TOPIC OUTLINE:

• Cellular Basis of Life

• Anatomy of a Cell
• Cell Physiology
• Body Tissues
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES:
• Define and explain the concepts of cell theory
• Identify on a cell model or illustrate the cell and its parts
• Differentiate active and passive transports
• Compare mitosis and meiosis
• List the four major tissue types and their
subcategories, and how they differ structurally

Cellular Basis of Life

CELL
Where did the word cell came
from?
 1665: Robert Hooke
discovered cells in cork,
then in living plant tissue
using an early compound
microscope.
 He coined the term cell
(from Latin cella, meaning
"small room") in his book
Micrographia.

CELL THEORY
1. Cell is the basic unit of life
2. All organisms are made up
of one or more cells
3. Cells come from pre-
existing cells THREE BASIC PARTS OF THE CELL

CELL DIVERSITY
Difference in cell shapes and sizes leads to difference in function

Anatomy of a Generalized Cell

1. NUCLEUS
 Largest organelle
 The “Control Center”
 Contains the genetic information (DNA)
 The nucleus has three main structures:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Nucleoli
3. Chromatin
STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
 Double-membrane barrier
 Nuclear pores allow substances to pass into and out of nucleus;

3. CYTOPLASM
 All cellular material that is located between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
 Refered to as “cellular contents”

NUCLEOLUS
 Dark-staining spherical bodies within nucleus that are involved
in ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

Composed of :
 Cytosol: gel-like solution made up of water and soluble
molecules such as proteins, salts, sugars, etc.
 Organelles: metabolic machinery structures of cell;

CHROMATIN MITOCHONDRIA
 Consists of 30% threadlike strands of DNA, 60% histone  Called the “power
proteins, and 10% RNA plant” of cells
because they
• Chromosomes are condensed chromatin produce most of
cell’s
2. PLASMA MEMBRANE  energy molecules
 The “outer covering” of the cell (ATP) via aerobic
 Acts as an active barrier separating intracellular fluid (ICF) (oxygen-requiring)
from extracellular fluid (ECF) cellular
 Plays dynamic role in cellular activity by controlling what respiration
enters and what leaves cell  Enclosed by
double
STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE membranes; inner
 Consists of membrane lipids that forms a flexible lipid bilayer membrane has
 Surface sugars form glycocalyx many folds, called
 Specialized membrane proteins float through this fluid cristae and has a
membrane(Referred to as fluid mosaic) fluid “matrix”
 Membrane structures help to hold cells together through cell
junctions
RIBOSOMES
 Nonmembranous organelles that are site of “protein synthesis”
 Made up of protein and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 Two switchable forms found in cell:
 Free ribosomes
 Membrane-bound ribosomes

STEPS INVOLVED
1. Transport vesicles from ER fuse with cis (inner) face of Golgi
2. Proteins or lipids taken inside are further modified, tagged,
sorted, and packaged
3. Golgi is “traffic director,” controlling which of three pathways
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (as secretory vessels, lysosomes, lipid vesicles) final products
 “Biosynthetic Factory” of the cell will take as new transport vesicles pinch off trans (outer) face
 ER is continuous with outer nuclear membrane
 Two varieties:
1. Rough ER
2. Smooth ER

LYSOSOMES
 “Suicide sac” of
the cell
 Spherical
membranous bags
ROUGH ER containing
1. Rough because it is studded with attached ribosomes digestive enzymes
2. Proteins enter cisterns as they are synthesized and are modified (acid hydrolases)
3. Final protein is enclosed in vesicle and sent to Golgi apparatus  Digest ingested
for further processing bacteria, viruses,
and toxins and
degrade
SMOOTH ER nonfunctional
▪ Lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid-based hormone organelles
synthesis;making lipids for lipoproteins  Intracellular
release in injured
▪ Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats causes cells to
▪ Detoxification of certain chemicals (drugs, pesticides, etc.) digest themselves
(autolysis)
▪ Converting of glycogen to free glucose
▪ Storage and release of calcium
GOLGI APPARATUS
 “Shipping and receiving center” of the cell
 Structure resembles “stacked pancakes”
 Modifies, concentrates, and packages proteins and lipids received PEROXISOMES
from rough ER  Membranous
sacs containing
powerful
detoxifying
substances
that neutralize
toxins
Two main detoxifiers:
oxidase uses oxygen
to convert toxins to
 hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which is itself toxic; however, peroxisome
also contains
catalase, which converts H2O2 to harmless water
CYTOSKELETON
 Act as cell’s “bones, ligaments, and muscle” by playing a role in
movement of cell components
 Elaborate network of rods that run throughout cytosol

Microfilament Intermediate Microtubules

filament
• Semi-flexible • Consist of hollow
strands of protein • Tough, insoluble, tubes composed of
actin ropelike protein protein subunits
• Some are involved fibers called tubulins,
in cell motility, • Help cell resist • Determine overall
changes in cell shape, pulling forces shape of cell and
or endocytosis and distribution of
exocytosis organelles

CENTROSOME AND
CENTRIOLES
 It is a microtubule
organizing center,
consisting of a
granular matrix and
centrioles—a pair
of barrel-shaped
microtubular
organelles that lie
at right angles to
each other
 Microtubules aid in
cell division, and
some form
cytoskeletal track
system

CELLULAR EXTENSIONS
Certain cells have structures extending from the cell surface:
Cilia and flagella aid in the movement of the cell or of materials
across the surface of the cell
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 Certain hydrophobic molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, and
ions) are transported passively down their concentration gradient
by:

Carrier-mediated Channel-mediated
facilitated diffusion facilitated diffusion
 Substances Substances move
bind to protein carriers through
water-filled
Physiology of a Generalized Cell channels
 Cell Membrane Transport
 Cell division

CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

 Passive Transport
 ActiveTransport

PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT OSMOSIS

 Passive transport requires no energy
 Two types of passive transport:  Movement of solvent, such as water,
1. Diffusion across a selectively permeable
membrane
• Simple diffusion  Water diffuses through plasma
• Carrier- and channel-mediated facilitated diffusion membranes
• Osmosis • Through lipid bilayer (even
2. Filtration though water is polar, it is so
• Type of transport that usually occurs across capillarywalls small that some molecules can
sneak past nonpolar
phospholipid tails)
DIFFUSION • Through specific water
 Movement of molecules down their concentration gradients channels called aquaporins (AQPs)
(from high to low- Energy is not required)
 Difference is called concentration gradient  Osmolarity: measure of total
 Speed of diffusion is influenced by size of molecule and concentration of solute particles
temperature  Water concentration varies with
number of solute particles because solute particles displace
Collisions between molecules in areas of high concentration cause water molecules
them to be scattered into areas with less concentration  Water moves by osmosis from areas of low solute (high water)
concentration to high areas of solute (low water) concentrati
OSMOSIS
TONICITY- Ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells
by altering the cells’ internal water volume
Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution Isotonic solution
• has lower • has higher • same osmolarity as
DIFFUSION osmolarity than osmolarity than inside the cell, so
 Molecules that are able to passively diffuse through membrane inside cell, so water inside cell, so water volume remains
include: flows into cell, flows out of cell, unchanged
• Lipid-soluble and nonpolar substances resulting in cell
swelling
resulting in cell
shrinking
• Very small molecules that can pass through membrane or • Can lead to cell • Shrinking is
membrane channels bursting, referred to referred to as
• Larger molecules assisted by carrier molecules as lysing crenation
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
OSMOSIS

SIMPLE DIFFUSION
 Nonpolar lipid-soluble
(hydrophobic) substances
diffuse directly through
phospholipid bilayer
 Examples: oxygen, carbon
dioxide, fatsoluble vitamins
CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Depends on ion gradient that was created by primary active
transport systeM
➢ Energy stored in gradients is used indirectly to drive
transport of other solutes

ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

Two major active membrane transport processes
 Active transport
 Vesicular transport
 Both require ATP to move solutes across a plasma membrane
for any of these reasons:
• Solute is too large for channels, or
• Solute is not lipid soluble, or
• Solute is not able to move down concentration gradient
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Requires carrier proteins (solute pumps)
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
• Bind specifically and reversibly with substance being moved  Involves transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids
• Moves solutes against their concentration gradient (from low to high) across membrane in membranous sacs called vesicles
• This requires energy (ATP)  Requires cellular energy (usually ATP)
Some carriers transport more than one substance Vesicular transport processes include:
ENDOCYTOSIS: EXOCYTOSIS:
 transport into cell  transport out of cell
3 different types: Process where material is ejected
1. phagocytosis, from cell
2. pinocytosis,
3. receptor-mediated Some substances exocytosed:
endocytosis hormones, neurotransmitters,
mucus, cellular wastes
Involves formation of protein-
coated vesicles Some pathogens
are capable of hijacking receptor
TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT for transport into cell
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Required energy comes directly • Required energy is obtained ENDOCYTOSIS:
from ATP hydrolysis indirectly from ionic gradients
• Hydrolysis of ATP causeschange created by primary active 1. PHAGOCYTOSIS
in shape of transport protein transport  type of endocytosis that is
• Shape change causes solutes • Energy stored in gradients is referred to as “cell eating”
(ions) bound to protein to be used indirectly to drive transport  Membrane projections called
pumped across membrane of other solutes pseudopods form and flow
around solid particles that are
being engulfed, forming a
vesicle which is pulled into
PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT cell
Sodium potassium pump  Formed vesicle is called a
➢ Most studied pump phagosome
➢ Basically is an enzyme, called Na+-K+ ATPase, that pumps  Phagocytosis is used by
macrophages and certain other
Na+ out of cell and K+ back into cell white blood cells
➢ Located in all plasma membranes, but especially active in
excitable cells (nerves and muscles) 2. PINOCYTOSIS
 type of endocytosis that is referred to as “cell drinking” or
fluid-phase endocytosis
 Plasma membrane infolds,
bringing extracellular
fluid and dissolved solutes
inside cell
• Fuses with
endosome
 Used by some cells to
“sample” environment
 Main way in which
nutrient absorption occurs
in the small intestine
3. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
 involves endocytosis and
transcytosis of specific
molecules
 Extracellular substances bind
to specific receptor proteins,
enabling the cell to ingest and
concentrate specific
substances (ligands) in protein-
coated vesicles.
 Ligands may simply be
released inside the cell, or
combined with a lysosome to
digest contents.
 Receptors are recycled to the
plasma membrane in vesicles.

EXOCYTOSIS
 Process where material is ejected from cell (Usually activated
by cell-surface signals or changes in membrane voltage)
 Substance being ejected is enclosed in secretory vesicle
 Some substances exocytosed: hormones, neurotransmitters,
mucus, cellular wastes

M-PHASE
 (Mitotic Phase) Phase in which cell division occurs;
CONSISTS OF TWO DISTINCT EVENTS:

Control of cell division is crucial, so cells divide when necessary, but

do not divide unnecessarily

The Cell Cycle

CELL CYCLE
Series of changes a cell undergoes from the time it is formed
until it reproduces
Mitotic Phase (Cell Division)
Two major periods of cell cycle: MITOSIS
1. Interphase: Cell grows and carries on its usual activities ✓ Mitosis is the division of nucleus, in which the duplicated DNA i
2. Cell division (mitotic phase): Cell divides into two distributed to new daughter cells
INTERPHASE ✓ Four stages of mitosis ensure each cell receives a full copy of
 Period from cell formation to cell division, when cell carries out replicated DNA
its routine activities and prepares for cell division
1. Prophase- Prepare
 During interphase, nuclear material is in uncondensed chromatin 2. Metaphase- Meet
state 3. Anaphase- Away
 Interphase consists of subphases, which include the process of
DNA replication 4. Telophase- Together
GBFFFGFG

Tissue Form and Function

TISSUE
Groups of cells similar in structure that perform common or related
function
HISTOLOGY-Study of tissues
T Y P E S:
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 (epithelium) is a sheet of cells
that covers body surfaces or
cavities
 Two main forms:
– Covering and lining epithelia
• On external and internal
surfaces (example: skin)
– Glandular epithelia
• Secretory tissue in glands (example: salivary glands)
 Main functions: protection, absorption, filtration, excretion,
secretion, and sensory reception
Classification of Epithelia
 All epithelial tissues have two names:
 First name indicates number of cell layers:
 Simple epithelia are a single layer thick
 Stratified epithelia are two or more layers thick and
involved in protection (example: skin)

 All epithelial tissues have two

names:
Second name indicates shape of cells
❑ Squamous: flattened
and scale-like
❑ Cuboidal: box-like,
cube
❑ Columnar: tall, column-
like
In stratified epithelia, shape can vary in
each layer, so cell is named
according to the shape in apical
layer
Glandular Epithelia
Gland
One or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid called a
secretion
Classified by:
• Site of product release:
• Endocrine: internally secreting (example: hormones)
• Exocrine: externally secreting (example: sweat)
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Connective tissue is the
most abundant and
widely distributed of
primary tissues
 Major functions: binding
and support, protecting,
insulating, storing
reserve fuel, and
transporting substances
(blood)
 Four main classes
• Connective tissue proper
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood
MUSCLE TISSE NERVOUS TISSUE
 Highly vascularized  Main component of
 Responsible for most types of movement nervous system (brain,
 Muscle cells possess myofilaments made up of actin and myosin spinal cord, nerves)
proteins that bring about contraction • Regulates and
 Three types of muscle tissues: controls body
• Skeletal muscle functions
• Cardiac muscle  Made up of two
specialized cells:
• Smooth muscle • Neurons:
specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses
• Supporting cells that support, insulate, and protect
neuron