief wells
c) drain trenches d) provision of downstream berms
32. Seepage through foundation in an earthen dam is controlled by providing

a) rock toe b) horizontal blanket
c) impervious cut off d) chimney drain
33. The flow of water after spilling over the weir crest in chute spillway and side channel spillway
respectively are
a) at right angle and parallel to weir crest
b) parallel and at right angle to weir crest
c) parallel to weir crest in both
d) at right angle to weir crest in both
34. The discharge passing over an ogee spillway is given by

a) CLH3/2 b) CHL3/2 c) CLH5/2 d) CLH1/2
where, L is effective length of spillway crest and H is the total head over the spillway crest including
velocity head.
35. Coefficient of discharge of an ogee spillway

a) depends on depth of approach and upstream slope
b) depends on downstream apron interference and downstream submergence
c) remains constant d) both (a) and (b)
176
36. Which of the following spillways is least suitable for an earthen dam ?
a) ogee spillway b) chute spillway
c) side channel spillway d) shaft spillway
37. In case of nonavailability of space due to topography, the most suitable spillway is
a) straight drop spillway b) shaft spillway
c) chute spillway d)ogee spillway
38. In a chute spillway, the flow is usually
a) uniform b) subcritical c) critical d) super critical
39. For the upstream face of an earthen dam, the most adverse condition for stability of slope is
a) sudden drawdown b) steady seepage
c) during construction d) sloughing of slope
40. According to Khosla, the exits gradient of surface flow

Depends upon the b/d ratio
Is independent of the b/d ratio
Is independent of the depths of d/s cut off walls
None of thes
41. According to Bligh's creep theory, percolating water flows along
a) Straight path under the foundation of the dam b) Circular path under the foundation of the dam
c)The outline of the base of the foundation of the dam d)None of these
42. For the design of major hydraulic structures on the canals, the method generally preferred to, is based on
a) Bligh's theory b) Electrical analogy method

c) The relaxation method c) Khosla's method of independent variables
43. If the height of the hydraulic gradient line above the floor of thickness t is h and the specific gravity of the
material of the floor is G, the minimum thickness t of the floor downstream of the crest-wall, is given by the
equation
a)t = (h + 1)/(G + t) b)t = (h - 1)/(G + t) c)t = (h - 1)/(G - t) d)t = (h + 1)/G
44. The main function of a diversion head works of a canal from a river, is
a)To remove silt b)To control floods c)To store water d)To raise water level
45. For the stability of a structure against seepage pressure according to Khosla's creep theory, the
critical gradient is
a)Zero b)0.25 c)0.50 d)1.00
46. In a barrage, the crest level is kept

a)Low with large gates b)High with large gates
c)High with no gates d)Low with no gates
47. The crest level of a canal diversion head work, depends upon
a)F.S.L. of the canal b)Discharge perimeters c)Pond level d)All the above
177
48. The most suitable location of a canal head work, is

a)Boulders stage of the river b)Delta stage of the river
c)Rock stage of the river d)Trough stage of the river
49. Bligh's theory of seepage assumes

Equal weightage to the horizontal and vertical creep
More weightage to horizontal creep than vertical creep
Less weightage to horizontal creep than vertical creep
Loss of head follows the sine curve
50. Lane's weighted creep theory assumes

Equal weightage to horizontal and vertical creeps
Double weightage to horizontal creep and one weightage to vertical creep
Triple weightage to horizontal creep and one weightage to vertical creep
Triple weightage to vertical creep and one weightage to horizontal creep
51. If there are two canals taking off from each flank of a river,then there will be
a) one divide wall and one undersluice b) one divide wall and two undersluices
c) two divide walls and one undersluice d) two divide walls and two undersluices
52. Generally the weir is aligned at right angles to the direction of the main river current because
a) it ensures less length of the weir b) it gives better discharging capacity
c) it is economical d) all of the above
53. The main function of a divide wall is to

a) control the silt entry in the canal b) prevent river floods from entering the canal
c) separate the undersluices from weir proper d) provide smooth flow at sufficiently low velocity
54. A divide wall is provided

a) at right angle to the axis of weir
b) parallel to the axis of weir and upstream of it
c) parallel to the axis of weir and downstream of it
d) at an inclination to the axis of weir
55. As compared to crest of the normal portion of the weir, the crest of the under sluice portion of weir is
kept at
a) lower level b) higher level c) same level
d) any of the above depending on the design
56. Silt excluders are constructed on the

a) river bed upstream of head regulator b) river bed downstream of head regulator
c) canal bed upstream of head regulator d) canal bed downstream of head regulator
57. According to Khosla’s theory, the exit gradient in the absence of a downstream cutoff is
a) 0 b) unity c) infinity d) very large
58. When a canal flowing under pressure is carried below a natural drainage such that its F.S.L. does not
touch the underside of the supporting structure, the structure so provided, is called
a) Syphon b) Aqueduct c) Super passage d) Syphon-aqueduct
178
59. Pick up the correct statement from the following

