CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION The Plasma Membrane

Concepts of the Cell Theory: • Barrier for cell contents

 A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living • Double phospholipid layer
organisms. o Hydrophilic heads
 The activity of an organism depends on the collective o Hydrophobic tails
activities of its cells. • Also contains proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins
Chemical Components of Cells:
• Most cells are composed of the following four elements
- Carbon - Hydrogen
- Oxygen - Nitrogen
Cells and Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living things.
• Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and
function.
Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same.
• All cells share general structures.
• All cells have three main regions  Glycoproteins- The molecules that make the cell surface
– Nucleus fuzzy, sticky, and sugar-rich
– Cytoplasm  A) it consists of two lipid layers
– Plasma membrane  B) its lipid components are primarily phospholipids and
• The nucleoplasm and cytosol make up the intracellular cholesterol
fluid.  C) it contains proteins for specialized functions
The Nucleus  D) it regulates the entry and exit of cell materials
• Control center of the cell  E) it does not allows water soluble molecules to pass
– Contains genetic material (DNA) through easily
• Three regions
– Nuclear envelope (membrane)
– Nucleolus
– Chromatin

Mem
brane junctions:
1. Tight junctions
• Impermeable junctions
• Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
• Nuclear envelope (membrane)  membrane connections that prevent the leaking of
– Barrier of the nucleus fluid between cells
– Consists of a double membrane 2. Desmosomes
– Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange • Anchoring junctions that prevent cells from being pulled apart
of material with the rest of the cell 3. Gap junctions
• Nucleoli • Allow communication between cells
– Nucleus contains one or more nucleoli  Allows Nutrients and ions pass directly from cell to cell
– Sites of ribosome assembly
– Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through
nuclear pores

• Chromatin
– Composed of DNA and protein
– Present when the cell is not dividing
– Scattered throughout the nucleus
– Condenses to form chromosomes when the cell
divides
 – Digest worn-out or nonusable materials within
the cell
6. Peroxisomes
– Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes
• Detoxify harmful substances such as
alcohol and formaldehyde
• Break down free radicals (highly
reactive chemicals)
– Replicate by pinching in half
7. Cytoskeleton
– Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm
– Provides the cell with an internal framework
– Three different types of elements
– Microfilaments (largest)
– Intermediate filaments
– Microtubules (smallest)

