Properties‌‌of‌‌Life‌:‌O‌ rder‌‌‌(organization),‌S‌ ensitivity‌‌‌(responsiveness),‌R‌ eproduction‌‌‌(sexual‌‌or‌‌asexual),‌‌

 
Growth/Development‌,‌A‌ daptation/Evolution‌(‌through‌‌natural‌‌selection),‌‌‌Homeostasis‌(‌stable‌‌internal‌‌  
environment),‌E‌ nergy‌‌Acquisition‌‌‌(autotroph,‌‌heterotroph,‌‌saprotroph*)‌  ‌
 ‌
3‌‌Domains‌:‌B‌ acteria‌‌‌(common‌‌prokaryote),‌A‌ rchaea‌‌‌(uncommon‌‌prokaryotes),‌E‌ ukarya‌‌‌(all‌‌eukaryotes)‌  ‌
 ‌
Independent‌‌variable:‌T‌ he‌‌variable‌‌directly‌‌manipulated‌‌by‌‌the‌‌researcher‌  ‌
Dependent‌‌variable:‌T‌ he‌‌variable‌‌that‌‌is‌‌affected‌‌by‌‌the‌‌independent‌‌variable‌  ‌
Standardized‌‌variable:‌T‌ he‌‌variable‌‌that‌‌remains‌‌constant‌  ‌
 ‌
Autotroph:‌S‌ elf-feeder‌‌(photosynthetic)‌  ‌
Heterotroph:‌M ‌ ust‌‌consume‌‌organic‌‌molecules‌‌(ingestive‌‌and‌‌absorptive)‌  ‌
Saprotroph:‌A‌ bsorptive‌‌heterotroph‌‌(specifically‌‌a‌‌decomposer)‌  ‌
 ‌
Kingdom‌‌Eukarya‌:‌P‌ rotist‌(‌“junk‌‌drawer”‌‌generally‌‌single-celled‌‌eukaryotes),‌F‌ ungi‌(‌mostly‌‌multicellular‌‌  
decomposer‌‌saprotroph),‌P‌ lant‌(‌multicellular‌‌autotroph),‌A‌ nimal‌(‌multicellular‌‌heterotroph)‌  ‌
 ‌
Inductive‌‌reasoning‌i‌s‌‌many‌‌observations‌‌that‌‌lead‌‌to‌‌a‌‌conclusion.‌‌Goes‌‌from‌‌specific‌‌to‌‌broad‌‌and‌‌requires‌‌  
one‌‌to‌‌infer‌‌conclusions‌‌based‌‌on‌‌evidence.‌‌Develops‌‌a‌‌theory.‌  ‌
Deductive‌‌reasoning‌i‌s‌‌“hypothesis‌‌based”‌‌It‌‌uses‌‌general‌‌principles‌‌to‌‌predict‌‌a‌‌specific‌‌outcome.‌‌It‌‌tests‌‌a ‌‌
theory‌‌but‌‌assumes‌‌that‌‌the‌‌premises‌‌are‌‌true.‌  ‌
 ‌
Proton‌  ‌ Neutron‌  ‌ Electron‌  ‌
+1‌‌charge‌  No‌‌charge‌  ‌ -1‌‌charge‌  ‌
1‌‌AMU‌  ‌ 1‌‌AMU‌  ‌ Weightless‌  ‌
Atomic‌‌number‌  ‌ Included‌‌in‌‌atomic‌‌mass‌  ‌ Orbits‌‌in‌‌outer‌‌“shells”‌  ‌
Varies‌‌in‌‌isotopes‌  ‌
 ‌
C12=‌‌Carbon‌‌12=‌‌mass‌‌of‌‌12‌‌(6‌‌protons‌‌+‌‌6‌‌neutrons)‌  ‌
 ‌
Atomic‌‌number‌:‌‌number‌‌of‌‌protons‌  ‌
Atomic‌‌mass‌:‌‌protons‌‌+‌‌neutrons‌  ‌
 ‌
Cation‌:‌‌positively‌‌charged‌‌ion‌‌(c)‌‌a‌‌+‌‌ion‌  ‌
Anion‌:‌‌negatively‌‌charged‌‌ion‌‌a‌‌n(egative)‌‌ion‌  ‌
 ‌
Nonpolar‌‌covalent‌‌bonds‌‌‌share‌‌electrons‌‌equally‌‌(C-C,‌‌C-H,‌‌H-H)‌ 
Polar‌‌covalent‌‌bonds‌‌‌do‌‌not‌‌share‌‌equally‌‌(O-H,‌‌N-H,‌‌C=O)‌‌
   ‌
 ‌
pH‌‌‌is‌‌based‌‌on‌‌the‌‌concentration‌‌of‌‌[H+]‌‌compared‌‌to‌‌pure‌‌water‌  ‌
acids‌‌‌dissociate‌‌in‌‌water‌‌and‌‌release‌‌[H+]‌‌making‌‌it‌‌a‌‌proton‌‌donor‌  ‌
base‌‌‌takes‌‌[H+]‌‌or‌‌adds‌‌[OH-]‌‌making‌‌it‌‌a‌‌proton‌‌acceptor‌  ‌
 ‌
fatty‌‌acids‌:‌‌linear‌‌structure,‌‌nonpolar,‌‌hydrophobic‌  ‌
amino‌‌acids‌:‌‌polar,‌‌hydrophilic‌  ‌
glucose‌:‌‌ring‌‌structure,‌‌polar,‌‌hydrophilic‌  ‌
 ‌
Classes‌‌of‌‌biological‌‌molecules‌:‌‌carbohydrate,‌‌lipid,‌‌protein,‌‌nucleic‌‌acid‌  ‌
 ‌
dehydration‌‌reaction‌t‌ akes‌‌H‌‌and‌‌OH‌‌out‌‌of‌‌monomers‌‌to‌‌make‌‌a‌‌water‌‌molecule‌‌and‌‌connect‌‌the‌‌two‌‌
 
monomers‌  ‌
hydrolysis‌‌‌breaks‌‌a‌‌water‌‌molecule‌‌and‌‌a‌‌dimer‌‌to‌‌form‌‌two‌‌monomers‌  ‌
 ‌
starch‌:‌‌chain‌‌of‌‌glucose‌‌that‌‌plants‌‌use‌‌to‌‌store‌‌energy‌  ‌
glycogen‌:‌‌chain‌‌of‌‌glucose‌‌that‌‌animals‌‌use‌‌to‌‌store‌‌glucose‌  ‌
cellulos‌e:‌‌builds‌‌up‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌wall‌‌in‌‌plants,‌‌structural‌‌component‌  ‌
chitin:‌‌‌structural‌‌component‌‌in‌‌insect‌‌exoskeleton‌‌and‌‌fungi‌‌cell‌‌walls‌  ‌
 ‌
Lipids:‌  ‌

-Long‌h‌ ydrocarbon‌‌‌chains‌‌(only‌‌hydrogen‌‌and‌‌carbon)‌  ‌
-Linear‌‌or‌‌in‌‌rings‌  ‌
-Hydrophobic‌  ‌
-Energy‌s‌ torage‌‌‌or‌s‌ tructural‌‌‌component‌  ‌

 ‌
Triglyceride:‌  ‌

-Common‌f‌ at‌‌‌or‌o‌ il‌  ‌

-Glycerol‌‌+‌‌3‌‌fatty‌‌acids‌‌=‌‌triglyceride‌  ‌
-Saturated‌‌fat‌‌=‌‌saturated‌‌with‌H‌ ydrogen‌  ‌
 ‌
Phospholipid:‌  ‌

-Polar‌‌head‌‌with‌‌nonpolar‌‌tails‌  ‌
-Triglyceride‌‌-‌‌fatty‌‌acid‌‌+‌‌polar‌‌head‌‌=‌‌phospholipid‌  ‌
-Form‌‌a‌p‌ hospholipid‌‌bilayer‌‌‌when‌‌placed‌‌in‌‌water‌‌with‌‌the‌‌polar‌‌heads‌‌facing‌‌out‌‌and‌‌the‌‌nonpolar‌‌tails‌‌
 
facing‌‌in‌‌and‌‌forming‌‌a‌h‌ ydrophobic‌‌core‌  ‌

 ‌
 ‌
Proteins:‌  ‌

A‌‌polymer‌‌of‌a‌ mino‌‌acids‌  ‌
R‌‌groups‌‌can‌‌be‌p‌ olar,‌‌nonpolar‌,‌‌or‌‌even‌c‌ harged‌  ‌
R‌‌group‌‌‌determines‌‌how‌‌amino‌‌acid‌‌reacts‌‌in‌‌water‌  ‌
How‌‌a‌‌protein‌‌is‌‌shaped‌‌determines‌‌its‌‌function‌‌
   ‌
 ‌
Protein‌‌structure:‌ 
Primary:‌‌exact‌‌amino‌‌acid‌‌sequence‌‌(determined‌‌by‌‌genes)‌  ‌
Secondary:‌‌helix‌‌or‌‌sheet‌  ‌
Tertiary:‌‌complex‌‌folding‌‌of‌‌helix/sheet‌‌into‌‌specific‌‌3D‌‌shapes,‌‌usually‌‌the‌‌‌final‌‌functional‌‌shape‌  ‌
Quaternary:‌‌one‌‌or‌‌more‌‌amino‌‌acids‌  ‌
 ‌
The‌‌function‌‌of‌‌proteins:‌  ‌

