supporting all of the columns by
1. Heavy Reinforced and Pre-stressed
Concrete Construction
1.1. Foundation Systems
The Foundation System transfers the
lateral loads on the superstructure to the
ground. The torsional compos of these
lateral forces is transferred largely through
a combination of soil friction on the bottom
of footings.
1.1.1. Shallow Foundation
Shallow or Spread Foundations are
employed when stable soil of adequate
bearing capacity occurs relatively near the
ground surface.
I. Individual or Isolated
Footings
A. Block or square footings
B. Stepped footings
C. Slope or Pyramid footings
II. Strip Footings
The continuous spread footings of
foundation walls. Stepped footings are
strip footings that change levels to
accommodate a sloping grade
III. Combined Footings
A. Combined Footings - Supporting
2 or more columns. This type of
footing is used where it is not
possible to center the footing
beneath its supported column as in
the case of columns located at or
very near the property line.
B. Cantilever Footings - The
footings of the exterior columns are
connected by a tie-beam or strap
which is so extended to support
the exterior column.
C. Continuous Footing - These may
be supporting a line of columns,
strips at right angles to each other.
D. Matte or Raft Foundations - Used
on soil of low bearing power where
there is a tendency towards
unequal settlement due to unequal
loading of soil.
● Flat Slabs of plain or reinforced
concrete
● Beams or Girders with a slab
underneath
● Beams or Girders with a Slab on
Top
E. Steel Grillage Foundations to
avoid the deep excavation required
for concrete and masonry footings,
and when the load has to be
distributed over a wide area of
support, steel rails or beams are
used to give the required moment
of resistance with a minimum of
depth.
1.1.1. Deep Foundation
- Deep Foundation are employed
when the soil underlying a shallow
foundation is unstable or of
inadequate soil bearing capacity.
- They extend down through
unsuitable soil to transfer building
loads to a more appropriate
bearing stratum of rock or deme
sand and gravel well below the
superstructure.
The types of deep foundations
are pile and caisson foundations.
● Pile Foundations
● End Bearing Piles
● Friction Piles
● Pile Cap
I. Pile Foundations
A system of end bearing or friction
piles, pile caps and the beams for
transferring building loads down to a
suitable stratum.
A. Wood Piles
B. Concrete Piles
C. Pre-Cast Piles
D. Cast-in Place Piles
E. Steel Piles
End Bearing Piles - depend principally on
the bearing resistance of soil or rock
beneath their feet for support.
Friction Piles - depends principally on the
frictional resistance of a surrounding earth
mass for support.
Pile Cap - A slab or connecting beam is
used to connect pile heads, distributing
structural load and acting as a single unit.
A metal cap is placed as temporary
protection over a precast pile's head
during its driving into the ground.
II. Caisson Foundation
Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or
reinforced concrete piers formed by boring
a shaft in the earth to a suitable bearing
stratum and filling it with concrete, also
known as drilled piles or piers.
1.2. Foundation Walls
Foundation walls support the
superstructure above and enclose
basement or crawl space, requiring
design and construction to resist
active earth pressure and anchor the
superstructure against wind and
seismic forces, ensuring stability.
1.3. Basement Walls
structurally designed as retaining
walls to overcome the lateral pressure of
outside filling of soil/earth.
1.4. Cisterns
A cistern is a waterproof receptacle for
holding liquids, usually water. Cisterns are
often built to catch and store rainwater.
1.5 Reinforced Concrete Columns
There are several techniques that are
used to strengthen reinforced concrete
columns in construction like reinforced
concrete jacketing, steel jacketing, and
FRP confining or jacketing.
1.5.1. Here may be short columns or
long columns.
I. Short Columns
Occur when the unsupported
height is not greater than ten times the
shortest lateral dimension of the cross
section.
I. Long Columns
Occur when the unsupported
height is more than ten times the shortest
lateral dimension of the cross section.
1.5.2. Types of RC Columns
I. Tied Columns
These are columns with longitudinal bars
and lateral ties.
The number of bars shall at least 4 bars of
a minimum size of #5.
Lateral ties shall be at least 3/8" (10mm)
diameter and shall be spaced apart not
over than 16 bar diameters, 48 tie
diameters, or the least dimension of the
column.
Where there are more than 4 vertical bars,
additional ties should be provided so that
every longitudinal bar will be firmly held in
its designed position.
The reinforcement for tied columns shall
be protected by a covering of concrete,
cast monolithically with the core, of at
least 1-1/2" (38mm) thickness.
II. Spiral Columns
Columns with longitudinal bars and spiral
loops have a maximum of 6 bars and a
minimum bar size of #5.
The center-to-center spacing of spirals
should not exceed 3" (75mm) or be less
than 3-3/8" 035mm or 1-1/2 times the
maximum size of coarse aggregate.
III. Composite Columns
Where structural steel columns are
embedded into the concrete core of a
spinal column
IV. Combined Columns
Where structural steel is encased
2. One-Way Joist Slab or Ribbed
in concrete of at least 7 cm thick,
reinforced with wire mess surrounding the
column at a distance Jem inside the outer
face of the concrete cover:
V. Lally Column
Fabricated steel pipes provided
with flat steel plates which hold a girder or
3. Two-Way Slabs
gin, and are filled with grout or concrete to
prevent corrosion
VI. Dowel Bars
The dowels shall extend into the
column and into the pedestal of footing not
4. Two-Way Waffle Slabs
less than 50 bars diameter for plain bars
or 40 bars diameter for deformed bars.
5.
1.6. Reinforced Concrete Floor
Systems
1.6.1. Suspended Slabs
In general, there are six types
of reinforced-concrete floor
systems:
6. Two-Way Flat Slabs
1. One-Way Solid Slab and Beam
2. One-Way Joist Slab or Ribbed
Stab
3. Two-Way Solid Slab and Beam
4. Two-Way Waffle Slab
5. Two-Way Flat Slab
6. Two-Way Flat Slab
1. One-Way Slabs
a. The most commonly used
type or reinforced concrete
construction consists of a
solid slab supported by two
parallel beams, the beams
framing into girders, and
the girders in turn framing
into columns.
b. The reinforcement slabs
run in one direction only,
from beam to beam.
c. The one-way slab is
economical for medium and
heavy live loads for
comparatively short spans,
6 to 12 ft.
Slab
Ribbed slabs are an economical
floor construction for medium span
lengths with light or medium live
loads, while one-way joist slabs
consist of small adjacent T-beams.
This product is most efficient when
spanning square or nearly square
bays and is suitable for carrying
intermediate to heavy loads.
Can carry heavier loads and span
longer distances than flat slabs.
Two-Way Flat Plate
A flat plate is a concrete slab of
uniform thickness reinforced in two
or more directions and supported
directly by columns without beams
or girders.
A flat slab is a flat plate thickened
at its column supports to increase
its shear strength and moment-
resisting capacity. Flat slabs are
economical in use of materials and
provide a rigid type of construction.
 1.6.1. Reinforced Concrete Beams
Beam may be defined as a structural
member, resting on supports usually at its
end, which supports traverse loads.
A girder is a term applied to a beam
that supports one or more smaller beams,
as concentrated loads Fireproofing for
beams and walls is 19" (40 mm)
Beams may be classified as:
I. Simple Beams
Single span with a support at each
end, there being no restraint at the
supports.
II. Cantilever Beams
Supported at one end only, or they
may be that portion of beams projecting
beyond one of its supports
III. Continuous Beams
These are beams resting on more
than two supports "Semi-continuous"
refers to a beam having two spans
with little or no restraint at the two
extreme ends of the beam, the end
span of continuous beam, where little
or restraint is provided at the end
support.
1.6.1. Types of Reinforced
Concrete Beams
I. Rectangular Beams
II. T-Beams
III. Beam with Compression
Reinforcement
IV. Hollow Box Girders
V. Beam Brackets or Corbels
1.7. Roof Decks
Reinforced concrete roof slabs (roof
decks) are formed and site cast in the
same manner as concrete floor systems
Roof decks are normally covered with a
type of membrane roofing for insulation
and waterproofing.
1.8. Walls and Structural Walls
1.8.1 Bearing Wall
A wall on which either floor or roof
construction rests.
1.8.2 Foundation Wall
That portion of an enclosing wall
below the first tier of joists.
1.8.3 Retaining Wall
A subsurface wall built to resist the
lateral pressure of internal loads
1.8.4. Spandrel Wall
The space between any arch and
the beam over the same, or an exterior
non-bearing wall in skeleton
construction built between columns or
piers and wholly supported at each
story.
1.8.5 Curtain Wall
The enclosing wall of an iron or steel
framework or the non-bearing portion of
an enclosing wall between piers.
I. Panel Walls
Are exterior non-load bearing walls
whose outer surface may or may not form
the exterior facing of the building and
whose interior surface may or may not
form the interior finish.
I.9. Retaining, Breast, and Vault
Walls
Retaining Wall is a wall whose
purpose is to resist the thrust of a bank of
earth or other material, retaining the earth
or other filling that is deposited behind it
after it is built.
MOST BE DESIGNED AND
CONSTRACTED TO RESIST THE
LATERAL PRESSURE OF THE SOIL
BEING RETAINED.
I.9. Breast Wall (face wall) - is built to
prevent the fall of earth, which is in its
undisturbed, natural position, but from
which part has been excavated, leaving a
vertical or inclined face.
I.9.1. Gravity Wall
-This is a type of wall which is
constructed of such proportions that its
weight alone resists the thrust of the earth.
-Low walls are invariably gravity walls
constructed of brick, stone masonry or
concrete.
I.9.2. Cantilever Wall
The cantilever wall is constructed of
reinforced concrete and makes use of the
weight of the earth in resisting the
tendency to overturn at the outer edge.
I.9.3. Counterfort Wall
The vertical wall is tied to the base at
regular intervals with triangular-shaped
walls called counterforts. It is usually more
economical to use the counterfort wall for
heights of 20 ft or over.
1.10 Pre-stressed Concrete
Pre-stressed concrete beams are
designed with compressive stresses from
bending, preventing tensile forces, and
are named so because stresses are
applied before beam loading.
1.10.1 Pre-tensioning or Bonded
Pre-stressing
Reinforcing steel is pre-stressed
before concrete is poured, releasing
stress when concrete develops
strength. The steel becomes smaller in
cross-section, hardening around it.
When tension is released, the steel
expands and grips the concrete,
creating compression.
1.10.3 Post-tensioning or
Unbonded Pre-stressing
This method involves inserting
reinforcing steel into concrete tubes or
channels, stretching to the correct
tension, and anchored with hydraulic
jacks to squeeze the beam.
1.11. Pre-cast Concrete Floor Systems
Pre-cast concrete slabs, beams,
and structural tees are one-way
spanning units supported by site-cast
concrete, masonry bearing walls, or
steel frames, offering greater structural
efficiency and reduced weight.
Types of Pre-cast Concrete Floor Units
I. Solid Flat Slabs
II. Hollow Core Slabs
III. Single Tees
IV. Double Tees
V. Rectangular, L-shaped and
Inverted Tee Beams
VI. ASSHTO Girders
1. Masonry Construction
Masonry Walls
Masonry wall consists of modular building
blocks bonded together with mortar to
form walls that are durable, fire-resistant,
and structurally efficient in compression.
Masonry walls may also be
classified as unreinforced or reinforced.
Unreinforced Masonry Walls
Also called plain masonry walls,
incorporate horizontal joint reinforcement
and metal wall ties to bond wythes of a
solid cavity wall.
Reinforced Masonry Walls
Utilize steel reinforcing bars
embedded in grout filled joints and cavities
to aid the masonry in resisting stresses.
Masonry Units
The most common types of
masonry units are:
Bricks, which are heat hardened clay
units, and concrete blocks which are
chemically hardened units.
Clay tile, structural glass block and natural
or cast stone.
Mortar - it is a plastic mixture of cement or
lime, or combination of both, with stand
sand and water, used as a bonding agent
in masonry construction.
B. Type S Mortar
Medium strength mortar
recommended for use in masonry where
bond and lateral strength are more
important than compressive strength.
C. Type N Mortar
Medium strength mortar
recommended for general use in exposed
masonry above grade where high
compressive and lateral strength are not
required.

