CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022

2.1 INTRODUCING CELLS

Our bodies include more than 290

specialized, or differentiated, cell types
that aggregate and interact to form the
following tissue types:
- epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- nervous

Most cells are somatic cells, or body cells

- Somatic cells are diploid, meaning
they have two copies of the genome
In contrast, germ cells or gametes are
haploid, or have one copy of genome
Stem cells- diploid cells that divide to give
rise to differentiated cells
2.2 CELL COMPONENTS
Cells share features that enable them to
perform the basic life functions of
reproduction, growth, response to stimuli,
and energy use. Specialized characteristics
emerge as cells express different subsets of
the thousands of protein-encoding genes.

Self-renewal - process of turning stem cells

Biologists recognize three basic types of
into differentiated cells or to other stem cells cells that define three major “domains” of
- Stem cells enable the body to life: the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the
develop, grow and repair Eukarya. A domain is a broader
classification than a kingdom.
Cells interact, they:
- Send Prokaryotic cell- cells that are unicellular
- Receive that have no nucleus
- Respond to information Example: Archaea, bacteria

Cells aggregate with other cells for function Eukaryotic cell - cells that are
or to form tissues, in which tissues interact multicellular
to form organs, and organ systems They have organelles that have specific
function
Other cells move around the body
The cells of all three domains contain
globular assemblies of RNA and protein
called ribosomes that are essential for
protein synthesis.

1
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS The three cellular functions reveals how

Cells are composed of molecules. organelles interact in ways that
coordinate basic life functions and
Macromolecules- biochemicals that are provide the characteristics of specialized
large cell types.

Organelles have a variety of functions. Secretion

Examples include: - Release of substance from cell
- Begins when body sends a
Nucleus- most prominent organelle biochemical message to a cell to
- Stores the genetic information of an begin producing the substance
organism (DNA) Example:
- DNA is complexed with many - when a newborn suckles the
proteins to form chromosomes mother’s breast, mother’s
- RNA is also present and abundant brain releases hormones that
- Enzymes and other types of proteins signal cells in her breast to
used to synthesize RNA from DNA is produce milk
also present
Nuclear envelope - surrounds the nucleus

Nuclear pores - rings of several proteins

- Where biochemicals enter or exit the
nucleus

Nucleoplasm - fluid in the nucleus

Cytoplasm/plasma membrane - outer

boundary of the cell
- Also called cell membrane
- Called cytosol when other cellular
components are removed
Other cellular components include:
- stored proteins
- carbohydrates
- lipids
- pigment molecules
- other small chemicals Secretion: making milk. Milk production
and secretion illustrate organelle functions
Three cellular functions: and interactions in a cell from:
- Secretion a mammary gland: (1) through (6) indicate
- Digestion inside cells the order in which organelles participate in
- Energy production this process. Lipids are secreted in separate

2
 CYTOGENETICS
LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS
NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
droplets from proteins and their attached
sugars. This cell is highly simplified in terms
of the relative sizes of structures.
Caseins- nutritive proteins found in milk
- Gives milk white color
- Antibodies that protect against
infection, and enzymes
Endoplasmic reticulum
- Where protein synthesis happens
(Rough ER)
- Winds from the nuclear envelope
outward to the plasma membrane,
forming a vast tubular network that
transports molecules from one part
of a cell to another
- Quality control center of the cell
Rough ER- ER closest to the nucleus
- ER with ribosomes
- Where protein synthesis begins:
1.) Messenger RNA attaches to
ribosomes
2.) Amino acids from cytoplasm
are linked and follows the
instructions in the mRNA
sequence to form proteins
3.) These proteins can exit the
cell or become part of the
membranes along with lipids
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- ER with few to no ribosomes
- Where lipids are made that are
added to the proteins from rough ER
- Packages proteins with lipids and
sends them out through vesicles to
be delivered to the golgi apparatus
Vesicles- membrane-bounded, saclike
organelles
- Lipids are exported without vesicle,
because vesicles are made up of
lipids
Golgi apparatus - processing center of the
cell
- Composed of a column of four to six
interconnected flat, membrane-
enclosed sacs
- Where sugars are made (lactose)
- proteins become active here due to
folding
- Components of complex secretions
are stored in golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus sorts and packages
proteins. Then vesicles carry them out of
the cells and molecular tags target vesicles
to specific locations in the cell, or indicate
that the contents are to be released to
outside the cell.
Exosomes - type of vesicle that are
extracellular
- They bud from one cell and then
travel to, merge with, and empty
their contents into other cells.
- generated by all cells and they carry
nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and
metabolites.
- Remove debris , transport immune
system molecules, and provide a
vast communication network
among cells.
- 30 to 100 nanometers (billionths of
a meter) in diameter
Lysosomes - membrane-bounded sacs
that contain enzymes that:
- dismantle bacterial remnants,
- worn-out organelles
- other material such as excess
cholesterol
3
 CYTOGENETICS
LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS
NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
- Maintain the acidic environment that
is essential for enzymes to function
- Break down digested nutrients into
forms that cells can use
Autophagy - process of cell disposing of its
own trash
- Happens when lysosomes collect
“garbage”or debris in the cell and
fuses with vesicles to throw the
debris out of the cell
Endosome - type of vesicle that ferries
extra low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol to lysosomes.
- Then the loaded lysosome will
release the digested contents
outside of the plasma membrane
Peroxisomes - sacs with single outer
membranes with several types of proteins
and that house enzymes
Mitochondria - powerhouse of the cell
- Main organelle in producing energy
in the form of ATP
- Provide energy by breaking the
chemical bonds that hold together
the nutrient molecules in food.
- Muscles have the most mitochondria
(10,000)
- Contains small amount of DNA that
is different from the DNA in nucleus
Membrane Structure
- Composed of double layer or bilayer
of phospholipids
- Phospholipids - lipids with
phosphate group
- Phospholipids or lipid molecules in
general self-assemble into sheets,
which makes the formation of
biological membranes possible
- Lipid molecules self-assemble to
sheet because their ends reacts
oppositely to water
Phospholipid ends:
Phosphate end- hydrophilic
Lipid end - hydrophobic
Channelopathies - diseases that stem from
faulty ion channels
Example: cystic fibrosis
Proteins are embedded in the phospholipid
bilayer of biological membranes. Some
proteins traverse the entire structure, while
others extend from one or both faces. The
phospholipid bilayer is oily, and some
proteins move within it like ships on a sea
4
 CYTOGENETICS
LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS
NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
Hydrophilic head- phosphate
Hydrophobic tail - fatty acids
The Plasma Membrane Enables Cell-to-
Cell Communication
- The proteins, glycoproteins, and
glycolipids from a plasma membrane
create surface topographies that are
important in a cell’s functions and to
its interactions with other cells.
Receptors
- molecules that extend from the
plasma membrane
- structures that have indentations or
other shapes that fit and hold
specific molecules outside the cell.
Ligand
- Molecule that binds on receptor
- may set into motion a cascade of
chemical reactions inside the cell
that carries out a particular activity,
such as dividing
CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
Signal Transduction
- a series of molecules that are part
of the plasma membrane form
pathways that detect signals from
outside the cell and transmit them
inward, where yet other molecules
orchestrate the cell’s response.
Cellular adhesion
- the plasma membrane helps cells
attach to certain other cells. These
cell-to-cell connections are important
in forming tissues.
Faulty signal transduction or cellular
adhesion can harm health. For example,
cancer is due to cells’ failure to
recognize or react to signals to cease
dividing. Cancer cells also have abnormal
cellular adhesion, which enables them to
invade healthy tissue
Cytoskeleton - meshwork of protein rods
and tubules that serves as the cell’s
architecture, positioning organelles and
providing overall three-dimensional shapes.
Cytoskeleton three major types of
elements:
1. Microtubules
- Provide cellular movement
- Composed of dimers of
protein called tubulin,
assembled into a hollow tube
- Maintain cellular
organization
- Enables specific cellular
function such as cell
division
5
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
- Enable transport of - consist of paired proteins
substances within cell entwined to form nested
coiled rods
Microtubules form cilia - Abundant in nerve cells
and skin cells
Two types of cilia:
a. Motile cilia - cilia that enables
movement
b. Primary cilia - cilia with sensory
function

2. Microfilaments
- Long thin rods composed of
many molecules of the
protein actin.
- solid and narrower than
microtubules
- enable cells to withstand CELL DIVISION AND DEATH
stretching and
compression, and anchor In a human body, new cells form as old
one cell to another ones die, at different rates in different
tissues. Growth, development,
3. Intermediate filaments maintaining health, and healing from
- Filaments that are disease or injury require an intricate
intermediate between those interplay between the rates of mitosis
of microtubules and and cytokinesis, which divide the DNA and
microfilaments. the rest of the cell, respectively, and
- Composed of different apoptosis, a form of cell death.
types of proteins in different
cell types Cell cycle

6
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
- Sequence of activities as a cell
prepares for and undergoes division. Two major stages of cell cycle:

Interphase- not dividing

Mitosis - dividing

In mitosis:
- a cell duplicates its
chromosomes, then in cytokinesis
it apportions one set of
chromosomes, along with
organelles, into each of two
resulting cells, called daughter
cells. Mitosis maintains the set of 23
chromosome pairs characteristic of
a human somatic cell.

Other form of cell division named meiosis:

- Is the formation of gametes
- produces sperm or eggs, which have
half the amount of genetic
material that somatic cells do

Interphase
- Phase where cell continues the
basic biochemical functions of
life, while also replicating its DNA
and some organelles
- Divided into 2 gap phases ( and
);
and 1 synthesis (S) phase

phase - phase that cells can enter that is

called a quiet phase
- Cell does not replicate DNA or divide
in this phase
- Cells from this phase can proceed to
mitosis and divide or die.

7
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022

phase
- cell synthesizes proteins, lipids,
and carbohydrates.
- varies the most in duration among
different cell types
- Slowly dividing cells, such as
those in the liver, may exit at
and enter , where they remain for
years. In contrast, the rapidly
dividing cells in bone marrow
speed through in 16 to 24
hours. Cells of the early embryo
may skip entirely.

S phase
- Phase where cell replicates its
entire genome
- happens simultaneously from
Mitosis - cell divides
several starting points
DNA winds up tightly as mitosis begins,
- After DNA replication, each
until the replicated chromosomes are
chromosome consists of two copies
condensed enough to be visible
of the genome joined at an area
called the centromere
Chromatids - long strands of chromosomal
- Takes 8 to 10 hours in most human
material in replicated chromosomes
cells
- Called sister chromatids when
- Proteins are synthesized such as
attached at a centromere
mitotic spindle, which pulls
Furrow- space between sister chromatids
chromosomes apart
- Microtubules form structures called
Stages of Mitosis:
centrioles, which forms
1. Prophase
centrosomes, which organize
- DNA coils tightly. This
other microtubules into the
coiling shortens and thickens
spindle
the chromosomes, easing
their separation
phase
- Microtubules form spindles
- Occurs after DNA is replicated
- Nuclear membrane breaks
before mitosis begins
down
- More proteins synthesized during
- Nucleolus no longer visible
this phase
2. Metaphase

8
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
- Chromosomes attach to the
spindle at their centromeres
and align along the center of
the cell called equator

Control of Cell Cycle

- Cell cycle has checkpoints
- Checkpoints - groups of interacting
proteins function at specific times in
the cell cycle
- Ensure that chromosomes are
correctly replicated and apportioned
into daughter cells

3. Anaphase
- the plasma membrane
indents at the center
- band of actin microfilaments
forms on the inside face of
the plasma membrane
- Centromeres part and
chromatids separate.

4. Telophase
- The spindle disassembles
and the nuclear envelope
re-forms
- Division of the genetic
material is now complete
Cell cycle checkpoints. Checkpoints
ensure that mitotic events occur in the
correct sequence. Many types of cancer
result from faulty checkpoints.

Telomeres- chromosome tips

9
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
- function like cellular fuses that burn
down as pieces are lost from the
ends. APOPTOSIS
- consist of hundreds to thousands of
repeats of a specific six DNA-base Apoptosis is a form of cell death that is a
sequence (TTAGGG) normal part of growth and development.
- internal “clock” that tells them ● apoptosis is a continuous process
approximately how many times to ● In contrast is necrosis, a form of
divide cell death associated with
inflammation and damage, rather
At each mitosis, the telomeres lose 50 to than an orderly, contained
200 endmost bases, gradually destruction.
shortening the chromosome DEATH OF A CELL
- In approximately 50 divisions, a 1. “death receptor” on the cell’s plasma
critical length of telomere DNA is membrane receives a signal to die.
lost, which signals mitosis to stop. 2. Caspases are enzyme that are
activated to destroy various proteins
and other cell components such as:
a. destroy enzymes that
replicate and repair DNA;
b. activate enzymes that cut
DNA into similarly sized
pieces;
c. tear apart the cytoskeleton,
collapsing the nucleus and
condensing the DNA within;
d. cause mitochondria to
release molecules that
Hormones - chemical messengers of the increase caspase activity and
body end the energy supply;
e. abolish the cell’s ability to
- produced by a gland
- Produces an effect to the body adhere to other cells; and
f. attract phagocytes that
Two types of proteins involved in carrying dismantle the cell remnants
One example of apoptosis is sunburn,
out mitosis
apoptosis peels away sunburnt skin cells
- They activate the genes whose
products carry out mitosis that might otherwise become cancerous.
Cyclin- levels fluctuate regularly
throughout the cell cycle
Kinase - levels stay the same