Structural,‌‌hormones,‌‌movement,‌‌transportation,‌‌antibodies,‌‌enzymes‌  ‌

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Nucleic‌‌acid:‌  ‌

-‌RNA‌‌and‌‌DNA‌‌(polymers‌‌of‌‌nucleotides)‌  ‌
-Phosphate‌‌+‌‌Sugar‌‌+‌‌Nitrogenous‌‌base‌‌(1‌‌of‌‌4)=‌‌Nucleotide‌  ‌
-‌Nucleotide‌‌+‌‌Nucleotide‌‌+‌‌.‌‌.‌‌.‌‌=‌‌Nucleic‌‌Acid‌  ‌
-‌ATP‌‌is‌‌a‌‌nucleic‌‌acid‌   ‌ ‌
 ‌
Cytoskeleton:‌‌‌the‌‌skeleton‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌made‌‌of‌‌protein‌‌fibers‌‌that‌‌help‌‌with‌‌support,‌‌protection,‌‌shape,‌‌and‌‌
 
movement‌  ‌
Microfilaments‌‌‌are‌‌proteins‌‌just‌‌under‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌‌that‌‌form‌‌a‌‌dense‌‌network‌‌of‌‌fibers‌‌and‌‌support‌‌
 
the‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌‌
   ‌
Intermediate‌‌fibers‌‌‌extend‌‌from‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌‌to‌‌nuclear‌‌envelope.‌‌Anchors‌‌the‌‌nucleus‌‌and‌‌other‌‌organelles‌‌
 
into‌‌place‌  ‌
Microtubules‌‌‌are‌‌used‌‌for‌‌transportation‌‌inside‌‌the‌‌cells.‌‌Molecular‌‌railroad‌  ‌
Centrioles‌o‌ rganize‌‌microtubules‌‌(transportation‌‌railroads)‌  ‌
The‌c‌ entrosome‌i‌s‌‌a‌‌place‌‌where‌‌centrioles‌‌are‌‌found‌‌(animal‌‌cells‌‌only)‌  ‌
 ‌
Cell‌‌structure‌‌and‌‌functions:‌  ‌
 ‌

Nucleus:‌  ‌
Nuclear‌‌envelope:‌‌‌membrane‌‌enclosing‌‌the‌‌nucleus.‌‌Protein-lined‌‌pores‌‌allow‌‌material‌‌to‌‌move‌‌in‌‌and‌‌out‌  ‌
Chromatin:‌‌‌DNA‌‌plus‌‌associated‌‌proteins‌  ‌
Nucleolus:‌‌‌Condensed‌‌region‌‌where‌‌ribosomes‌‌are‌‌formed‌  ‌
Cytoskeleton:‌  ‌
Microtubules:‌‌‌form‌‌the‌‌mitotic‌‌spindle‌‌and‌‌maintain‌‌cell‌‌shape‌  ‌
Centrosome:‌‌‌microtubule‌‌organizing‌‌center‌  ‌
Intermediate‌‌filaments:‌‌‌fibrous‌‌proteins‌‌that‌‌hold‌‌organelles‌‌in‌‌place‌  ‌
Microfilaments:‌‌‌fibrous‌‌proteins;‌‌form‌‌the‌‌cellular‌‌cortex‌  ‌
Cytoplasm:‌  ‌
Peroxisome:‌‌‌metabolizes‌‌waste‌  ‌
Mitochondria:‌‌‌produce‌‌energy‌  ‌
Golgi‌‌apparatus:‌‌‌modifies‌‌proteins‌  ‌
Lysosome:‌‌‌digests‌‌food‌‌and‌‌waste‌‌materials‌  ‌
Endoplasmic‌‌reticulum:‌  ‌
Rough:‌‌‌associated‌‌with‌‌ribosomes;‌‌makes‌‌secretory‌‌and‌‌membrane‌‌proteins‌  ‌
Smooth:‌‌‌makes‌‌lipids‌  ‌
 Other‌  ‌
Vacuole:‌‌‌“bubble”‌‌used‌‌for‌‌transportation‌  ‌
Plasma‌‌membrane:‌‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌  ‌

 ‌

 ‌

 ‌
The‌n‌ ucleolus‌i‌s‌‌inside‌‌the‌n‌ ucleus‌  ‌
 ‌
Sodium‌‌potassium‌‌pump:‌‌‌3‌‌sodium‌‌(Na)‌‌out,‌‌2‌‌potassium‌‌(K)‌‌in.‌‌ATP‌‌->‌‌ADP‌‌when‌‌used‌‌for‌‌Na/K‌‌pump.‌‌Works‌‌
 
like‌‌electricity‌‌when‌‌a‌‌gradient‌‌is‌‌formed‌‌and‌‌channels‌‌open.‌  ‌
 ‌
Vesicular‌‌transport:‌  ‌

Endocytosis:‌m
‌ oving‌‌something‌‌into‌‌the‌‌cell‌  ‌
Phagocytosis:‌m
‌ ovement‌‌of‌‌a‌‌l‌arge‌‌particle‌‌into‌‌the‌‌cell‌  ‌
Pinocytosis:‌m
‌ ovement‌‌of‌‌water‌‌and‌‌small‌‌solute‌‌into‌‌the‌‌cell‌  ‌
Receptor-mediated‌‌endocytosis:‌m ‌ ovement‌‌of‌‌particles‌‌that‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌requires‌‌receptors‌‌to‌‌move‌‌into‌‌the‌‌
 
cell‌  ‌
Exocytosis:‌m
‌ oving‌‌something‌‌out‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌  ‌

 ‌
Factors‌‌that‌‌affect‌‌enzyme‌‌activity:‌‌pH‌‌and‌‌heat‌‌(changes‌‌shape),‌‌concentration,‌‌inhibitors‌  ‌
Competitive‌‌inhibition:‌‌‌inhibitor‌‌“competes”‌‌for‌‌an‌‌active‌‌site‌‌by‌‌blocking‌‌substrate‌  ‌
Feedback‌‌inhibition:‌e‌ nd‌‌step‌‌of‌‌a‌‌multi-step‌‌pathway‌‌“feeds‌‌back”‌‌to‌‌inhibit‌‌the‌‌first‌‌enzyme‌‌of‌‌the‌‌  
pathway‌‌(acts‌‌like‌‌an‌‌“off‌‌switch”)‌  ‌
Substrate‌‌A‌‌->‌‌Substrate‌‌B‌‌->‌‌Substrate‌‌C‌‌->‌‌Substrate‌‌D‌‌->‌‌Block‌‌Enz‌‌1‌‌by‌‌
   ‌
‌Enz‌‌1‌ ‌Enz‌‌2‌ ‌Enz‌‌3‌ ‌changing‌‌its‌‌shape‌   ‌ ‌
 ‌
 ‌

Exergonic‌‌catabolic‌‌reaction‌:‌‌energy‌‌is‌‌released‌‌
   ‌
Endergonic‌‌anabolic‌‌reaction‌:‌‌builds‌‌bonds‌‌and‌‌requires‌‌energy‌  ‌
 ‌
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Anabolic‌(‌building‌‌molecules):‌  ‌ Catabolic‌(‌breaking‌‌down‌‌molecules):‌ 
Build‌‌large‌‌molecules,‌‌forms‌‌new‌‌bonds,‌‌require‌‌an‌‌
  Break‌‌down‌‌large‌‌molecules,‌‌breaks‌‌bonds,‌‌release‌‌
 
input‌‌of‌‌energy,‌‌negative‌‌change‌‌in‌‌free‌‌energy,‌‌
  energy,‌‌positive‌‌change‌‌in‌‌free‌‌energy,‌‌exergonic,‌‌
 
 endergonic,‌‌non-spontaneous‌  ‌ spontaneous‌  ‌
(Remember:‌a‌ nions‌‌‌are‌‌negative.‌A‌ nabolic‌u‌ ses‌‌
   ‌
energy,‌‌negative‌‌energy)‌  ‌ (Remember:‌c‌ ations‌‌‌are‌‌negative.‌C‌ atabolic‌u‌ ses‌‌
 
energy,‌‌positive‌‌energy)‌  ‌
 ‌
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Glycolysis:‌‌‌“glucose‌‌breaking”,‌‌glucose‌‌is‌‌split‌‌into‌‌2‌‌molecules‌‌called‌‌pyruvate,‌‌also‌‌produces‌‌2‌‌NADPH‌‌and‌‌2 ‌‌
molecules‌‌of‌‌ATP,‌‌fast,‌‌anaerobic,‌‌performed‌‌in‌‌all‌‌cells,‌‌10‌‌steps,‌‌10‌‌enzymes,‌‌occurs‌‌in‌‌the‌‌cytoplasm‌‌of‌‌
 
the‌‌cell.‌  ‌
If‌‌oxygen‌‌is‌‌available,‌‌the‌‌process‌‌moves‌‌on,‌‌if‌‌no‌‌oxygen‌‌is‌‌available,‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌performs‌‌fermentation‌‌
 
instead‌  ‌
Formation‌‌of‌‌Acetyl‌‌COA:‌2‌ ‌‌NADH,‌‌2‌‌CO‌2‌  ‌
Citric‌‌acid‌‌cycle:‌P‌ yruvate‌‌->‌‌Acetyl‌‌COA‌‌feeds‌‌energy‌‌to‌‌the‌‌citric‌‌acid‌‌(or‌‌Krebs)‌‌cycle.‌‌Each‌‌cycle‌‌yields‌‌
 
2CO‌2‌‌ ‌and‌‌1‌‌ATP,‌‌3‌‌NADH,‌‌1‌‌FADH‌2‌  ‌
NADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌‌ ‌had‌‌been‌‌holding‌‌onto‌‌electrons‌  ‌
Electron‌‌Transport‌‌Chain:‌N‌ ADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌‌ ‌drop‌‌off‌‌electrons‌‌(they‌‌used‌‌to‌‌belong‌‌to‌‌the‌‌glucose‌‌but‌‌were‌‌
 
taken‌‌up‌‌as‌‌NADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌‌ ‌were‌‌formed)‌‌inside‌‌of‌‌the‌‌mitochondria.‌‌Electrons‌‌give‌‌energy‌‌to‌‌pumps‌‌that‌‌ 
then‌‌pump‌‌H+‌‌protons‌‌through‌‌the‌‌membrane‌‌(making‌‌a‌‌proton‌‌gradient).‌‌To‌‌cross‌‌the‌‌membrane‌‌and‌‌lessen‌‌
 
the‌‌gradient,‌‌the‌‌protons‌‌must‌‌travel‌‌through‌‌ATP‌‌Synthase.‌‌ATP‌‌Synthase‌‌combines‌‌ADP‌‌with‌‌another‌‌  
phosphate‌‌group.‌‌The‌‌flow‌‌of‌‌protons‌‌rotates‌‌part‌‌of‌‌the‌‌protein‌‌and‌‌powers‌‌ATP‌‌formation.‌‌It‌‌takes‌‌
 
energy‌‌for‌‌the‌‌protein‌‌channels‌‌to‌‌maintain‌‌the‌‌proton‌‌gradient.‌‌They‌‌get‌‌this‌‌energy‌‌from‌‌the‌‌electrons‌‌
 
that‌‌were‌‌dropped‌‌off‌‌by‌‌NADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌  ‌
 ‌
Photosynthesis:‌6‌CO‌2‌+‌‌6H‌2‌O‌‌=‌‌C6‌‌H‌12‌O‌6‌+‌‌6O‌2‌  ‌
 ‌