Cytoplasm
 The material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane
• Site of most cellular activities
• Contains three major elements
• Cytosol
-Fluid that suspends other elements
• Organelle
- Metabolic machinery of the cell
-“Little organs” that perform functions for the cell
- The specialized cellular compartments within the cytosol
of the cell 8. Centrioles
• Inclusions – Rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules
- Chemical substances such as stored nutrients or cell – Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
products division
Cytoplasmic Organelles: Cellular Projections
1. Mitochondria • Not found in all cells
– “Powerhouses” of the cell 1. Cilia move materials across the cell surface
– Change shape continuously • Located in the respiratory system to
– “Carry out reactions where oxygen is used to move mucus
break down food 2. Flagella propel the cell
– Provides ATP for cellular energy • The only flagellated cell in the human
2. Ribosomes body is sperm
– Made of protein and RNA 3. Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane
– Sites of protein synthesis  Increase surface area for absorption
– Found at two locations
a. Free in the cytoplasm WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
b. As part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum • Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) components
– Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances – Solvent—dissolving medium; typically water in
a. Rough endoplasmic reticulum the body
– Studded with ribosomes – Solutes—components in smaller quantities within
– Synthesizes proteins a solution
b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum • Intracellular fluid—nucleoplasm and cytosol
– Functions in lipid metabolism • Interstitial fluid—fluid on the exterior of the cell
and detoxification of drugs Selective Permeability
and pesticides • The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while
4. Golgi apparatus excluding others.
• This permeability influences movement both into and out
– Modifies and packages proteins
of the cell.
• Produces different types of packages
Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport
• Membrane transport—movement of substances into and out
• Secretory vesicles
of the cell
• Cell membrane components
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable (some
• Lysosomes
substances can pass through but others cannot)
5. Lysosomes
• Two basic methods of transport
 • Passive processes • Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
• No energy is required • Vesicle combines with plasma
• Active processes membrane
• Cell must provide metabolic energy • Material is emptied to the outside
(ATP) 2. Endocytosis
Passive Processes • Extracellular substances are engulfed
• Diffusion by being enclosed in a membranous
– Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly vesicle
within a solution – Types of endocytosis
– Movement is from high concentration to low • Phagocytosis—“cell eating”
concentration, or down a concentration gradient • Pinocytosis—“cell drinking”
Types of diffusion Cell Life Cycle
– Simple diffusion • Cells have two major periods
• An unassisted process 1. Interphase
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or • Cell grows
small enough to pass through • Cell carries on metabolic
membrane pores processes
– Osmosis—simple diffusion of water • Does not involve cell division
• Highly polar water molecules easily 2. Cell division
cross the plasma membrane through • Cell replicates itself
aquaporins • Function is to produce more cells
• Facilitated diffusion for growth and repair processes
• Substances require a protein carrier for DNA Replication
passive transport • adenine bonds thymine (through
• Transports lipid-insoluble and large 2 hydrogen bonds) and
substances • guanine bonds cytosine (through
• Filtration 3 hydrogen bonds).
– The movement of fluid through the cell Events of Cell Division
membrane from a high pressure area to a lower 1. Mitosis
pressure area —division of the nucleus
– Water and solutes are forced through a membrane —Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure 2. Cytokinesis
– A pressure gradient must exist —division of the cytoplasm
 Solute-containing fluid is pushed from —Begins when mitosis is near completion
a high-pressure area to a lower pressure —Results in the formation of two daughter cells
area —has stages:
Active Processes 1. Prophase
• Substances are transported that are unable to pass by – First part of cell division
diffusion – Centrioles migrate to the poles to direct assembly
– Substances may be too large of mitotic spindle fibers
– Substances may not be able to dissolve in the fat – DNA appears as double-stranded chromosomes
core of the membrane – Nuclear envelope breaks down and disappears
– Substances may have to move against a 2. Metaphase
concentration gradient – Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell
• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is used for transport on the metaphase plate
• Two common forms of active transport 3. Anaphase
– Active transport (solute pumping) – Chromosomes are pulled apart and toward the
– Vesicular transport opposite ends of the cell
• Exocytosis – Cell begins to elongate
• Endocytosis 4. Telophase
• Phagocytosis – Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
• Pinocytosis – Nuclear envelope reforms around chromatin
• Active transport (solute pumping) – Spindles break down and disappear
– Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are 5. Cytokinesis
transported by protein carriers called solute – Begins during late anaphase and completes
pumps during telophase
– ATP energizes protein carriers – A cleavage furrow forms to pinch the cells into
– In most cases, substances are moved against two parts
concentration gradients Protein Synthesis
• Vesicular transport • Gene—DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building
1. Exocytosis one protein
• Moves materials out of the cell • Proteins have many functions
• Material is carried in a membranous • Building materials for cells
vesicle • Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis a. Cells fit closely together and often form
Role of RNA sheets
1. Transfer RNA (tRNA) b. The apical surface is the free surface of
– Transfers appropriate amino acids to the the tissue
ribosome for building the protein c. The lower surface of the epithelium
 The molecule that carries an amino acid rests on a basement membrane
to the ribosome for incorporation into a d. Avascular (no blood supply)
protein e. Regenerate easily if well nourished
 The molecule that contains an Classification
anticodon 1. Number of cell layers
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) a. Simple—one layer
– Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are b. Stratified—more than one layer
built 2. Shape of cells
3. Messenger RNA (mRNA) a. Squamous – flattened
– Carries the instructions for building a protein
from the nucleus to the ribosome b. Cuboidal- cube-shaped
– Contains Three-base sequences called codons
Transcription and Translation c. Columnar- column-like
• Transcription
– Transfer of information from DNA’s base 3. Shape + Number of cells
sequence to the complimentary base sequence of I. Simple Epithelia
mRNA A. Simple squamous -Single
– Three-base sequences on mRNA are called layer of flat cells
codons  Location - usually forms
• Translation membranes, lines body
– Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an cavities, lines lungs and capillaries
amino acid sequence  Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in
– Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins membranes

THE HUMAN BODY TISSUE

Human body tissue is another way of describing
how our cells are grouped together in a highly
organized manner according to specific structure
and function. These groupings of cells form
tissues, which then make up organs and various
parts of the body. For example, it's easy to see
and feel muscle in the body. Muscle is one of the
four types of human body tissue
We have determined that we are made up of four B. Simple cuboidal- Single layer of cube-like cells
different types of tissue. In addition to muscle  Locations: Common in glands and their ducts, forms
tissue, we have connective, epithelial and nervous walls of kidney tubules and Covers the ovaries
tissue in the body.  Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types
Four primary types propel mucus or reproductive cells
1. Epithelial tissue (epithelium) is made up of
epithelial cells, which are vastly different from
the muscle cells we just talked about. These cells
can be flat, cuboidal, or columnar. They are
joined tightly together, making a single or
stacked continuous sheet. Like a quilt that is
tightly stitched, epithelium makes an excellent
protective cover for the body, in the form of skin.
Epithelial tissue can also be found lining some
internal cavities and organs.
Locations: C. Simple columnar- Single layer of tall cells. Often
a. Body coverings includes mucus-producing
b. Body linings goblet cells
c. Glandular tissue  Location - lines digestive tract
Functions
a. Protection
b. Absorption
c. Filtration
d. Secretion
Characteristics
  Functions in secretion and absorption;
ciliated types propel mucus or
reproductive cells
D. Pseudostratified columnar- Single layer, but some
cells are shorter than others. Often looks like a double
layer of cells but all cells rest on the basement
membrane
 Location - respiratory tract, where it is ciliated
 Functions in absorption or secretion
II. Stratified Epithelia
A. Stratified squamous- Cells at the apical surface are
flattened
 Functions as a protective covering where friction is
common
 Locations - lining of the: Skin, Mouth and Esophagus
B. Stratified cuboidal—two layers of cuboidal cells;
functions in protection
C. Stratified columnar—surface cells are columnar,
cells underneath vary in size and shape; functions in
protection
D. Stratified cuboidal and columnar- Rare in human
body Found mainly in ducts of large glands
E. Transitional epithelium- Composed of modified stratified
squamous epithelium. Shape of cells depends upon the
amount of stretching.
Location - lines organs of the urinary system
III. Glandular Epithelium
Gland is one or more cells responsible for secreting a particular
product. Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous
(water-based) fluid.
Two major gland types
1. Endocrine gland - Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood
vessels
All secretions are hormones
2. Exocrine gland - Secretions empty through ducts to the
epithelial surface Include sweat and oil glands
2. Connective tissue. Connective tissue makes up a connective
web inside our body. Holding our body parts together and
providing support are the main jobs of this tissue. We would
certainly not be in good shape if all of our internal body parts
were free-floating. Connective tissue fills in the spaces inside
our body with a matrix made of fibers within a liquid, solid,
or jelly-like substance. Think of a gelatin salad with fruit
suspended inside, and you will have an idea of how certain
types of connective tissue function.
Found everywhere in the body. Includes the most abundant and
widely distributed tissues
Functions: Binds body tissues together, supports the body and
provides protection
Connective Tissue Characteristics
1. Variations in blood supply. Some tissue types are well
vascularized. And some have a poor blood supply or are
avascular.
2. Contains extracellular matrix, a non-living material that
surrounds living cells.
Two main elements
A. Ground substance —mostly water along with adhesion
proteins and polysaccharide molecules. Serves as a glue
B. Fibers
1. Collagen (white) fibers- High tensile strength
2. Elastic (yellow) fibers-Ability to stretched and recoil
3. Reticular fibers -Fine collagen fiber. Form the internal
skeleton of soft organ
Types of Connective Tissue Types
1. Bone (osseous tissue) -Composed of Bone
cells in lacunae (cavities) , hard matrix of calcium
salts, and large numbers of collagen fibers.
Functions to protect and support the body
  Contains all fiber types
 Small open space
 Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)

2. Cartilage- less hard and more flexible than bone

A. Hyaline cartilage-Most common type of cartilage.
Composed of abundant collagen fiber and rubbery
matrix, with glassy (hyaline) blue white appearance. B. Adipose tissue (fat)- Matrix is an areolar tissue in which fat
globules predominate. Many cells contain large lipid
 Locations-Larynx and entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
deposits.
 Functions as a more flexible skeletal element than bone
Functions: Insulates the body, protects some organs, serves as a
B. Elastic cartilage-Provides elasticity
site of fuel storage

C. Reticular connective tissue- Delicate network of interwoven

Location: Supports the external ear fibers
C. Fibro cartilage- Highly compressible  Locations: Forms stroma (internal supporting network) of
Location: Forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae lymphoid organs, lymph nodes, spleen and bone marrow.

3. Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue). Main

matrix element is collagen fiber. Fibroblasts are cells 5. Blood (vascular tissue)- Blood cells
that make fibers. surrounded by fluid matrix called blood plasma.
 Locations Fibers are visible during clotting. Considered
Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone connective tissue because it is consist of blood
Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints cells surrounded by non-living fluid matrix called
Dermis—lower layers of the skin blood plasma. The fibers are soluble protein
molecules present only during blood clothing
 Functions as the transport vehicle for
materials

4. Loose connective tissue types

A. Areolar tissue-Most widely distributed connective tissue.
Soft, pliable tissue like“cobwebs”. Connective tissue
“glue” It holds the organ in its proper position.
 Functions as a packing tissue
3. Muscle tissue - Muscle tissue is made up of excitable cells that
are long and fibrous. These cells are ready for contraction, or
the activation of tension in our muscles, making it possible for
us to move our body parts. They are arranged in parallel lines
and are bundled, making muscle tissue very strong. If you take
a pile of rubber bands, line them up next to each other and
attempt to stretch them, you may get the idea of the nature of
the muscle tissue.
 Function is to produce movement
Three types
A. Skeletal muscle: Under voluntary control. Contracts to pull on
bones or skin. Produces gross body movements or facial
expressions.
Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells
1. Striated
2. Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)
3. Long, cylindrical cells
4. Nervous tissue- is found within the nervous system and
is made up of unique specialized cells. Like electrical
circuits, the nervous system transmits signals from
nerves to the spinal cord and brain. Cells known as
neurons conduct these impulses, making it possible for
us to use our senses. Composed of neurons and nerve
support cells
Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body,
irritability to stimuli and conductivity of nerve impulses
.Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect, and
support neurons

B. Cardiac muscle- Under involuntary control. Found only in the

heart .Function is to pump blood
Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells
1. Striated
2. One nucleus per cell
3. Cells are attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated
disks

C. Smooth muscle - Under involuntary muscle,

Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach,
uterus, and blood vessels
Characteristics of smooth muscle cells
1. No visible striations
2. One nucleus per cell
3. Spindle-shaped cells