A certain number of cyclin-kinase pairs

turn on the genes that trigger mitosis

10
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
*take note* Cancer is a profound
derangement of the balance between cell general sources of human stem cells:
division and cell death. In cancer, mitosis ● embryonic stem (ES) cells
occurs too frequently or too many times, or ○ Some ICM cells, under
apoptosis happens too infrequently. certain conditions, become
pluripotent and can self-
2.4 STEM CELLS renew—that is, they function
body must maintain the proportions and as stem cells.
numbers of different cell types. ○ Somatic cell nuclear transfer
red blood cells are by far the most is popularly called “cloning”
abundant. fat and muscle cells—comprise because it copies the
only 0.2 percent or less of the total cell nucleus donor’s genome.
count this is because fat and muscle cells ● induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells
are largen than RBCs. ○ Reprogramming instructions
Stem cells and progenitor cells renew may be in the form of DNA,
tissues RNA, or other chemical
factors.
CELL LINEAGES ○ A common approach is to
stem cell—its ability to continue the lineage derive iPS cells from cells
of cells that can divide to give rise to called fibroblasts in skin and
another cell like itself. reprogram them into a
progenitor cell cannot self-renew, and its differentiated cell type of
daughters specialize as any of a restricted interest
number of cell types. ● and “adult” stem cells
Stem cells and progenitor cells are ○ naturally are part of the body
described in terms of developmental ○ More accurately called
potential tissue-specific or somatic
totipotent, which means that it can give rise stem cells because they are
to every cell type, including cells of the found in the tissues of
membranes that support the embryo. embryos, fetuses, and
Stem cells and Progenitor Cells can be: children.
● pluripotent: Their daughter cells ○ Many potentially valuable
have fewer possible fates. adult stem cells are
● multipotent: Their daughter cells discarded as medical waste,
have only a few developmental such as those in fat,
“choices.” placenta, and brain tissue
every cell except red blood cells contains
all of an individual’s DNA

STEM CELLS SOURCES

11
 CYTOGENETICS
LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS
NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022
STEM CELL APPLICATIONS
Stem cells are being used in four basic
ways:
drug discovery and development
● Liver cells derived from stem cells
are useful in testing drugs because
liver detoxifies many drugs.
● Stem cells are also used to engineer
bits of organs, called organoids
second application of stem cells growing
in culture is to observe the earliest signs of
a disease
● ALS had been difficult to study
because motor neurons do not
survive for long in laboratory
glassware and do not divide.
However, iPS cells reprogrammed to
give rise to ALS motor neurons
provide an endless source of the
hard-to-culture cells from the
abundant fibroblasts.
third application of stem cells is to create
tissues and organs for use in implants,
transplants, or infusions into the
bloodstream.
● A patient’s bone marrow stem cells,
for example, can be removed,
isolated, perhaps altered, grown,
bathed in selected factors, and
infused back into the patient
● regenerative medicine
fourth application of stem cells became
clear with the creation of iPS cells
● Might be possible to introduce
reprogramming proteins directly into
the body to stimulate stem cells in
their natural niches.
2.5 THE HUMAN MICROBIOME
term microbiome borrows from the
ecological term biome to indicate all of the
species in an area.
Knowledge of the human microbiome
will be increasingly applied to improving
health.
Different body parts house distinctive
communities of microbes, altered by
experience.
The microbiome changes with experience
and environmental exposures. Our habits,
experiences, and environmental exposures
influence the makeup of our microbiomes.
Three stages of the establishment of the
gut microbiome in childhood:
● “developmental” phase from 3 to
14 months, the number of bacterial
species increases.
● The types of bacteria become
established during the
“transitional” stage from 15 to 30
months.
● Finally, the gut microbiome is in a
stable phase, when species stay
constant, from 31 to 46 months
Bifidobacterium breve and B. bifidum
that digest human milk and are components
of probiotic products that many people take.
Probiotics are live microorganisms, such
as bacteria and yeasts, that, when ingested,
confer a health benefit by altering the
microbiome.
12
 CYTOGENETICS

LESSON MIDTERMS: CELLS

NAME OF LECTURER: RUVELYN DOREMON, RMT
DATE OF LECTURE:10/29/2022

“fecal transplantation” is a treatment

based on altering the microbiome that
replaces hundreds of bacterial species at
once.
1. Certain skin bacteria cause acne, but
others keep skin clear.
2. Circumcision protects against certain
viral infections, including HIV.
3. Lowered blood sugar following weight-
loss surgery is partly due to a changed
gut microbiome.
4. An altered microbiome hastens
starvation in malnourished children.
5. Antibiotics temporarily alter the gut
microbiome.
6. The birth of agriculture 10,000 years ago
introduced the bacteria that cause dental
caries.
7. Microbiome imbalances may contribute to
or cause asthma, cancers, obesity,
psoriasis, Crohn’s disease, gum disease,
and other conditions.
8. Babies born by Cesarean section
(surgically) have different microbiomes
than babies born vaginally
9. People living in isolated areas have
different microbiomes than city
residents. Researchers are preserving
microbiomes from a diversity of
environments, especially populations that
have been isolated for long times

13