Epidermal‌‌cells:‌‌‌outer‌‌cell‌‌layer‌‌of‌‌a‌‌plant‌  ‌
Mesophyll‌‌cells:‌s‌ pace‌‌in‌‌between‌‌upper‌‌and‌‌lower‌‌epidermal‌‌cells‌‌that‌‌carry‌‌out‌‌
 
photosynthesis‌  ‌
Stomata:‌‌‌holes‌‌in‌‌the‌‌epidermal‌‌cell‌‌that‌‌allow‌‌passage‌‌of‌‌O2‌‌ and‌
‌ ‌CO‌2‌ 
Chloroplasts:‌s‌ ite‌‌of‌‌photosynthesis‌  ‌
Granum:‌‌‌stacks‌‌inside‌‌chloroplasts.‌‌Made‌‌of‌‌a‌t‌ hylakoid‌‌membrane‌  ‌
Chlorophyll:‌i‌nside‌‌a‌‌granum.‌‌The‌‌pigment‌‌that‌‌absorbs‌‌sunlight‌  ‌
Stroma:‌g‌ el‌‌inside‌‌of‌‌the‌‌chloroplasts‌‌that‌‌surround‌‌the‌‌granum‌  ‌
Photosystem:‌‌‌a‌‌grouping‌‌of‌‌pigments‌‌on‌‌the‌‌membranes‌‌of‌‌thylakoids‌‌in‌‌which‌‌
 
 light-dependent‌‌reactions‌‌start‌  ‌
Light-dependent‌‌reactions‌  ‌
-Light:‌‌electromagnetic‌‌radiation.‌‌Travels‌‌in‌‌a‌‌repeating‌‌wave‌‌(sine‌‌wave)‌  ‌
-Chlorophyll‌‌absorbs‌‌blue‌‌and‌‌red‌‌light.‌‌Green‌‌is‌‌reflected‌  ‌
-light‌‌energy‌‌->‌‌chemical‌‌bond‌‌energy‌‌in‌‌the‌‌form‌‌of‌‌ATP‌‌or‌‌NADPH‌  ‌
-photosynthesis‌‌takes‌‌place‌‌in‌‌the‌‌thylakoid‌‌membrane‌‌that‌‌contains‌‌chlorophyll‌‌and‌‌other‌‌accessory‌‌
 
pigments‌‌used‌‌to‌‌absorb‌‌light‌  ‌
-H‌2‌O‌‌is‌‌split‌‌to‌‌replace‌‌the‌‌ejected‌‌electron.‌‌The‌‌result‌‌is‌‌O2‌‌  ‌
-Photosystem‌‌II‌‌results‌‌in‌‌ATP‌‌production‌‌(proton‌‌gradient/ATP‌‌synthase)‌  ‌
-Photosystem‌‌I‌‌results‌‌in‌‌NADPH‌‌production‌  ‌
-ATP‌‌and‌‌NADPH‌‌are‌‌needed‌‌in‌‌Calvin‌‌Cycle‌‌to‌‌convert‌‌CO‌2‌‌ ‌to‌‌glucose‌  ‌
The‌‌Calvin‌‌cycle‌  ‌
-CO‌2‌‌ ‌enters‌‌chloroplast‌‌through‌‌Stomata‌‌and‌‌diffuses‌‌into‌‌the‌‌stroma‌‌of‌‌the‌‌chloroplast‌‌(the‌‌site‌‌of‌‌the‌‌ 
Calvin‌‌Cycle‌‌reactions)‌  ‌
-Sugar‌‌is‌‌synthesized‌‌6CO‌2‌‌ ‌->‌‌C6‌‌H‌12‌O‌6‌  ‌
-Carbon‌‌fixation‌‌(attaching‌‌a‌‌molecule‌‌of‌‌CO‌2‌‌ ‌to‌‌a‌‌molecule‌‌of‌‌Glucose)‌‌->‌‌Reduction‌‌(ATP‌‌and‌‌NADPH‌‌use‌‌
 
the‌‌stored‌‌energy‌‌to‌‌convert‌‌3-PGA‌‌into‌‌G3P)‌‌->‌‌Regeneration‌‌
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DNA‌‌‌double‌‌helix‌‌‌>‌‌wrapped‌‌around‌‌a‌h‌ istone‌‌‌>‌‌coiled‌‌into‌‌a‌‌chromatin‌‌fiber‌‌‌>‌‌chromatin‌‌is‌‌further‌‌‌condensed‌‌
 
>‌‌duplicated‌‌‌chromosome‌  ‌
 ‌
Helicase:‌‌‌the‌e‌ nzyme‌‌‌that‌‌separates‌‌the‌‌strands.‌‌Two‌‌start‌‌at‌‌the‌‌origin.‌R‌ eplication‌‌fork:‌‌‌where‌‌helicase‌‌
 
is‌‌separating‌‌the‌‌DNA‌‌strands‌‌   ‌
Primase:‌‌‌builds‌‌an‌‌RNA‌‌primer‌‌to‌‌allow‌‌DNA‌‌polymerase‌‌to‌‌start‌‌working‌‌by‌‌making‌‌a‌‌little‌‌platform‌‌of‌‌RNA‌‌
 
for‌‌the‌‌DNA‌‌polymerase‌‌to‌‌start‌‌on‌  ‌
DNA‌‌polymerase:‌‌‌the‌‌enzyme‌‌that‌‌makes‌‌the‌‌new‌‌DNA‌  ‌
Leading‌‌strand‌:‌‌the‌‌strand‌‌that‌‌starts‌‌with‌‌3’‌‌that‌‌allows‌‌DNA‌‌polymerase‌‌to‌‌follow‌‌directly‌‌behind‌‌helicase‌ 
Lagging‌‌strand‌:‌‌the‌‌strand‌‌that‌‌makes‌‌DNA‌‌polymerase‌‌work‌‌in‌‌the‌‌opposite‌‌direction‌‌of‌‌helicase’s‌‌
 
movement‌  ‌
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DNA‌ ‌->‌ ‌RNA‌ ‌->‌ ‌Protein‌  ‌
T‌ ranscription‌ ‌Translation‌  ‌
DNA‌‌is‌‌copied‌‌3’-5’‌  ‌
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Transcription:‌‌‌DNA‌‌copied‌‌into‌‌mRNA‌‌following‌‌base‌‌pair‌‌rules‌‌(U‌‌replaces‌‌T).‌‌Carried‌‌out‌‌by‌‌RNA‌‌polymerase.‌‌
 
Transcription‌‌begins‌‌at‌‌the‌‌promoter‌‌just‌‌ahead‌‌of‌‌the‌‌gene.‌‌Essentially‌‌the‌‌“starting‌‌line”.‌‌Occurs‌‌in‌‌the‌‌
 
nucleus‌‌of‌‌eukaryotes‌‌and‌‌the‌‌cytoplasm‌‌of‌‌prokaryotes.‌‌
   ‌
Elongation:‌‌‌The‌‌stage‌‌where‌‌the‌‌RNA‌‌strand‌‌gets‌‌longer.‌ 
Termination:‌‌‌Specific‌‌nucleotide‌‌sequence‌‌signal‌‌that‌‌RNA‌‌polymerase‌‌has‌‌reached‌‌the‌‌end‌‌of‌‌the‌‌gene.‌  ‌
In‌‌prokaryotes,‌‌transcription‌‌and‌‌translation‌‌can‌‌occur‌‌simultaneously‌‌because‌‌it‌‌all‌‌takes‌‌place‌‌in‌‌the‌‌
 
cytoplasm.‌‌Not‌‌possible‌‌in‌‌eukaryotes.‌  ‌
Translation:‌‌‌protein‌‌synthesis.‌‌mRNA‌‌is‌‌used‌‌on‌‌a‌‌ribosome,‌‌along‌‌with‌‌tRNA‌‌and‌‌amino‌‌acids‌‌to‌‌build‌‌
 
proteins.‌‌
   ‌
Mature‌‌RNA:‌‌‌has‌‌been‌‌cut‌‌and‌‌is‌‌done‌  ‌
mRNA‌e‌ xons‌,‌‌parts‌‌that‌‌are‌‌kept,‌‌and‌i‌ntrons‌,‌‌parts‌‌that‌‌are‌‌removed.‌  ‌
mRNA‌‌‌is‌‌“read”‌‌3‌‌bases‌‌at‌‌a‌‌time.‌‌3‌‌mRNA‌‌bases‌‌are‌‌called‌‌a‌c‌ odon‌.‌‌Each‌‌codon‌‌“codes”‌‌for‌‌1‌‌amino‌‌acid.‌‌
 
Forms‌‌polypeptide‌‌chains.‌  ‌
Polypeptide‌‌chains‌‌‌are‌‌held‌‌together‌‌by‌‌covalent‌‌bonds.‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
Point‌‌mutation‌:‌‌a‌‌single‌‌base‌‌gets‌‌changed‌  ‌
 Silent‌‌mutation‌:‌‌the‌‌amino‌‌acid‌‌sequence‌‌is‌‌unchanged.‌‌Nothing‌‌happened.‌  ‌
Missense‌‌mutation‌:‌‌one‌‌amino‌‌acid‌‌is‌‌changed.‌  ‌
Nonsense‌‌mutation‌:‌‌creates‌‌a‌‌stop‌‌sign.‌‌Stops‌‌protein‌‌synthesis‌‌prematurely.‌ 
Insertion/Deletion‌:‌‌a‌‌base‌‌is‌‌inserted‌‌or‌‌deleted.‌‌Also‌‌called‌‌a‌‌frame-shift‌‌mutation.‌‌Example:‌‌
 
SEE|THE|DOG|RUN‌‌->‌‌SET|HED|OGR|UN?‌  ‌
  ‌

Gene‌‌expression‌‌in‌‌prokaryotes:‌  ‌
Operon:‌A‌ ‌‌cluster‌‌of‌‌structural‌‌and‌‌regulatory‌‌genes‌‌that‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌a‌‌unit.‌‌An‌‌operon‌‌contains‌‌a‌p‌ romoter,‌‌‌a ‌‌
sequence‌‌of‌‌DNA‌‌where‌‌transcription‌‌begins‌‌(where‌‌RNA‌‌polymerase‌‌starts‌‌transcription)‌‌and‌‌an‌o‌ perator‌,‌‌a ‌‌
sequence‌‌of‌‌DNA‌‌where‌‌a‌r‌ epressor‌‌protein‌‌‌binds‌‌(RNA‌‌polymerase‌‌cannot‌‌transcribe‌‌when‌‌a‌‌repressor‌‌  
protein‌‌is‌‌in‌‌place.‌‌A‌‌repressor‌‌protein‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌an‌‌“off-switch”)‌‌not‌‌every‌‌operator‌‌has‌‌a‌‌repressor‌‌bound‌‌  
to‌‌it.‌‌Different‌‌particles‌‌can‌‌bind‌‌to‌‌the‌‌repressor‌‌to‌‌prevent‌‌it‌‌from‌‌being‌‌able‌‌to‌‌bind‌‌to‌‌the‌‌operator‌‌so‌‌
 
the‌‌genes‌‌can‌‌be‌‌transcribed.‌‌Operators,‌‌repressor‌‌proteins,‌‌and‌‌substances‌‌form‌‌an‌‌“on‌‌and‌‌off‌‌switch”‌‌for‌‌  
transcription.‌‌    ‌

Gene‌‌regulation‌‌in‌‌eukaryotes:‌  ‌
DNA‌‌availability‌:‌‌the‌‌DNA‌‌must‌‌be‌‌unpacked‌  ‌
Transcription‌‌factors‌a‌ ssist‌‌RNA‌‌polymerase‌‌binding‌‌to‌‌the‌‌promoter‌‌    ‌
Post‌‌Transcriptional‌‌c‌ ontrol‌:‌‌alternate‌‌processing‌‌of‌‌intron‌‌and‌‌exons‌  ‌
Translational‌‌control:‌‌‌how‌‌long‌‌does‌‌the‌‌mRNA‌‌stay‌‌in‌‌the‌‌cytoplasm,‌‌how‌‌many‌‌proteins‌‌need‌‌to‌‌be‌‌made‌‌
   ‌
Post-translational:‌A‌ fter‌‌the‌‌protein‌‌has‌‌been‌‌built.‌  ‌
  ‌
Interphase:‌‌‌a‌‌cell‌‌is‌‌not‌‌dividing.‌‌Chromatin‌‌and‌‌nucleolus‌  ‌
G‌1‌:‌‌‌growth‌  ‌
S:‌‌‌DNA‌‌replication,‌‌chromosomes‌‌get‌‌copied,‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌‌held‌‌together‌‌at‌ ‌a‌‌point‌‌called‌‌the‌‌
 
centromere‌  ‌
G‌2‌:‌P‌ reparation‌‌for‌‌cell‌‌division‌  ‌
Diploid‌2‌ n‌‌is‌‌four‌‌homologous‌‌pairs‌‌of‌‌chromosomes‌  ‌

Cell‌‌division:‌‌‌a‌‌cell‌‌is‌‌dividing‌  ‌
Miosis:‌‌‌nuclear‌‌division‌‌that‌‌reduces‌‌chromosome‌‌number‌‌(only‌‌gametes)‌  ‌
Mitosis:‌‌‌nuclear‌‌division‌‌that‌‌maintains‌‌chromosome‌‌number‌‌(all‌‌somatic‌‌cells)‌  ‌
P‌ rophase:‌‌‌DNA‌‌begins‌‌to‌‌condense,‌‌chromatin‌‌is‌‌formed‌‌into‌‌chromosomes,‌‌nuclear‌‌envelope‌‌breaks‌‌
 
down,‌‌and‌‌the‌‌nucleolus‌‌disappears.‌  ‌
M
‌ etaphase:‌s‌ ister‌‌chromatids‌‌line‌‌up‌‌single‌‌file‌‌in‌‌the‌‌middle‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌with‌‌spindle‌‌fiber‌‌attached‌‌to‌‌
 
 each‌‌chromatid‌  ‌
A‌ naphase:‌c‌ hromatids‌‌separate‌  ‌
T‌ elophase:‌n‌ uclear‌‌envelopes‌‌begin‌‌to‌‌reform‌‌around‌‌the‌‌two‌‌groups‌‌of‌‌chromatids‌  ‌
Cytokinesis:‌‌‌division‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cytoplasm,‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌wall‌‌is‌‌built‌‌to‌‌separate‌‌the‌‌two‌‌new‌‌cells‌  ‌
 ‌
Interphase:‌‌‌a‌‌non-dividing‌‌cell‌ 
G‌1‌  ‌
G1‌‌checkpoint:‌‌‌checking‌‌DNA‌‌before‌‌DNA‌‌synthesis.‌‌Finding‌‌and‌‌fixing‌‌damaged‌‌DNA‌  ‌
S:‌‌‌DNA‌‌replicates,‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌  ‌
G2‌‌checkpoint:‌s‌ eeing‌‌if‌‌all‌‌the‌‌DNA‌‌has‌‌been‌‌copied‌‌before‌‌cell‌‌division‌  ‌
G‌2‌  ‌
M‌‌checkpoint:‌m ‌ etaphase‌‌checkpoint.‌‌Checking‌‌that‌‌the‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌‌are‌‌lined‌‌up‌‌and‌‌the‌‌spindle‌‌fibers‌‌
 
are‌‌in‌‌place.‌  ‌
Mitotic‌‌phase:‌c‌ ell‌‌division‌  ‌
Mitosis:‌‌‌Nuclear‌‌division‌‌that‌‌maintains‌‌the‌‌chromosome‌‌number.‌‌One‌‌parent‌‌cell‌‌divides‌‌into‌‌two‌‌identical‌‌  
daughter‌‌cells.‌‌Used‌‌for‌‌embryonic‌‌development,‌‌growth,‌‌repair,‌‌and‌‌asexual‌‌reproduction.‌  ‌
Cytokinesis‌  ‌
  ‌
Cancer‌‌‌is‌‌a‌‌collective‌‌name‌‌for‌‌many‌‌different‌‌diseases‌‌caused‌‌by‌‌a‌‌common‌‌mechanism:‌‌uncontrolled‌‌cell‌‌
 
division‌  ‌
Different‌‌types‌‌of‌‌cancer‌‌result‌‌from‌‌different‌‌sets‌‌of‌‌problems,‌‌including‌l‌oss‌‌of‌‌mitotic‌c‌ ontrol.‌‌
   ‌

A‌p‌ roto-oncogene‌‌‌is‌‌a‌‌gene‌‌whose‌‌product‌‌is‌‌a‌‌protein‌‌that‌‌speeds‌‌up‌‌cell‌‌division‌  ‌
CDK‌‌protein‌,‌‌when‌‌activated,‌‌clears‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌checkpoint‌  ‌
A‌‌genetic‌‌mutation‌‌causes‌‌CDK‌‌protein‌‌to‌‌be‌‌constantly‌‌activated‌  ‌
The‌‌mutated‌‌gene‌‌is‌‌now‌‌called‌‌an‌o‌ ncogene‌‌‌(cancer-causing)‌  ‌

Tumor‌‌suppressor‌‌genes‌‌‌are‌‌genes‌‌whose‌‌products‌‌stop‌‌cell‌‌division‌  ‌
p53‌,‌‌when‌‌activated,‌‌will‌‌prevent‌‌cells‌‌from‌‌advancing‌‌past‌‌a‌‌checkpoint‌  ‌
Mutated‌‌p53‌‌is‌‌non-functional‌  ‌
  ‌
Starch‌‌------>‌‌maltose‌‌sugar‌ L‌ ugol’s‌‌reagent:‌‌starch‌‌
  
‌Amylase‌ ‌Benedict’s‌‌reagent:‌‌sugar‌‌(boil)‌  ‌
P‌ hotosynthesis:‌‌6CO2‌‌+‌‌6H2O‌‌→‌‌C6H12O6‌‌+‌‌6O2‌  ‌
 ‌
Meiosis‌‌‌is‌‌the‌‌nuclear‌‌division‌‌that‌‌reduces‌‌the‌‌chromosome‌‌number:‌‌diploid‌‌->‌‌haploid‌  ‌
Two‌‌successive‌‌divisions:‌  ‌
 Meiosis‌‌I:‌s‌ eparate‌‌members‌‌of‌‌the‌‌homologous‌‌pairs‌  ‌ Meiosis‌‌II:‌s‌ eparates‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌  ‌
Prophase‌‌I:‌n‌ uclear‌‌envelope‌‌breaks‌‌down,‌‌chromatin‌‌
  Prophase‌‌II:‌‌‌nuclear‌‌envelope‌‌breaks‌‌down,‌‌chromatin‌‌
 
condenses‌‌into‌‌chromosomes,‌‌nucleolus‌‌disappears.‌W
‌ here‌‌
  condenses‌‌into‌‌chromosomes,‌‌nucleolus‌‌disappears‌  ‌
synapsis‌‌and‌‌crossover‌‌occur.‌  ‌ Metaphase‌‌II:‌s‌ ister‌‌chromatids‌‌move‌‌to‌‌the‌‌center‌  ‌
Metaphase‌‌I:‌c‌ hromosomes‌‌line‌‌up‌‌in‌‌the‌‌middle‌‌in‌‌lines‌‌
  Anaphase‌‌II:‌‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌‌separate‌  ‌
of‌‌two,‌‌with‌‌similar‌‌chromosomes‌‌next‌‌to‌‌each‌‌other‌‌
  Telophase‌‌II:‌c‌ ell‌‌p‌ repares‌‌for‌‌cytokinesis‌‌and‌‌nuclear‌‌
 
(‌synapsis‌) ‌ ‌ envelope‌‌reforms‌  ‌
Anaphase‌‌I:‌c‌ hromosome‌‌pairs‌‌are‌‌separated‌‌into‌‌both‌‌
 
halves‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌  ‌
Telophase‌‌I:‌c‌ ell‌‌p‌ repares‌‌for‌‌cytokinesis‌‌and‌‌nuclear‌‌
 
envelope‌‌reforms‌  ‌
 ‌
Homologous‌‌chromosomes‌‌‌have‌‌genes‌‌for‌‌the‌‌same‌‌traits‌‌at‌‌the‌‌exact‌‌same‌‌locations,‌‌however,‌‌there‌‌are‌‌different‌‌
 
form‌‌called‌a‌ lleles‌(‌formed‌‌by‌‌chromosomal‌‌crossover)‌  ‌
Chromosomal‌‌crossover:‌‌‌when‌‌chromosomes‌‌exchange‌‌genetic‌‌information‌‌among‌‌the‌‌two‌‌sister‌‌chromatids,‌‌allows‌‌for‌‌
 
genetic‌‌diversity.‌  ‌
No‌‌two‌‌gametes‌‌are‌‌identical‌‌from‌‌the‌‌same‌‌person‌  ‌
 ‌
Chromosome‌‌Structural‌‌Rearrangements:‌  ‌
Duplication‌‌‌happens‌‌when‌‌a‌‌portion‌‌of‌‌a‌‌chromosome‌‌is‌‌duplicated‌  ‌
Deletion‌‌‌happens‌‌when‌‌a‌‌chromosome‌‌is‌‌deleted‌  ‌
Translocation‌‌‌happens‌‌when‌‌a‌‌non‌‌homologous‌‌chromosome‌‌exchange‌‌segments‌  ‌
Inversions‌h‌ appen‌‌when‌‌a‌‌portion‌‌of‌‌a‌‌chromosome‌‌is‌‌flipped‌‌180‌  ‌
 ‌
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Plant‌‌height‌  ‌
Alleles:‌‌T=‌‌tall,‌‌dominant‌ ‌t=‌‌short,‌‌recessive‌  ‌
Genotypes:‌‌TT=‌‌homozygous‌‌dominant‌ ‌Tt=‌‌heterozygous‌ ‌tt=‌‌homozygous‌‌recessive‌  ‌
Phenotype:‌‌Tall‌‌(dominant)‌ ‌tall‌‌(dominant)‌ ‌short‌‌(recessive)‌  ‌
 ‌

Fly‌‌Genotype‌  ‌ Fly‌‌Traits‌  ‌ Corn‌‌Genotypes‌  ‌ Corn‌‌traits‌  ‌

L‌  ‌ Long‌‌wings‌  ‌ P‌  ‌ Purple‌  ‌

l‌  ‌ Short‌‌wings‌  ‌ p‌  ‌ Yellow‌  ‌

T‌  ‌ Tan‌‌body‌  ‌ S‌  ‌ Smooth‌  ‌

t‌  ‌ Ebony‌‌body‌  ‌ s‌  ‌ Wrinkled‌  ‌

X‌R‌  ‌ Red‌‌eyes‌  ‌  ‌  ‌

X‌r‌  ‌ White‌‌eyes‌  ‌  ‌  ‌

 ‌
Sex‌‌linked‌‌traits:‌  ‌
White‌‌eyes‌‌in‌‌fruit‌‌flies‌‌(sex‌‌linked‌‌recessive)‌  ‌
Color‌‌blindness‌‌(sex‌‌linked‌‌recessive)‌  ‌
Hemophilia‌‌(sex‌‌linked‌‌recessive)‌ 
Muscular‌‌Dystrophy‌‌(sex‌‌linked‌‌recessive)‌  ‌
 ‌
Dihybrid‌‌ratio:‌  ‌
9‌  ‌ Dom-dom‌  ‌ 56%‌  ‌

3‌  ‌ Dom-rec‌  ‌ 19%‌  ‌

3‌  ‌ Rec-dom‌  ‌ 19%‌  ‌

1‌  ‌ Rec-rec‌  ‌ 6%‌  ‌

 ‌
Incomplete‌‌dominance‌:‌‌traits‌‌seem‌‌to‌‌“blend‌‌together”.‌‌R‌‌is‌‌red,‌‌W‌‌is‌‌white.‌‌RR‌‌is‌‌red,‌‌WW‌‌is‌‌white,‌‌RW‌‌is‌‌pink.‌‌
 
Common‌‌in‌‌flower‌‌colors.‌  ‌
Codominance:‌‌‌both‌‌alleles‌‌are‌‌expressed.‌‌A‌‌white‌‌cow‌‌has‌‌a‌‌child‌‌with‌‌a‌‌brown‌‌cow,‌‌the‌‌offspring‌‌is‌‌white‌‌with‌‌brown‌‌
 
spots‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌
  ‌ PS‌  ‌ Ps‌  ‌ pS‌  ‌ ps‌  ‌

PS‌  ‌ PPSS‌  ‌ PPSs‌  ‌ PpSS‌  ‌ PpSs‌  ‌

Ps‌  ‌ PPSs‌  ‌ PPss‌  ‌ PpSs‌  ‌ Ppss‌  ‌

pS‌  ‌ PpSS‌  ‌ PpSs‌  ‌ ppSS‌  ‌ ppSs‌  ‌

ps‌  ‌ PpSs‌  ‌ Ppss‌  ‌ ppSs‌  ‌ ppss‌ 

 ‌
An‌a‌ llele‌‌‌is‌‌a‌‌variation‌‌in‌‌a‌‌gene,‌‌a‌‌mutation‌‌that‌‌results‌‌in‌‌variation‌‌of‌‌an‌‌expressed‌‌trait.‌‌There‌‌is‌‌one‌‌allele‌‌on‌‌each‌‌
 
member‌‌of‌‌a‌‌homologous‌‌pair.‌‌When‌‌two‌‌different‌a‌ lleles‌‌‌exist‌‌for‌‌a‌‌single‌‌trait,‌‌three‌‌separate‌g‌ enotypes‌‌‌are‌‌possible‌‌
 
(PP,‌‌Pp,‌‌pp).‌‌One‌‌allele‌‌may‌‌be‌d‌ ominant‌‌‌and‌‌the‌‌other‌‌is‌r‌ ecessive‌‌‌(P=dominant,‌‌p=recessive).‌  ‌
A‌d‌ ominant‌‌allele‌‌‌must‌‌always‌‌be‌‌expressed‌‌when‌‌it‌‌is‌‌present.‌‌The‌‌‌recessive‌‌allele‌‌‌is‌‌masked‌‌when‌‌the‌‌dominant‌‌is‌‌
 
present.‌‌The‌r‌ ecessive‌‌allele‌i‌s‌‌expressed‌‌when‌‌the‌d‌ ominant‌‌allele‌‌‌is‌‌not‌‌present.‌‌Homozygous‌‌dominant,‌‌heterozygous,‌‌
 
and‌‌homozygous‌‌recessive‌‌are‌‌all‌g‌ enotypes‌.‌‌A‌p‌ henotype‌i‌s‌‌the‌‌physical‌‌expression‌‌of‌‌the‌‌alleles.‌  ‌
 ‌
Genotypic‌‌ratio:‌‌‌1:2:1‌  ‌
Phenotypic‌‌ratio:‌‌‌3:1‌  ‌
 ‌
 ‌ Wing‌‌length‌  ‌ Body‌‌color‌  ‌ Eye‌‌color‌  ‌

Wild‌‌Type‌  ‌ Long‌  ‌ Tan‌  ‌ Red‌  ‌

Vestigial‌  ‌ Short‌  ‌ Tan‌  ‌ Red‌  ‌

Ebony‌  ‌ Long‌  ‌ Black‌  ‌ Red‌  ‌

White‌‌eye‌  ‌ Long‌  ‌ Tan‌  ‌ White‌  ‌

 ‌
Males‌‌are‌‌statisitally‌‌more‌‌likely‌‌to‌‌inherit‌‌sex-linked‌‌traits‌‌as‌‌they‌‌only‌‌have‌‌one‌‌X‌‌chromosome‌‌while‌‌females‌‌have‌‌two.‌  ‌
 ‌
DNA‌‌electrophoresis:‌‌‌DNA‌‌samples‌‌are‌‌loaded‌‌into‌‌negative‌‌wells,‌‌the‌‌power‌‌is‌‌turned‌‌on‌‌and‌‌the‌‌DNA‌‌fragments‌‌migrate‌‌  
through‌‌the‌‌gel,‌‌the‌‌larger‌‌fragments‌‌of‌‌DNA‌‌are‌‌closer‌‌to‌‌the‌‌negative‌‌wells‌‌while‌‌the‌‌smaller‌‌fragments‌‌are‌‌closer‌‌to‌‌
 
the‌‌positive‌‌end,‌‌blue‌‌dye‌‌is‌‌added‌‌to‌‌see‌‌the‌‌sample‌  ‌
 ‌
Restriction‌‌DNA‌c‌ uts‌‌DNA‌‌and‌r‌ ecombinant‌‌DNA‌‌‌results‌‌in‌‌transgenic‌‌organisms‌‌and‌‌recombinant‌‌proteins‌‌by‌‌splicing‌‌
 
together‌‌parts‌‌of‌‌other‌‌DNA‌‌sequences‌  ‌
  ‌
  ‌
Basis‌‌for‌‌natural‌‌selection:‌  ‌
1. Characteristics‌‌are‌‌inherited‌‌and‌‌there‌‌must‌‌be‌‌genetic‌‌variation‌‌within‌‌populations‌‌(the‌‌ultimate‌‌source‌‌of‌‌variation‌‌is‌‌
 
mutation)‌  ‌
2. More‌‌offspring‌‌are‌‌produced‌‌than‌‌can‌‌survive‌  ‌
3. Individuals‌‌within‌‌a‌‌population‌‌must‌‌compete‌‌for‌‌available‌‌resources‌‌
   ‌
4. Those‌‌individuals‌‌with‌‌more‌‌successful‌‌phenotypes‌‌will‌‌out‌‌compete‌‌their‌‌peers‌  ‌
5. Differential‌‌reproductive‌‌success‌‌(survival‌‌of‌‌the‌‌fittest)‌  ‌
 ‌
Types‌‌of‌‌natural‌‌selection:‌  ‌
1. Directional‌‌selection:‌‌‌favors‌‌one‌‌extreme‌‌phenotype.‌  ‌
2. Stabilizing‌‌selection:‌f‌ avors‌‌the‌‌average,‌‌but‌‌not‌‌the‌‌extreme‌‌phenotypes‌  ‌
3. Disruptive‌‌selection:‌‌‌favors‌‌two‌‌extreme‌‌phenotypes‌‌but‌‌not‌‌the‌‌average‌‌or‌‌intermediate‌  ‌
 ‌
Population‌‌genetics:‌‌‌the‌‌study‌‌of‌‌alleles‌‌present‌‌in‌‌a‌‌population‌  ‌
Gene‌‌pool:‌‌‌sum‌‌of‌‌all‌‌alleles‌‌in‌‌a‌‌population‌  ‌
Microevolution:‌‌‌any‌‌change‌‌in‌‌allele‌‌frequencies‌‌within‌‌the‌‌gene‌‌pool‌  ‌
 ‌
Hardy-Weinberg‌‌Equation:‌  ‌
 ‌
p²‌‌+‌‌2pq‌‌+‌‌q²‌‌=‌‌1 ‌ ‌
 ‌
PP‌‌+‌‌Pp‌‌+‌‌pp‌‌=‌‌1 ‌ ‌
p‌‌=‌‌dominant‌‌allele‌  ‌
q‌‌=‌‌recessive‌‌allele‌  ‌
p‌‌+‌‌q‌‌=‌‌1 ‌ ‌
 ‌
A‌‌completely‌‌stable‌‌population‌‌would‌‌be‌‌in‌‌Hardy-Weinberg‌‌equilibrium.‌N‌ o‌‌such‌‌population‌‌exists‌‌as‌‌populations‌‌are‌‌always‌‌
 
experiencing‌‌change.‌  ‌
 ‌
Factors‌‌that‌‌drive‌‌microevolution:‌  ‌
1. Mutations:‌‌‌only‌‌source‌‌of‌‌new‌‌alleles‌‌of‌‌variation.‌  ‌
2. Natural‌‌selection‌  ‌
3. Genetic‌‌drift:‌‌‌random‌‌chance‌‌or‌‌sample‌‌error.‌‌Usually‌‌occurs‌‌in‌‌small‌‌populations.‌   ‌ ‌
‌-F‌ ounder‌‌effect:‌‌‌small‌‌group‌‌starts‌‌new‌‌colony‌‌or‌‌population‌   ‌ ‌
‌-B‌ ottleneck‌‌effect:‌‌‌few‌‌individuals‌‌survive‌‌a‌‌natural‌‌disaster‌‌
   ‌
4. Non‌‌random‌‌mating:‌‌‌mates‌‌based‌‌on‌‌phenotype‌  ‌
5. Gene‌‌flow:‌‌‌migration‌  ‌
6.  ‌
Homologous‌‌structures‌‌‌are‌‌anatomical‌‌structures‌‌that‌‌share‌‌a‌‌common‌‌genetic‌‌origin‌‌although‌‌function‌‌varies.‌‌They‌‌are‌‌proof‌‌of‌‌
 
divergent‌‌evolution‌,‌‌species‌‌that‌‌came‌‌from‌‌a‌‌common‌‌ancestor‌  ‌
Vestigial‌‌structures‌‌‌have‌‌no‌‌apparent‌‌function‌‌in‌‌the‌‌present‌‌day‌‌species‌‌but‌‌was‌‌functional‌‌in‌‌an‌‌ancestor‌  ‌
Analogous‌‌structures‌h‌ ave‌‌similar‌‌functions‌‌but‌‌are‌‌not‌‌closely‌‌related‌‌in‌‌terms‌‌of‌‌genes‌  ‌
Comparative‌‌embryology‌‌‌is‌‌the‌‌comparison‌‌of‌‌embryological‌‌development.‌‌Many‌‌similarities‌‌have‌‌been‌‌found.‌  ‌
Biogeography‌‌‌studies‌‌the‌‌distribution‌‌of‌‌species‌‌relative‌‌to‌‌the‌‌formation‌‌of‌‌present-day‌‌continents‌  ‌
Comparative‌‌biochemistry‌‌‌compares‌‌proteins,‌‌DNA‌‌and‌‌RNA‌‌sequence.‌C‌ ytochrome‌‌C‌‌comparison‌i‌s‌‌used‌‌to‌‌compare‌‌how‌‌different‌‌
 
species‌‌are‌‌to‌‌humans‌.  
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Final:‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌characteristics‌‌of‌‌living‌‌organisms‌‌listed‌‌in‌‌ch‌‌1:‌  ‌
Order,‌‌Sensitivity,‌‌Reproduction,‌‌Growth/Development,‌‌Adaptation/Evolution,‌‌Homeostasis,‌‌Energy‌  ‌
Acquisition‌  ‌
Recognize‌‌examples‌‌of‌‌the‌‌characteristics‌‌of‌‌life:‌  ‌
organization,‌‌responsiveness,‌‌sexual‌‌or‌‌asexual‌‌reproduction,‌‌Growth/Development,‌‌natural‌‌selection,‌  ‌
stable‌‌internal‌‌environment,‌‌autotroph,‌‌heterotroph,‌‌saprotroph‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌levels‌‌of‌‌organization?‌ ‌(atom-‌‌molecule…..etc.):‌  ‌
Atoms,‌‌molecules,‌‌cells,‌‌tissues,‌‌organs,‌‌organ‌‌systems,‌‌organisms,‌‌populations,‌‌communities,‌  ‌
ecosystem,‌‌biosphere‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌3‌‌domains‌‌of‌‌living‌‌organisms?‌ ‌Which‌‌are‌‌prokaryotes?‌  ‌
Bacteria‌‌(common‌‌prokaryote),‌‌Archaea‌‌(uncommon‌‌prokaryotes),‌‌Eukarya‌‌(all‌‌eukaryotes)‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌4‌‌kingdoms‌‌of‌‌eukaryotes?‌ ‌What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌main‌‌characteristics‌‌of‌‌each?‌  ‌
Protist‌‌(“junk‌‌drawer”‌‌generally‌‌single-celled‌‌eukaryotes),‌‌Fungi‌‌(mostly‌‌multicellular‌‌decomposer‌  ‌
saprotroph),‌‌Plant‌‌(multicellular‌‌autotroph),‌‌Animal‌‌(multicellular‌‌heterotroph)‌  ‌
Identify‌‌dependent,‌‌independent‌‌and‌‌standardized‌‌variables.‌  ‌
Independent‌‌variable:‌‌The‌‌variable‌‌directly‌‌manipulated‌‌by‌‌the‌‌researcher‌  ‌
Dependent‌‌variable:‌‌The‌‌variable‌‌that‌‌is‌‌affected‌‌by‌‌the‌‌independent‌‌variable‌  ‌
Standardized‌‌variable:‌‌The‌‌variable‌‌that‌‌remains‌‌constant‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌the‌‌atomic‌‌number?‌  ‌
Atomic‌‌number:‌‌number‌‌of‌‌protons‌  ‌
How‌‌many‌‌electrons‌‌are‌‌found‌‌in‌‌the‌‌first‌‌3‌‌electron‌‌shells?‌  ‌
2,8,8‌  ‌
Which‌‌electrons‌‌determine‌‌chemical‌‌reactivity?‌  ‌
The‌‌number‌‌of‌‌electrons‌‌in‌‌the‌‌outermost‌‌shell‌ 
How‌‌are‌‌ionic‌‌and‌‌covalent‌‌bonds‌‌different?‌  ‌
Ionic‌‌bond:‌‌one‌‌atom‌‌transfers‌‌one‌‌or‌‌more‌‌valence‌‌electrons‌‌to‌‌another‌  ‌
Covalent‌‌bonds:‌‌atoms‌‌share‌‌valence‌‌electrons‌  ‌
How‌‌are‌‌polar‌‌and‌‌nonpolar‌‌covalent‌‌bonds‌‌different?‌  ‌
Nonpolar‌‌covalent‌‌bonds‌‌share‌‌electrons‌‌equally‌‌(C-C,‌‌C-H,‌‌H-H)‌‌while‌‌Polar‌‌covalent‌‌bonds‌‌do‌‌not‌  ‌
share‌‌equally‌‌(O-H,‌‌N-H,‌‌C=O)‌‌
   ‌
How‌‌do‌‌prokaryotes‌‌and‌‌eukaryotes‌‌differ?‌  ‌
Prokaryotes‌‌have‌‌no‌‌nucleus‌‌while‌‌eukaryote‌‌do‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌the‌‌function‌‌of‌‌various‌‌organelles/structures?‌ ‌Nucleolus,‌‌cytoskeleton,‌‌ribosomes,‌  ‌
rough/smoothER,‌‌Golgi,‌‌lysosomes,mitochondria,‌‌chloroplast:‌  ‌
 Nucleus:‌  ‌
Nuclear‌‌envelope:‌‌membrane‌‌enclosing‌‌the‌‌nucleus.‌‌Protein-lined‌‌pores‌‌allow‌‌material‌‌to‌‌move‌‌in‌‌and‌‌
 
out‌  ‌
Chromatin:‌‌DNA‌‌plus‌‌associated‌‌proteins‌  ‌
Nucleolus:‌‌Condensed‌‌region‌‌where‌‌ribosomes‌‌are‌‌formed‌  ‌
Cytoskeleton:‌  ‌
Microtubules:‌‌form‌‌the‌‌mitotic‌‌spindle‌‌and‌‌maintain‌‌cell‌‌shape‌  ‌
Centrosome:‌‌microtubule‌‌organizing‌‌center‌  ‌
Intermediate‌‌filaments:‌‌fibrous‌‌proteins‌‌that‌‌hold‌‌organelles‌‌in‌‌place‌ 
Microfilaments:‌‌fibrous‌‌proteins;‌‌form‌‌the‌‌cellular‌‌cortex‌  ‌
Cytoplasm:‌  ‌
Peroxisome:‌‌metabolizes‌‌waste‌  ‌
Mitochondria:‌‌produce‌‌energy‌  ‌
Golgi‌‌apparatus:‌‌modifies‌‌proteins‌  ‌
Lysosome:‌‌digests‌‌food‌‌and‌‌waste‌‌materials‌  ‌
Endoplasmic‌‌reticulum:‌  ‌
Rough:‌‌associated‌‌with‌‌ribosomes;‌‌makes‌‌secretory‌‌and‌‌membrane‌‌proteins‌  ‌
Smooth:‌‌makes‌‌lipids‌  ‌
Other‌  ‌
Vacuole:‌‌“bubble”‌‌used‌‌for‌‌transportation‌  ‌
Plasma‌‌membrane:‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌  ‌

How‌‌do‌‌plant‌‌and‌‌animal‌‌cells‌‌differ?‌  ‌
Plant‌‌cells‌‌have‌‌a‌‌Cell‌‌wall‌‌(rigid‌‌cellulose‌‌boundary),‌‌central‌‌vacuole‌‌(storage‌‌of‌‌water‌‌and‌‌starch),‌  ‌
chloroplast‌‌(site‌‌of‌‌photosynthesis)‌‌while‌‌animal‌‌cells‌‌do‌‌not‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌hydrogen‌‌bonds?‌  ‌
Hydrogen‌‌bond:‌‌a‌‌weak‌‌attraction‌‌between‌‌neighboring‌‌polar‌‌molecules‌  ‌
How‌‌do‌‌endergonic‌‌and‌‌exergonic‌‌reactions‌‌differ?‌ ‌Which‌‌are‌‌typically‌‌anabolic?‌‌Catabolic?‌  ‌

Anabolic‌(‌building‌‌molecules):‌  ‌ Catabolic‌(‌breaking‌‌down‌‌molecules):‌  ‌
Build‌‌large‌‌molecules,‌‌forms‌‌new‌‌bonds,‌‌require‌‌
  Break‌‌down‌‌large‌‌molecules,‌‌breaks‌‌bonds,‌‌release‌‌
 
input‌‌of‌‌energy,‌‌negative‌‌change‌‌in‌‌free‌‌energy,‌‌
  energy,‌‌positive‌‌change‌‌in‌‌free‌‌energy,‌‌exergonic,‌‌
 
endergonic,‌‌non-spontaneous‌  ‌ spontaneous‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌diffusion?‌ ‌What‌‌is‌‌required‌‌for‌‌diffusion‌‌to‌‌occur?‌  ‌
Diffusion‌‌is‌‌the‌m
‌ ovement‌‌of‌‌a‌‌substance‌‌from‌‌an‌‌area‌‌of‌‌high‌‌concentration‌‌to‌‌an‌‌area‌‌of‌  ‌
concentration‌‌until‌‌the‌‌concentration‌‌is‌‌even.‌‌Influenced‌‌by‌‌extent‌‌of‌‌concentration‌‌gradient,‌‌mass‌  ‌
of‌‌molecules‌‌diffusing,‌‌temperature,‌‌solvent‌‌density.‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌osmosis?‌  ‌
Osmosis:‌‌diffusion‌‌of‌‌water‌‌across‌‌a‌‌selectively‌‌permeable‌‌membrane‌  ‌
How‌‌do‌‌simple‌‌diffusion,‌‌facilitated‌‌diffusion‌‌and‌‌active‌‌transport‌‌differ?‌‌Why‌‌do‌‌we‌‌need‌‌themAll?‌  ‌
(something‌‌about‌‌polar/non/polar<‌‌some‌‌things‌‌can‌‌go‌‌straight‌‌through‌‌phospholipids):‌  ‌
Simple‌‌diffusion:‌‌molecules‌‌can‌‌cross‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌membrane‌‌directly.‌‌Fats,‌‌lipids,‌‌oxygen,‌‌and‌‌carbon‌  ‌
dioxide‌‌can‌‌pass‌‌through‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌membrane.‌  ‌
Facilitated‌‌diffusion:‌‌diffusion‌‌of‌‌molecules‌‌that‌‌are‌‌too‌‌polar,‌‌charged,‌‌or‌‌too‌‌large‌‌to‌‌pass‌‌through‌  ‌
the‌‌bilayer‌‌directly.‌‌Must‌‌use‌‌protein‌‌channels.‌‌Glucose,‌‌amino‌‌acids,‌‌and‌‌ions‌‌require‌‌facilitated‌  ‌
Diffusion.‌  ‌
Active‌‌transport:‌‌Requires‌‌some‌‌energy,‌‌pumps,‌‌vesicles‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌enzymes?‌ ‌Active‌‌sites?‌‌Substrates?‌‌How‌‌do‌‌enzymes‌‌work?‌‌Do‌‌they‌‌control‌‌only‌‌specific‌  ‌
reactions?‌  ‌
Enzymes‌‌a‌ re‌‌proteins‌‌that‌‌speed‌‌chemical‌‌reactions‌‌and‌‌help‌‌conserve‌‌energy‌‌by‌‌lowering‌‌the‌  ‌
activation‌‌energy‌‌needed‌‌to‌‌start‌‌a‌‌chemical‌‌reaction.‌‌Substrate‌‌enters‌‌the‌‌active‌‌site‌‌of‌‌the‌  ‌
enzyme->‌‌substrate‌‌binds‌‌to‌‌enzyme‌‌->‌‌chemical‌‌reaction‌‌takes‌‌place‌‌->‌‌products‌‌leave‌‌the‌‌enzyme.‌  ‌
The‌‌active‌‌site‌‌is‌‌a‌‌specific‌‌shape‌‌that‌‌only‌‌specific‌‌substrates‌‌can‌‌fit‌‌into‌  ‌
What‌‌factors‌‌influence‌‌enzyme‌‌activity?‌  ‌
pH‌‌and‌‌heat‌‌(changes‌‌shape),‌‌concentration,‌‌inhibitors‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌the‌‌summary‌‌equation‌‌for‌‌photosynthesis?‌‌Cellular‌‌respiration?‌  ‌
Photosynthesis:‌‌6CO‌2‌+‌‌6H‌2‌O‌‌=‌‌C6‌‌H‌12‌O‌6‌+‌‌6O‌2‌  ‌
Cellular‌‌respiration:‌‌C6‌‌H‌12‌O‌6‌+‌‌6O‌2‌‌ ‌=‌‌6CO‌2‌+‌‌6H‌2‌O‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌cellular‌‌respiration?‌‌    ‌

Glycolysis:‌‌‌“glucose‌‌breaking”,‌‌glucose‌‌is‌‌split‌‌into‌‌2‌‌molecules‌‌called‌‌pyruvate,‌‌also‌‌produces‌‌2 ‌‌
NADPH‌‌and‌‌2‌‌molecules‌‌of‌‌ATP,‌‌fast,‌‌anaerobic,‌‌performed‌‌in‌‌all‌‌cells,‌‌10‌‌steps,‌‌10‌‌enzymes,‌‌occurs‌‌in‌‌
 
the‌‌cytoplasm‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell.‌  ‌
If‌‌oxygen‌‌is‌‌available,‌‌the‌‌process‌‌moves‌‌on,‌‌if‌‌no‌‌oxygen‌‌is‌‌available,‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌performs‌‌
 
fermentation‌‌instead‌  ‌
Formation‌‌of‌‌Acetyl‌‌COA:‌2‌ ‌‌NADH,‌‌2‌‌CO‌2‌  ‌
Citric‌‌acid‌‌cycle:‌P‌ yruvate‌‌->‌‌Acetyl‌‌COA‌‌feeds‌‌energy‌‌to‌‌the‌‌citric‌‌acid‌‌(or‌‌Krebs)‌‌cycle.‌‌Each‌‌cycle‌‌
 
yields‌‌2CO‌2‌‌ ‌and‌‌1‌‌ATP,‌‌3‌‌NADH,‌‌1‌‌FADH‌2‌  ‌
NADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌‌ ‌had‌‌been‌‌holding‌‌onto‌‌electrons‌  ‌
Electron‌‌Transport‌‌Chain:‌N‌ ADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌‌ ‌drop‌‌off‌‌electrons‌‌(they‌‌used‌‌to‌‌belong‌‌to‌‌the‌‌glucose‌‌
 
 but‌‌were‌‌taken‌‌up‌‌as‌‌NADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌‌ ‌were‌‌formed)‌‌inside‌‌of‌‌the‌‌mitochondria.‌‌Electrons‌‌give‌‌
 
energy‌‌to‌‌pumps‌‌that‌‌then‌‌pump‌‌H+‌‌protons‌‌through‌‌the‌‌membrane‌‌(making‌‌a‌‌proton‌‌gradient).‌‌To‌‌
 
cross‌‌the‌‌membrane‌‌and‌‌lessen‌‌the‌‌gradient,‌‌the‌‌protons‌‌must‌‌travel‌‌through‌‌ATP‌‌Synthase.‌‌ATP‌‌
 
Synthase‌‌combines‌‌ADP‌‌with‌‌another‌‌phosphate‌‌group.‌‌The‌‌flow‌‌of‌‌protons‌‌rotates‌‌part‌‌of‌‌the‌‌
 
protein‌‌and‌‌powers‌‌ATP‌‌formation.‌‌It‌‌takes‌‌energy‌‌for‌‌the‌‌protein‌‌channels‌‌to‌‌maintain‌‌the‌‌
 
proton‌‌gradient.‌‌They‌‌get‌‌this‌‌energy‌‌from‌‌the‌‌electrons‌‌that‌‌were‌‌dropped‌‌off‌‌by‌‌NADH‌‌and‌‌FADH‌2‌  ‌

Which‌‌stage‌‌results‌‌in‌‌the‌‌most‌‌ATP‌‌production?‌  ‌
Electron‌‌Transport‌‌Chain‌  ‌
What‌‌types‌‌of‌‌organisms‌‌can‌‌carry‌‌out‌‌photosynthesis?‌ 
Photoautotrophs‌‌carry‌‌out‌‌photosynthesis‌‌and‌‌include:‌‌plants,‌‌algae,‌‌and‌‌cyanobacteria‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌products‌‌of‌‌the‌‌light‌‌dependent‌‌reactions?‌  ‌
ATP‌‌and‌‌NADPH‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌products‌‌of‌‌the‌‌carbon‌‌reactions‌‌?(Calvin‌‌Cycle)‌  ‌
ATP‌‌and‌‌NADPH‌‌are‌‌used‌‌to‌‌convert‌‌CO‌2‌‌ ‌into‌‌glucose‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌semi‌‌conservative‌‌replication‌‌of‌‌DNA?‌  ‌
Semi-conservative‌‌replication‌‌process‌‌based‌‌on‌‌matching‌‌complementary‌‌base‌‌pairs.‌‌The‌ 
double-stranded‌‌molecule‌‌is‌‌separated,‌‌each‌‌strand‌‌is‌‌copied‌‌following‌‌base‌‌pair‌‌rules.‌‌Two‌‌new‌‌
 
double-stranded‌‌daughter‌‌molecules‌‌result‌‌each‌‌consisting‌‌of‌‌one‌‌“original‌‌strand”‌‌and‌‌one‌‌new‌‌strand‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌the‌‌function‌‌of‌‌tRNA?‌ ‌mRNA?‌  ‌
mRNA:‌‌messenger‌‌RNA‌‌takes‌‌a‌‌message‌‌from‌‌DNA‌‌to‌‌the‌‌ribosomes.‌‌rRNA:‌‌ribosomal‌‌RNA‌‌makes‌‌up‌‌
 
ribosomes‌‌(along‌‌with‌‌proteins).‌‌tRNA:‌‌transfers‌‌amino‌‌acids‌‌to‌‌ribosomes‌  ‌
How‌‌is‌‌RNA‌‌different‌‌from‌‌DNA?‌  ‌
RNA‌‌is‌‌a‌‌single‌‌strand‌‌polymer‌‌of‌‌nucleotides‌‌rather‌‌than‌‌a‌‌double‌‌strand.‌‌Ribose‌‌replaces‌‌deoxyribose‌  ‌
and‌‌the‌‌base‌‌uracil‌‌replaces‌‌thymine.‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌correct‌‌complementary‌‌base‌‌pairings?‌  ‌
A-T‌‌C-G‌  ‌
Transcribe‌‌and‌‌Translate‌‌a‌‌strand‌‌of‌‌DNA.‌‌Where‌‌do‌‌these‌‌occur?‌  ‌
The‌‌nucleus‌‌and‌‌the‌‌ribosomes‌‌of‌‌the‌‌rough‌‌ER‌‌or‌‌in‌‌the‌‌cytoplasm‌‌    ‌
What‌‌happens‌‌in‌‌the‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌cycle?‌ ‌G1,‌‌S,‌‌G2…‌  ‌
G‌1‌:‌‌growth‌  ‌
S:‌‌DNA‌‌replication,‌‌chromosomes‌‌get‌‌copied,‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌‌held‌‌together‌‌at‌ ‌a‌‌point‌‌called‌‌the‌  ‌
centromere‌  ‌
G‌2‌:‌‌Preparation‌‌for‌‌cell‌‌division‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌stages‌‌of‌‌mitosis?‌ ‌What‌‌are‌‌the‌‌major‌‌events‌‌of‌‌each‌‌stage?‌  ‌
Prophase:‌‌DNA‌‌begins‌‌to‌‌condense,‌‌chromatin‌‌is‌‌formed‌‌into‌‌chromosomes,‌‌nuclear‌‌envelope‌‌breaks‌  ‌
down,‌‌and‌‌nucleolus‌‌disappears.‌  ‌
Metaphase:‌‌sister‌‌chromatids‌‌line‌‌up‌‌single‌‌file‌‌in‌‌the‌‌middle‌‌of‌‌the‌‌cell‌‌with‌‌spindle‌‌fiber‌‌attached‌  ‌
to‌‌each‌‌chromatid‌  ‌
Anaphase:‌‌chromatids‌‌separate‌  ‌
Telophase:‌‌nuclear‌‌envelopes‌‌begin‌‌to‌‌reform‌‌around‌‌the‌‌two‌‌groups‌‌of‌‌chromatids‌  ‌
How‌‌do‌‌mitosis‌‌and‌‌meiosis‌‌differ?‌  ‌
Miosis:‌‌nuclear‌‌division‌‌that‌‌reduces‌‌chromosome‌‌number‌‌(only‌‌gametes)‌  ‌
Mitosis:‌‌nuclear‌‌division‌‌that‌‌maintains‌‌chromosome‌‌number‌‌(all‌‌somatic‌‌cells)‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌“synapsis”‌‌and‌‌“crossover”?‌‌When‌‌do‌‌they‌‌occur?‌  ‌
synapsis‌‌and‌‌crossover‌‌occur‌‌during‌‌Prophase‌‌I‌‌of‌‌Meiosis.‌‌Synapsis‌‌is‌‌the‌‌fusion‌‌of‌‌chromosome‌‌pairs‌  ‌
and‌‌crossover‌‌is‌‌the‌‌exchange‌  ‌
of‌‌genetic‌‌material‌‌for‌‌the‌‌came‌‌traits‌‌in‌‌between‌‌homologous‌‌chromosome‌‌pairs.‌‌    ‌
Describe‌‌PCR‌‌and‌‌gel‌‌electrophoresis.‌  ‌
PCR‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌make‌‌tons‌‌of‌‌copies‌‌of‌‌segments‌‌of‌‌DNA.‌‌Gel‌‌electrophoresis‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌observe‌‌the‌  ‌
pieces‌‌of‌‌DNA‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌molecular‌‌vs‌‌reproductive‌‌cloning?‌  ‌
Molecular‌‌cloning‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌making‌‌multiple‌‌identical‌‌copies‌‌of‌‌a‌‌specific‌‌molecule,‌‌most‌‌typically‌‌a ‌ ‌
piece‌‌of‌‌DNA.‌‌Reproductive‌ 
Cloning‌‌refers‌‌to‌‌making‌‌an‌‌identical‌‌copy‌‌of‌‌an‌‌entire‌‌multicellular‌‌organism.‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌short‌‌tandem‌‌repeats‌‌and‌‌how‌‌are‌‌they‌‌useful?‌  ‌
Short‌‌tandem‌‌repeats‌‌are‌‌repeats‌‌of‌‌base‌‌pair‌‌sequences‌‌in‌‌DNA.‌‌They‌‌are‌‌unique‌‌to‌‌individuals‌‌and‌  ‌
can‌‌be‌‌used‌‌to‌‌identify‌‌people‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌plasmids?‌‌How‌‌are‌‌they‌‌used‌‌in‌‌bacterial‌‌transformation?‌  ‌
A‌‌plasmid‌‌is‌‌a‌‌small,‌‌extrachromosomal‌‌DNA‌‌molecule‌‌within‌‌a‌‌cell‌‌that‌‌is‌‌physically‌‌separated‌‌from‌  ‌
chromosomal‌‌DNA‌‌and‌‌can‌‌replicate‌‌independently.‌‌They‌‌are‌‌most‌‌commonly‌‌found‌‌as‌‌small‌‌circular,‌  ‌
double-stranded‌‌DNA‌‌molecules‌‌in‌‌bacteria;‌‌however,plasmids‌‌are‌‌sometimes‌‌present‌‌in‌‌archaea‌‌and‌  ‌
eukaryotic‌‌organisms‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌biological‌‌fitness?‌  ‌
The‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌survive‌‌and‌‌reproduce‌‌due‌‌to‌‌the‌‌phenotype‌‌displayed‌‌by‌‌an‌‌organism’s‌‌DNA‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌required‌‌for‌‌natural‌‌selection‌‌to‌‌occur?‌  ‌
Genetic‌‌mutation‌‌and‌‌genetic‌‌diversity‌  ‌
What‌‌are‌‌directional,‌‌disruptive‌‌and‌‌stabilizing‌‌selection?‌  ‌
Directional‌‌selection:‌‌favors‌‌one‌‌extreme‌‌phenotype.‌  ‌
Stabilizing‌‌selection:‌‌favors‌‌the‌‌average,‌‌but‌‌not‌‌the‌‌extreme‌‌phenotypes‌  ‌
Disruptive‌‌selection:‌‌favors‌‌two‌‌extreme‌‌phenotypes‌‌but‌‌not‌‌the‌‌average‌‌or‌‌intermediate‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌microevolution?‌  ‌
evolutionary‌‌change‌‌within‌‌a‌‌species‌‌or‌‌small‌‌group‌‌of‌‌organisms,‌‌especially‌‌over‌‌a‌‌short‌‌period‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌genetic‌‌drift?‌ ‌What‌‌are‌‌specific‌‌types?‌  ‌
the‌‌change‌‌in‌‌the‌‌frequency‌‌of‌‌an‌‌existing‌‌gene‌‌variant‌‌in‌‌a‌‌population‌‌due‌‌to‌‌random‌‌sampling‌‌of‌  ‌
organisms.‌‌Usually‌‌occurs‌‌in‌‌small‌‌populations.‌‌    ‌
What‌‌is‌‌gene‌‌flow?‌  ‌
migration‌  ‌
Comparative‌‌anatomy?‌  ‌
Comparative‌‌anatomy‌‌is‌‌the‌‌study‌‌of‌‌similarities‌‌and‌‌differences‌‌in‌‌the‌‌anatomy‌‌of‌‌different‌‌species.‌  ‌
Homologous‌‌structure?‌  ‌
anatomical‌‌structures‌‌that‌‌share‌‌a‌‌common‌‌genetic‌‌origin‌‌although‌‌function‌‌varies.‌‌They‌‌are‌‌proof‌  ‌
of‌‌divergent‌‌evolution,‌‌species‌‌that‌‌came‌‌from‌‌a‌‌common‌‌ancestor‌  ‌
Analogous‌‌structures?‌  ‌
Analogous‌‌structures‌‌have‌‌similar‌‌functions‌‌but‌‌are‌‌not‌‌closely‌‌related‌‌in‌‌terms‌‌of‌‌genes‌  ‌
What‌‌is‌‌biogeography?‌‌Comparative‌‌biochemistry?‌  ‌
Biogeography‌‌studies‌‌the‌‌distribution‌‌of‌‌species‌‌relative‌‌to‌‌the‌‌formation‌‌of‌‌present-day‌‌continents‌  ‌
Comparative‌‌biochemistry‌‌compares‌‌proteins,‌‌DNA‌‌and‌‌RNA‌‌sequence.‌‌Cytochrome‌‌C‌‌comparison‌‌is‌‌used‌  ‌
to‌‌compare‌‌how‌‌different‌‌species‌‌are‌‌to‌‌humans.‌‌    ‌
Briefly‌‌describe‌‌the‌‌fossil‌‌record.‌  ‌
The‌‌history‌‌of‌‌life‌‌as‌‌documented‌‌by‌‌fossils,‌‌the‌‌remains‌‌or‌‌imprints‌‌of‌‌organisms‌‌from‌‌earlier‌  ‌
geological‌‌periods‌‌preserved‌‌in‌‌sedimentary‌‌rock.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