In a level crossing, a crest with its top at the canal F.S.L. is provided across the drainage at its up-stream
junction with canal
In a level crossing a regulator is provided across the drainage at its down-stream
In a level crossing, a cross regulator is provided on the canal below the crossing
All the above
60. In a Sarda type fall, the rectangular crest, may be used for discharge up to
a) 6 cumecs b) 10 cumecs c) 14 cumecs d) 20 cumec
61. Pick up the correct statement from the following:

If the flexibility is more than one, the outlet is hyper-proportional
If the setting of an outlet is higher than that required for proportionality, the outlet is hyper-proportional
If the flexibility is zero, it is a rigid module
All the above
62. In Montague type fall

A straight glacis is provided
A circular glacis is provided
A parabolic glacis is provided
No glacis is provided
63. Cross regulators in main canals are provided

To regulate water supply in the distributaries
To increase water head upstream when a main canal is running with low supplies
To overflow excessive flow water
None of these
64. An outlet is said to be proportional if its flexibility, is

a)Zero b)Less than one c)More than one d)One
65. The level of the floor of a syphon aqueduct can be obtained

By subtracting the depth of the culvert from the canal bed level
By subtracting the thickness of culvert plus the depth of the culvert from the canal bed level
Both (a) and (b)
None of these
66. The velocity of drainage water in the barrels of a syphon-aqueduct, is normally limited to
1 to 2 m per second b) 2 to 3 m per second
3 to 4 m per second d) 4 to 5 m per second
67. In a canal syphon, the flow is

a)Under atmospheric pressure b)Pipe flow
c)With critical velocity d)Under negative pressure
68. In a syphon aqueduct
Drainage passes over the canal and F.S.L. of the canal is below the bottom of the drainage trough
Drainage passes over the canal and F.S.L. of the canal is above the bottom of the drainage trough
Canal passes over the drainage and H.F.L. of the drainage is above the bottom of the canal trough
179
Canal passes over the drainage and H.F.L. of the drainage is below the bottom of the canal trough
69. To hold hydraulic jumps, baffle walls are provided in

a) Sarda type falls b) English type falls c)Montague type falls d)Vertical type falls
70. The structure constructed to allow drainage water to flow under pressure through an inverted syphon
below a canal, is called
a)Syphon b)Super passage c)Super-aqueduct d)Syphon aqueduct
71. The ratio of the rate of change of discharge of an outlet and parent channel, is known as
a)Efficiency b)Sensitivity c)Flexibility d)Modular limit
72. An outlet which maintains a constant discharge irrespective of fluctuation in the water levels of the
supplying channel or water course, is known as
a)Non-modular outlet b)Semi-modular outlet
c)Flexible modular outlet d)Right modular outlet
73. In case of a trapezoidal notch fall

a)Top length of the piers should not be less than their thickness
b) Splay upstream from the notch section is 45°
c) Splay downstream from the notch section is 22½° d) All the above
74. The ratio of the rate of change of discharge of an outlet to the rate of change in level of water surface in
a distributary at its normal depth, is known as
a)Efficiency b)Sensitivity c) Flexibility d)Modular limit
75. If H and d are the water depth and drop in the bed level at a Sarda fall, the width B of the trapezoidal
crest, is given by
a)B = 0.22 √(H + d) b)B = 0.33 √(H + d) c)B = 0.44 √(H + d) d)B = 0.55 √(H + d)
76. When a canal and a drainage approach each other at the same level, the structure so provided, is
a)An aqueduct b)A siphon c)A level crossing d)Inlet and outlet
77. A fall in a canal bed is generally provided, if

a)Ground slope exceeds the designed bed slope
b)Designed bed slope exceeds the ground slope
c)Ground slope is practically the same as the designed bed slope
d)None of these
78. Garnett's diagrams are used for graphical solution of design equations of a canal by
a)Lacey's theory b)Kennedy's theory c)Gibb's theory d)Lindlay theory
79. When a canal is carried over a natural drainage, the structure provided, is known as
a)Syphon b)Aqueduct c)Super passage d)Syphon-aqueduct
80. In rigid module, the discharge

