Calculus Lecture Notes ③ | Integration
Techniques (Expanded Edition)
Comprehensive lecture notes with theorems, substitution, integration by parts, partial
fractions, trigonometric substitution, applications, exercises, and references.
Author: Anthony | Department of Electrical Engineering, NIU
Course: Calculus I
Style: Formal Lecture Notes
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
3. Basic Integration Formulas
4. Substitution Method
5. Integration by Parts
6. Partial Fraction Decomposition
7. Trigonometric Substitution
8. Worked Examples
9. Applications of Integration
10. Exercises
11. Answer Key
12. References
1. Introduction
Motivation
Integration is the inverse operation of differentiation.
It is used to compute accumulated quantities: area under curves, volumes, total energy,
probability, etc.
Engineering uses: current/charge in circuits, displacement from velocity, signal energy.
2. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Part I
If F is an antiderivative of f, then ∫_a^b f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a).
This bridges differentiation and integration.
Part II
If F(x) = ∫_a^x f(t) dt, then F’(x) = f(x).
This shows integration and differentiation are inverse processes.
3. Basic Integration Formulas
Key Antiderivatives
∫x^n dx = x^{n+1}/(n+1)+C, n≠-1.
∫1/x dx = ln|x|+C.
∫e^x dx = e^x+C.
∫sin x dx = -cos x+C, ∫cos x dx = sin x+C.
4. Substitution Method
Concept
Let u=g(x). Then ∫ f(g(x))g’(x) dx = ∫ f(u) du.
Used when integrand contains a composite function.
Example
∫ 2x cos(x^2) dx. Let u=x^2, du=2x dx.
Then ∫ cos(u) du = sin(u)+C = sin(x^2)+C.
5. Integration by Parts
Formula
Derived from product rule: (uv)’=u’v+uv’.
∫u dv = uv - ∫v du.
Example
∫ x e^x dx. Let u=x, dv=e^x dx.
Then du=dx, v=e^x.
Result = x e^x - ∫ e^x dx = (x-1)e^x + C.
6. Partial Fraction Decomposition
Case 1: Distinct Linear Factors
(3x+1)/(x^2+x) = A/x + B/(x+1).
Solve A,B then integrate easily.
Case 2: Repeated Roots
For denominator (x-1)^2, decomposition includes A/(x-1) + B/(x-1)^2.
Case 3: Irreducible Quadratics
For factor x^2+1, use (Ax+B)/(x^2+1).
7. Trigonometric Substitution
Forms
For √(a^2-x^2): use x=a sin θ.
For √(a^2+x^2): use x=a tan θ.
For √(x^2-a^2): use x=a sec θ.
Example
∫ dx/√(4-x^2). Let x=2 sin θ.
Then dx=2 cos θ dθ, denominator=2 cos θ.
Integral=∫ dθ = θ+C = arcsin(x/2)+C.
8. Worked Examples
Example 1
∫ ln x dx. Use by parts. Result = x ln x - x + C.
Example 2
∫ dx/(x^2+1). Standard form, result=arctan x + C.
Example 3
∫_0^∞ e^{-x} dx = 1. This is a classic improper integral.
Example 4
∫ (x^2)/(x^2+1) dx = ∫(1 - 1/(x^2+1)) dx = x - arctan x + C.
Example 5
∫_0^π sin^2 x dx. Use half-angle: (1-cos 2x)/2. Result = π/2.
9. Applications of Integration
Area between Curves
Area = ∫ (f(x)-g(x)) dx over interval where f≥g.
Volume of Revolution
Using disks: V=π ∫ [f(x)]^2 dx.
Average Value
f_avg = (1/(b-a)) ∫_a^b f(x) dx.
10. Exercises
Problems
Q1. ∫ x cos x dx.
Q2. ∫ (2x+1)/(x^2+x) dx.
Q3. ∫ dx/√(9-x^2).
Q4. ∫ e^x cos x dx.
Q5. ∫ dx/(x^2+4).
Q6. ∫_0^1 (1-x^2) dx.
Q7. ∫_1^∞ 1/x^2 dx.
Q8. ∫ tan^3 x sec^2 x dx.
Q9. Find average value of f(x)=x^2 on [0,2].
Q10. Volume of solid formed by rotating y=x on [0,1] around x-axis.
11. Answer Key
Solutions
A1. sin x + x cos x.
A2. ln|x| - ln|x+1|.
A3. arcsin(x/3).
A4. (e^x/2)(sin x+cos x).
A5. (1/2) arctan(x/2).
A6. ∫_0^1 (1-x^2) dx = 2/3.
A7. 1.
A8. (1/4) tan^4 x.
A9. (1/2)∫_0^2 x^2 dx = 4/3.
A10. V=π ∫_0^1 x^2 dx=π/3.
12. References
Texts
James Stewart, Calculus.
Tom Apostol, Calculus Vol. I.
MIT OpenCourseWare 18.01.
William Boyce, Differential Equations & Applications.