Types of Mortar According to D. Type O Mortar

Material Constituency Low strength mortar suitable for use in
interior non load bearing walls and
A. Cement Mortar
partitions.
Made by mixing Portland cement,
E. Type K Mortar
sand and water
Very low strength mortar suitable only
B. Lime Mortar
for use in interior non load bearing walls
Mixture of lime, sand and water that is where permitted by the building code.
rarely used because of its slow rate of
hardening and low compressive strength
I.3. CHB Wall Construction
C. Cement-lime Mortar
Concrete Block or Cement Block is a
A cement mortar to which lime is
hollow or solid concrete masonry wait
added to increase its plasticity and water
(CMU) consisting of Portland cement and
receptivity.
suitable aggregates combined with water.
D. Masonry Cement
I.3.1. Types of Concrete Hollow
A proprietary mix of Portland cement Blocks
and other ingredients, as hydrated lime,
plasticizers, air- entraining agents, and I. Stretcher (3 core)
gypsum, requiring only the addition of II. Corner
sand and water to make cement mortar. III. Double Comer or Pier
IV. Bull Nose
Types of Mortar According to V. Jamb
Strength VI. Stretcher (2.com)
VII. 4 or 6 Partition
A. Type M Mortar VIII. Beam or Lintel
High strength mortar recommended for
use in reinforced masonry below grade or
in contact with the earth, as foundation
and retaining walls subject to high lateral
or compressive load.
 I.3.1. Wall Footing Concrete Piers on Isolated Footings
Wall footings are strips of reinforced Wood Posts on concrete piers
concrete wider than the wall, distributing
Wood posts are anchor strapped to
load to the soil, with reinforcements equal
and supported by reinforced
to 0.2% to 0.3% of the concrete's
concrete piers on isolated footings.
cross-sectional area.
I.3.1. Stiffener Columns and
Beams Wood Beams on Concrete Piers
CHB partition walls are ideally It is common practice to use cedar
supported against lateral movements posts for the piers. The cedar is a
vertically by stiffener columns and naturally preserved wood that is
horizontally by stiffener beams. Stiffener able to resist the decay due to
columns are in the form of an 1, Tori moisture for a much longer period
of time than other wood species.
I.3.1. Lintel Beams
A lintel is a horizontal structural
member over an opening which carries the
weight of the wall above it, steel, stone, or
wood.

II.4 On-Grade Construction

II.4.1. Concrete Slab on Grade

Concrete slabs on grade require the
support of a level, stable, uniformly dense
or properly compacted soil base
containing no organic matter.
II.4.2. Concrete Slab on Grade Joints
There are 3 types of joints done in
order to accommodate movement in the
plane of a concrete slab on grade.
A. Isolated Joints
B. Construction Joints
C. Control Joints

II.4.3. Grade Beams

Supports the exterior wall of the
superstructure, commonly designed as a
beam which bears directly on the column
footings, or may be self-supporting, as a
long strap footing.