CH2: Earthworks

General site investigation

Site investigation involves:
1. Site analysis: to ascertain whether the site characteristics suit the development or
not.

Checklist:-

- refer to survey maps

- conduct a measurement survey

- observe surface characteristics

- inquire of local authorities

- investigate subsoil

- consider flood potential

- check overhead-services

2. Site investigation: to collect systematically and record all the necessary data.

Procedure:-

1- Desk study

- Survey maps

- geological maps

- site history

- utilities

2- Field study or walk-over survey

- establish site characteristics from desk study

 - assess potential hazards to health and safety

- appraise surface conditions

- appraise ground conditions

- appraise existing structures

3- Laboratory analysis

3. Site layout

Requirements:

- Access considerations

- storage considerations

- accommodation considerations

- fencing and hoarding considerations

- safety and health considerations

4. Site preparation

Begins after the:

- building has been designed

- construction documents has been approved

- main contractor has been approved by the client

Site preparation consists of:

1. Site works and surveying

2. Site requirements (clearing the site)
3. Site security
4. Site lighting
5. Site storage

Why is site storage necessary?

To store materials, tools, equipments, spare parts, and goods.

The location of the storage depends on:

1. Space
2. Access facilities
3. Relationship of storage to work area
4. Security
5. Stock holding policiy

Facilities of well managed site:

1. Site offices
2. Secure port-cabins for materials
3. Welfare facilities
4. First Aid kits and aiders
5. Electrical supply
6. Communication facilities
7. Sign-boards

Soil investigation
What is the purpose of soil investigation?
1. Determine if site is suitable for the project or Not
2. Determine suitable foundation design
3. Expecting possible difficulties arising
 4. Determine the occurrence of changes in subsoil

Boring methods to obtain soil samples

1. Hand or mechanical Auger: up to 3m – 150 to 200mm diameter
2. mechanical auger: over 3m – a liner is required for granular soils.
3. sampling shells: for shallow to medium depth boring. all subsoil except rock
4. wash boring: for removing loosened soil from borehole. not good for large gravel subsoil
which contains boulders
5. mud-rotary drilling: for rock investigations
6. Core drilling: extract continuous cores of rock samples sent in wooden boxes to
laboratory

Boreholes can be taken on a grid of 15:20 metres covering whole site

Plate load test

known as the plate bearing test for assessing the bearing capacity of soil

procedure:
A trial hole is dug to the depth of foundation then a relatively smaller steel plate is used to load a
relatively lighter weight than the actual load of foundation on the soil. then using a measuring
rod to determine the change in soil level

useful to determine subsoil properties of shallow depth. limited to a small area of the test plate.
Excavation and Shoring
Excavation: any man-made cut, trench, cavity, or depression on earth’s surface.
required to position substructures and utilities

Trench: narrow excavation that's deeper than it is wide. not wider than 4,5 metres

Shoring (trench support): a support for the surrounding soil to prevent it from collapsing AND
to provide support for nearby structures.

Trench Support Selection

Factors for temporary support of excavation:
1. stability of subsoil
2. types of subsoil
3. distance to structures of vehicles
4. water table
5. excavation depth

Conditions to consider before selecting Trench support:

1. Safety
2. Economy
3. Soil condition
4. Ground water
5. Underground obstructions

What are the causes of trench failure?

1. Tension cracks: usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to 0.75 times the depth of the
trench

2. Sliding (sloughing): a result of tension cracks

3. Toppling (overturning): another result of tension cracks.

4. Subsiding and bulging: unbalanced stress in the soil causes subsiding (settlement) at
the surface and bulging in the trench
Settlement: buildings falling deeper in the ground due to increasing weight

5. Heaving and squeezing: caused by the downward pressure from surrounding soil.

6. Boiling (liquefaction): caused by upward water flow at the bottom of the cut.
Types of trench support (Shoring)
Trenches are usually supported by ONE OR MORE of these:
1. Open cut:
Advantages: cheapest, allows continuous excavation, needs only the design of
the cut bank slope
Disadvantages: requires more excavation and backfill, only support its the
strength of the soil (affected by drying, flooding), sliding can happen without
warning

2. Shoring systems (Speed shores): consists of posts, wales, struts, and sheeting.
Three types: 1. Timber 2. Hydraulic 3. Pneumatic

3. trench box or shield

4. Soldier pile and lagging shoring

5. Sheet piling shoring: sections of steel which interlock edge to edge.

MAXIMUM LENGTH OF 30 METRES
Advantages:
1. Strength
2. Ease of handling
3. Ease of construction
4. Potential for reuse
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive
2. Additional equipments and materials
3. Additional crew operations

6. Modular shoring
Soil Nailing
Putting big nails in slopes to strengthen the hill