Is independent of water levels in the distributary and water course
Depends upon the water level in distributary
Depends upon the water level in the water course
Depends upon the water levels of both, i.e. distributary and water course
180
81. The uplift pressure on the roof of an inverted syphon, is maximum when
a)Drain in running dry b)Canal is running dry
c)Canal is running with F.S.L. d)Drain is running with H.F.L.
82. The ratio of the discharge over a trapezoidal crest to a rectangular crest of Sarda falls of identical
parameters, is
a)1.084 b)1.084 c)1.064 d)1.054
83. Which of the following canal structures is used to remove surplus water from an irrigation channel into a
natural drain ?
a) canal fall b) canal outlet c) canal escape d) canal regulator
84. For a proportional outlet, the flexibility is

a) zero b) between zero and 1 c)1 d) greater than
85. The sensitivity of a rigid module is

a) zero b) between zero and one c) 1 d) infinity
86. Which of the following is a flexible outlet ?

a) submerged pipe outlet b) Kennedy’s gauge outlet
c) Gibb’s outlet d) none of the above
87. A straight glacis type fall with a baffle platform and a baffle wall is called
a) vertical dropfall b) glacis fall
c) Montague type fall d) inglis fall
181
KEY
1c 11a 21c 31c 41d 51d 61d 71c 81d

2a 12b 22c 32c 42d 52d 62c 72d 82a
3d 13b 23c 33a 43c 53c 63b 73d 83c
4a 14d 24c 34a 44d 54a 64d 74b 84c
5b 15c 25a 35d 45d 55a 65b 75d 85a
6a 16d 26d 36a 46a 56a 66b 76c 86b
7a 17a 27d 37d 47d 57c 67b 77a 87d
8a 18a 28d 38a 48d 58c 68c 78c
9b 19d 29d 39a 49a 59d 69b 79b
10a 20d 30d 40a 50d 60c 70d 80a
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Wre-Ii Lecture Notes

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IV YEAR

UNIT UNIT NAME PAGE NO.

II GRAVITY DAMS 28-53

III EARTH DAMS & SPILLWAYS 54-116

IV DIVERSION HEAD WORKS 117-147

V CANAL FALLS/CROSS DRAINAGE 148-164

1.2 TYPES OF RESERVOIRS

3. Multipurpose Reservoirs A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed to serve two

1.3 INVESTIGATIONS FOR RESERVOIR PLANNING

The following investigations are usually conducted for reservoir planning.

3. Hydrological investigations The hydrological investigations are conducted for the

1.4 SELECTION OF SITE FOR A RESERVOIR

A good site for a reservoir should have the following characteristics:

1.5 ZONES OF STORAGE IN A RESERVOIR:

The following are the various zones of storage in reservoir:

Fig.1.1 Zones of Storage In A Reservoir

1.6 STORAGE CAPACITY AND YIELD OF A RESERVOIR

1.7 DETERMINATION OF YIELD OF A RESERVOIR

Fig.1.2 Determination of Reservoir Capacity

1.8 STORAGE CAPACITY OF A RESERVOIR

1.8.1 Area-Elevation Curve:

1.8.2 Elevation-Capacity Curve:

Fig.1.3 area-elevation-capacity curve

where h is the contour interval. Therefore the total storage volume V is

where n is the total number of areas.

The total storage volume is

1.8.3 Combined Diagram:

1.9 RESERVOIR LOSSES

The main losses are described hereinafter.

1.10 SEDIMENTATION IN RESERVOIRS

1.10.1 Mechanism of Sedimentation

Fig.1.4 Mechanism of Sediment Deposition

1. 10.2 Factors Affecting Sedimentation

iv. Monthly and annual run-off from catchment or sub-catchment.

1. 10.2 Reservoir Sediment Control

1. 10.3 Life of a Reservoir

1.11 BASIC TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Fig.1.5 Demand curves

Fig.1.6 Mass Inflow Curve

Fig.1.7 structure of dam

1.12.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

(a) Based on Function Served:

(b) Based on Hydraulic Design:

(c) Based on Rigidity:

(c) Based on the structural action:

(1) Gravity dams:

(2) Earth dams:

(3) Rockfill dams:

(4) Arch Dams:

(5) Buttress Dams:

(6) Steel Dams:

(7) Timber Dams:

(e) Based on Materials of Construction:

1.12.2 SELECTION OF SITE FOR A DAM

8. Low cost of real estate:

9. Minimum overall cost:

10. Other considerations:

1.12.3 SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM

1. Topography and valley shape.

2. Geology and foundation conditions.

3. Availability of construction materials:

5. Spillway size and location: