General Biology I

Enzymes
Definition and Role

Enzymes are special proteins that act as biological catalysts. They speed up the rate of chemical
reactions within living organisms by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to
occur. Enzymes themselves remain unchanged by the reaction.

Enzyme Structure

Enzymes are large, complex proteins consisting of one or more polypeptide chains.

Enzyme Function

Enzymes catalyze various chemical reactions involved in:

Body growth and development

Blood coagulation
Healing
Disease
Respiration
Digesting food
Reproduction
Muscle and nerve function
Many other biological activities

Enzyme Nomenclature

Enzymes are typically named after their substrates, with the suffix "-ase" added. For example:

Lipase acts on lipids.

Protease acts on proteins.
Amylase acts on starch.

Active Site and Induced Fit

The active site is the specific region on the enzyme where the substrate binds.
Induced fit refers to the change in the shape of the enzyme to effectively bind with the substrate.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex

The substrate binds to the enzyme at the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
While bound, the enzyme weakens bonds in the substrate, lowering the activation energy.

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Cofactors are inorganic ions or other substances that assist enzyme function (e.g., zinc ion for
carbonic anhydrase).
Coenzymes are nonprotein organic molecules, such as vitamins, that aid enzyme function. The
enzyme will not function if the coenzyme part is missing.

Oxidation/Reduction Reactions

Enzymes, such as oxidase, oxygenase, and oxidoreductase, play a role in oxidation/reduction

(redox) reactions.

Oxidation: Loss of electrons by an atom or molecule.

Reduction: Gain of electrons by an atom or molecule.
Oxidation and reduction always occur together in redox reactions.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature: Enzyme activity increases with temperature up to an optimum temperature.
Beyond this, the rate decreases as the enzyme denatures.
pH: Each enzyme has an optimum pH range for activity (e.g., pepsin pH 2, trypsin pH 8).
Enzyme and Substrate Concentrations: Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate
of enzyme action up to a point where all enzyme molecules are responding. Adding further
substrate has no additional effect.

Denaturation

Denaturation is the distortion of the enzyme's active site shape, preventing substrate binding. For
human enzymes, denaturation typically starts at around 40°C.

Cell Cycle
Aberrations That Alter Chromosome Number
Chromosomes might disappear during cell division due to centromere aberration.
 Uneven division of chromosomes into daughter cells can occur.
Failure of sister chromatids to separate during anaphase in mitosis.
Failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during anaphase I in meiosis.

Factors Contributing to Chromosome Abnormalities

Errors in meiosis, especially meiosis I.
More frequent during egg formation than sperm formation.
Increased frequency with maternal age.

Disorders and Diseases from Malfunction of the Cell

Cycle
Cancer: Uncontrolled cell growth due to gene mutations.
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21): An extra copy of chromosome 21.
Alzheimer's Disease: Neurologic ailment causing brain atrophy and death of brain cells.
Leukemia: Cancer of blood-forming tissue, affecting bone marrow and lymphatic system.
Aneuploidy: Gain or loss of whole chromosomes, caused by non-disjunction.
Mosaicism: Some cells have a mutant gene version, others have the normal version.
Turner Syndrome: Affects females, one X chromosome is missing or partially missing.
Trisomy 18 (Edwards Syndrome): Chromosomal disorder causing abnormalities throughout
the body.
Huntington's Disease: Degenerative brain condition caused by a single defective gene on
chromosome 4.

Cell Membrane Structure and Components

Phospholipids: Form a bilayer, acting as a barrier.
Cholesterol: Maintains membrane fluidity.
Integral Proteins: Allow passage of molecules across the membrane.
Peripheral Proteins: Cell communication and recognition.
Glycoproteins and Glycolipids: Support cell recognition.

Cell Membrane Functions

Uptake of substances
Elimination of wastes
Cell to cell transfer of materials
Gas exchange
Maintenance of homeostatic surroundings

Properties of Cell Membrane

Permits small polar (water, carbon dioxide) or non-polar (oxygen, ethanol) molecules to pass
through freely.
Prevents macromolecules (glucose) and ions (potassium, sodium) from passing through
 freely.
Has specific transmembrane proteins to regulate ion and molecule movements.
Semi-permeable: Allows some molecules to enter, others do not.
Flexible to permit change of cell morphology.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane structure as a mosaic of components
including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates that give a fluid character to
the membrane.

Phospholipid Structure

A phospholipid molecule has a hydrophilic phosphate head group, a glycerol backbone, and two
hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

Cell Theory, Structure and Function

The Cell Theory
1. The cell is the basic unit of life.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Expanded Version
Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division.
All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition.
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.

Cell Structures and Functions

All cells share four common components:

1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm
3. DNA
4. Ribosomes

Plasma Membrane/ Cell Membrane

A phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell
from its surrounding environment. Selectively permeable.

Cytoplasm

The entire region of a cell within the plasma membrane, composed of organelles suspended in
the gel-like cytosol.

Nucleus

Houses the cell's DNA (chromatin) and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Contains
the nucleolus, where ribosomes are assembled.

Ribosomes

Cellular organelles responsible for protein synthesis.

Mitochondria

The "powerhouses" of the cell, responsible for making ATP through cellular respiration.

Peroxisomes

Small, round organelles that carry out oxidation reactions, breaking down fatty acids and amino
acids and detoxifying poisons.

Vesicles

Membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.

Endomembrane System

A group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package
and transport lipids and proteins.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A series of interconnected membranous sacs and tubules that modify proteins and synthesize
lipids.
 Rough ER: Protein modification and transport.
Smooth ER: Synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids, steroid hormones, detoxification, and calcium
ion storage.

Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Bodies

Responsible for sorting, tagging, packaging, and distributing lipids and proteins to their proper
destinations in the cell.

Lysosomes

The digestive component and organelle-recycling facility of animal cells.

Cytoskeleton

A network of protein fibers that helps maintain the shape of the cell, secure organelles in specific
positions, allow cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cells, and enable cell movement.

Microfilaments

Cellular movement, diameter of about 7 nm, also known as Actin filaments.

Microtubules

Small hollow tube with a diameter of about 25nm and the widest components of cytoskeleton.

Specialized Cell Structures

Centrosome

Microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells, containing a pair of
centrioles.

Cell Wall

A rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell
(plant, fungal, and protistan cells).

Chloroplast
Organelles in plant cells that carry out photosynthesis.

Central Vacuole

A large central vacuole in plant cells that regulates the cell's concentration of water and supports
cell expansion.

Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis

Nuclear division that results in two daughter cells genetically identical to each other and to the
parental cell.

Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible, centrioles move to opposite sides of
the nucleus.
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move toward the poles.
Telophase: Daughter chromosomes complete migration, nuclear membrane forms around
each chromosome group.

Meiosis

Reduces the amount of genetic information, producing haploid gametes or spores.

First Meiotic Division

Prophase I:
Leptonema: Replicated chromosomes coil and become visible.
Zygonema: Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis), forming a bivalent tetrad.
Pachynema: Chromosomes shorten, crossing-over occurs.
Diplonema: Sister chromatids separate, chiasmata become evident.
Diakinesis: Chromatids condense further, nucleoli disappear, nuclear membrane breaks
down.
Metaphase I: Tetrads align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate toward opposite poles, sister
chromatids remain attached.
Telophase I: Dyads complete migration, new nuclear membranes may form, cytokinesis
follows.

Second Meiotic Division

 Prophase II: Dyads contract.
Metaphase II: Centromeres align at the equatorial plate and divide.
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and migrate to the
opposite poles.
Telophase II: Monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. A nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis follows.

Mitosis vs. MeiosisFeatureMitosisMeiosisNumber of

DivisionsOneTwoSynapsis and Crossing OverNoYes
(Prophase I)Chromosome
NumberPreservedHalvedDaughter CellsTwoFourGenetic
IdentityIdentical to parent and each otherGenetically
different from parent and each otherPurposeAsexual
reproduction and growthSexual reproduction

Significance of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis: Growth and development, cell replacement.
Meiosis: Production of gametes, genetic diversity.

Significance of Meiosis for Diversity

Every sex cell made from meiosis has a unique combination of chromosomes. This means that
no two sperm or egg cells are genetically identical.

Aberrations That Alter Chromosome Number

During cell division, chromosomes sometimes disappear. This occurs when there is some
aberration in the centromere, and spindle fibers cannot attach to the chromosome to segregate it
to distal poles of the cell.

Cell Types and Tissues

Prokaryotic Cells

Simple, single-celled organisms lacking a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Found in the

Eubacteria and Archaebacteria kingdoms.

Prokaryotic Cell Features

 Lack a nucleus.
DNA is in a nucleoid region.
Most have a peptidoglycan cell wall.
Some have flagella, pili, or fimbriae.
Small size (0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter).

Eukaryotic Cells

Complex cells with a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Found in
the Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia kingdoms.

Eukaryotic Cell Features

Membrane-bound nucleus.
Membrane-bound organelles.
Several rod-shaped chromosomes.
Larger size (10 to 100 μm in diameter).

Animal Tissues

Cells which are similar in structure group together to form tissues performing a particular
function.

Epithelial Tissue

Covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities. Functions in protection, absorption,
and secretion.

Simple Squamous: Single layer of flattened cells; diffusion.

Simple Cuboidal: Single layer of cube-shaped cells; secretion.
Simple Columnar: Single layer of column-shaped cells; absorption.
Stratified Squamous: Multiple layers of flattened cells; protection.
Pseudostratified Columnar: Single layer of cells that appear stratified; secretion.

Muscle Tissue

Composed of muscle fibers for movement.

Skeletal: Striated, voluntary movements.

Cardiac: Striated with intercalated discs, involuntary.
Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary.
Connective Tissue

Binds and supports other tissues.

Blood: Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets.

Connective Tissue Proper: Loose connective tissue and fibrous connective tissue.
Cartilage: Chondrocytes embedded in chondroitin sulfate.
Bone: Osteoblasts deposit collagen and minerals.

Nervous Tissue

Composed of neurons and glial cells, transmits electrical signals.

Plant Tissues

Plant and animal cells have structures related to their functions. Plant tissues are broadly divided
into dividing or meristematic and permanent tissues.

Meristematic Tissues

Actively dividing cells leading to growth.

Apical Meristem: Tips of stems and roots, increases length.

Lateral Meristem: Increases diameter.
Intercalary Meristem: Located between permanent tissues, growth in length.

Permanent Tissues

Nondividing cells derived from meristematic tissues.

Simple Permanent Tissues

Parenchyma: Thin-walled cells for support and storage.

Collenchyma: Thick-walled cells for tensile strength.
Sclerenchyma: Thick, lignified walls for support.

Complex Permanent Tissues

Xylem: Transports water and minerals.

Phloem: Transports food.
Transport Mechanisms in Cells
Passive Transport

Occurs naturally and does not require energy.

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Osmosis

Diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) through a selectively permeable membrane.

Types of Solutions

Isotonic: Equal solute concentration, no net water movement.

Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration, water moves out of the cell.
Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration, water moves into the cell.

Facilitated Diffusion

Uses protein transmembrane channels or carrier proteins to transport specific molecules.

Active Transport

Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against a concentration gradient.

Bulk Transport

Transport of macromolecules into and out of the cell.

Exocytosis

Materials are exported out of the cell via secretory vesicles.

Endocytosis
Materials are imported into the cell.

Types of Endocytosis

Phagocytosis: "Cellular eating," engulfing large particles or cells.

Pinocytosis: "Cellular drinking," engulfing droplets of fluid.
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis: Selective uptake using receptor proteins.

Cell Modification
Apical Modification

Cell modification found on the apical surface of the cell. Specialized to carry out functions that
occur at these interfaces, including secretion, absorption, and movement of luminal contents.

Cilia and Flagella

Villi and Microvilli
Pseudopods
Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

Basal Modification

Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell basement membrane.

Desmosomes/ Hemidesmosomes

Lateral Modification

Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell.

Tight Junctions
Adherens Junctions
Gap Junctions